Sociology of Education (SOC 100) Course Notes PDF

LECture 2 The Sociology of Education Key Topics: 1. Historical Trends in Education: ○ Education was initially a luxury for the wealthy. ○ Public, free, and compulsory education became widespread after WWI. ○ High school graduation rates have significantly incr...

LECture 2 The Sociology of Education Key Topics: 1. Historical Trends in Education: ○ Education was initially a luxury for the wealthy. ○ Public, free, and compulsory education became widespread after WWI. ○ High school graduation rates have significantly increased over time. 2. Functions of Education (Structural Functionalism Perspective): ○ Selection & Sorting: Education ensures meritocracy by sorting students based on performance. Aligns students' abilities with suitable professions. ○ Socialization: Fosters shared values, patriotism, respect for diversity, and healthy behaviors. Debate exists over what values should be taught (e.g., sex education, history of racism). ○ Job Training: Develops skills and knowledge to support economic growth. Tied to Human Capital Theory: education as an investment with long-term economic returns. 3. General Sociological Theories: ○ Structural Functionalism: Society operates as interconnected parts maintaining stability. Views education as a means to balance society and fulfill functions like job training. ○ Conflict Theory: Society is shaped by power struggles between privileged and disadvantaged groups. Education often reproduces class inequality through systemic barriers. ○ Other Theories:  Feminism and Critical Race Theory explore gender and racial disparities in education. 4. Conflict Theory & Class Inequality: ○ Meritocracy Limitations: Equal opportunities (access) do not address unequal conditions (resources). Disadvantages include economic, social, and cultural capitals (e.g., wealth, networks, exposure to cultural experiences). ○ Hidden Curriculum: Education instills obedience, punctuality, and respect for authority, reinforcing workplace hierarchies. 5. Instrumental vs. Value Rationality: ○ Instrumental Rationality: Practical actions aimed at achieving specific goals efficiently. ○ Value Rationality: Decisions based on ethical principles or values regardless of practicality. ○ Universities balance providing quality education with financial constraints (e.g., larger class sizes, reliance on international students for funding). 6. Sociological Applications to Education: ○ Education both reduces and perpetuates inequalities. ○ Financial and structural challenges in universities reflect broader societal dynamics. LECTURE 3 1. Instrumental vs. Value Rationality (Max Weber) Instrumental Rationality: Practical decision-making focused on efficiency and outcomes. Value Rationality: Decisions guided by ethical values, regardless of success likelihood. Application: Explains why universities operate with large class sizes (instrumental rationality: budget constraints vs. value rationality: offering quality education). 2. University Budget Challenges Government Funding: Limited funding keeps tuition low for domestic students (~$16,250/year from tuition + government contributions). International Students: Pay ~$60,000/year, effectively subsidizing domestic education. Inflation Impact: Tuition freezes and rising costs (e.g., an 18% increase in university expenses since 2019) create budget shortfalls. 3. The Experience of Education Transition Challenges: ○ Students see grades drop significantly upon entering university (e.g., 93% in high school vs. 70% in university). ○ High academic pressure leads to: Lower self-esteem. Reduced sense of mastery. Increased social isolation and mental health issues. Grade chasing: Prioritizing grades over learning. Mental Health Statistics: ○ University students report worse mental health compared to peers not in university. ○ Post-graduation, degree holders experience higher life satisfaction regardless of GPA. 4. Fixed vs. Growth Mindset Concept (Carol Dweck): Intelligence and skills can be developed through effort, strategies, and learning from failure. ○ Fixed Mindset: Intelligence is innate; failure indicates lack of ability. ○ Growth Mindset: Failure is an opportunity to improve. Benefits of Growth Mindset: ○ Improved grades, motivation, and reduced stress.  ○ Suggested practices include viewing failure as "Not Yet" and focusing on long-term growth. 5. Structural Challenges in Grading Grade Inflation: ○ Rising grades distort competitiveness (e.g., higher averages needed for law/medical schools). ○ U.S. universities already experience severe grade inflation due to for-profit models. Do Grades Matter? ○ Higher grades are correlated with higher income (~13.6% more for A averages vs. C averages). ○ Omitted Variable Bias: Socioeconomic status (SES) influences both grades and income. High SES Benefits: Economic Capital: Less financial stress, access to tutors. Social Capital: Professional networks. Cultural Capital: Familiarity with university and elite spaces. 6. Gender Inequality in Education Key Critiques (Feminist Approach): 1. Underrepresentation in Power: Women occupy fewer leadership roles in education. Male-dominated decision-making influences curriculum and policies. 2. Curriculum Bias: Historical focus on male contributions and stereotyping in school materials. 3. Sexual Harassment: "Hostile hallways" normalize inappropriate behavior, often unaddressed.  Dress codes disproportionately target female students. Progress: Women now surpass men in educational attainment and standardized test scores. 7. Racial Inequality in Education (Critical Race Theory) Key Tenets: ○ Race is socially constructed and used to oppress marginalized groups. ○ Racism is embedded in social institutions. ○ Progress occurs primarily during periods of interest convergence. ○ Marginalization is intersectional, combining multiple disadvantages. Indigenous Education: ○ Legacy of residential schools causes systemic educational and socioeconomic disadvantages. ○ Indigenous youth associate education with cultural genocide, lowering aspirations and performance. Immigrant Education: ○ Children of immigrants often perform better due to: High parental educational attainment. Motivation to honor sacrifices. ○ Canada’s focus on skilled immigration creates "brain drain" in developing countries. Exam Tips Understand Weber’s rationality concepts and their application to education. Discuss systemic issues like grade inflation, mental health, and gender/racial inequalities. Relate growth mindset theory to academic success and mental health. Be able to apply intersectionality and critical race theory to real-world examples. lec 4 1. Do Grades Matter? Grades and Income Correlation: Higher grades are linked to higher income, but the relationship is subject to omitted variable bias. Socioeconomic status (SES) significantly impacts both grades and income. ○ High SES advantages: Access to resources like tutors, lack of financial stress, and connections in professional networks. 2. Health & Globalization Positive Aspects: 1. Better disease monitoring and scientific collaboration. Challenges: 1. Increased Travel: Facilitates the global spread of communicable diseases. 2. Weakened Government Tax Power: Corporations operate globally, making taxation difficult, reducing funds for healthcare and social services. 3. Exploitation of Labor: Poor countries often have reduced labor and environmental laws, harming workers’ health and conditions. 3. Universal Medical Care in Canada Origins in Saskatchewan: The farming community experienced uncontrollable hardships (e.g., weather), fostering support for universal healthcare. Debate on Privatization: ○ The U.S. spends more per capita on healthcare but has worse outcomes for lower SES individuals. ○ Private systems face challenges due to market dynamics, where consumers cannot easily opt out or compare prices for essential care. 4. Mental Illness: The Hidden Epidemic Definitions: ○ Mental health: Successful mental functioning and adaptation to change. ○ Mental illness: Patterns of abnormal behavior causing distress or impairment. Challenges: ○ Socially Defined: Perceptions of mental illness have changed over time and vary across cultures. ○ Cultural Impact: Mental illnesses manifest differently based on societal norms (e.g., workaholism in Japan). ○ Tied to Morality: Definitions of abnormal behavior often align with societal morality, making diagnoses subjective. Stigma Causes: ○ Fear of norm-breaking behavior. ○ Association of mental illness with violence (e.g., mass shootings). ○ High incarceration rates among mentally ill individuals. 5. Corporate Influence on Health Profit vs. Public Good: Corporations prioritize profits, often at the expense of public health (e.g., misleading information about sugar, opioids). Bad Science: Funded by private industries to mislead the public, creating distrust in academic research (e.g., vaccine-autism controversy). 6. Key Sociological Concepts Globalization and Health: Highlights interconnectedness and systemic issues affecting healthcare and labor. Dramaturgical Perspective (Goffman): Explains societal roles and stigma, especially in mental health. Exam Focus Tips Be prepared to analyze relationships between variables (e.g., SES and health outcomes). Understand the role of globalization in health challenges. Discuss how societal norms influence the perception of mental illness and healthcare policies. Critically evaluate the impact of private interests on public health science. WEEK 6 lec 5 Key Concepts: 1. Economic Inequality Defined as the disparity in income distribution among individuals, social classes, or countries. Operationalizing: The process of turning abstract concepts (like income) into measurable observations. 2. Measuring Income Average Income: Total income divided by the population. Can be misleading due to influence from very high earners. Median Income: The middle value when incomes are ranked, providing a more typical picture. Types of Income: 1. Active Income: Earned through labor (e.g., salaries). 2. Passive Income: Earned without active work (e.g., investments, real estate). 3. Inflation and Its Adjustment Inflation measures the rise in prices over time, requiring income to be adjusted for comparison. Consumer Price Index (CPI) tracks inflation using a basket of typical goods and services. 4. The Matthew Effect Describes the accumulation of wealth where the rich get richer due to advantages like inheritance and passive income. 5. Trends in Canadian Inequality (1976-2011) Quintiles: Income distribution divided into five groups. ○ Bottom quintile saw minimal gains. ○ Top quintile experienced the most growth, driving inequality. After-tax income analysis shows some mitigation due to progressive taxation. 6. Gini Coefficient Measures income inequality, ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (complete inequality). Canada’s Gini coefficient has risen over time, indicating growing inequality. 7. Factors Driving Inequality Globalization: Decreased worker bargaining power. Corporate Consolidation: Fewer businesses lead to wealth concentration. Rising CEO Pay: CEOs earn exponentially more than average workers. 8. Lack of Public Outrage Reasons include increased household incomes (due to dual earners) and widespread access to credit. Study Tips: 1. Understand Inequality Measurements: ○ Differentiate between average and median income. ○ Learn how Gini Coefficient reflects inequality. 2. Focus on Causes and Effects: ○ Examine globalization’s impact on labor. ○ Understand how passive income contributes to wealth disparities.  3. Analyze Case Studies and Graphs: ○ Use data on Canadian income trends and quintile analysis to grasp inequality dynamics. lec 6 Key Concepts: 1. Environmental Problems Overview Significance: Considered the greatest social problem due to potential catastrophic outcomes. Challenges: 1. Global in nature but addressed through national competition. 2. Resistance from economic systems prioritizing growth over environmental protection. 2. Major Environmental Issues Climate Change: Rising greenhouse gases, increased global temperatures. Coral Bleaching: Affects 25% of ocean life, e.g., the Great Barrier Reef. Bee Population Decline: Crucial for pollination; 90% of crops depend on bees. Extreme Weather: Droughts, hurricanes, wildfires, etc. Natural Disasters: Increasing in frequency and severity. 3. Structural Functionalism Focuses on how social structures maintain stability. Imbalances caused by: ○ Population growth. ○ Technological advancements exploiting resources. ○ Economic systems prioritizing short-term gains. 4. Earth as an Externality Nature incurs costs not reflected in market prices. Examples: Pollution, overfishing. Solutions: Carbon taxes, regulations to internalize environmental costs. 5. Path Dependency Societal momentum makes it hard to shift from harmful practices. Reliance on fossil fuels due to existing infrastructure and economic interests. 6. Moral Foundation Theory Explains differences in political/environmental priorities: ○ Liberals: Focus on fairness, harm reduction. ○ Conservatives: Emphasize loyalty, authority, purity. 7. Immediacy Bias Preference for short-term benefits over long-term sustainability. Example: Political focus shifts to immediate crises rather than climate change. 8. Misinformation Spread of false information creates skepticism about climate change. Role of lobbyists, media, and confirmation bias in shaping public opinion. 9. Symbolic Interactionism Emphasizes the subjective meaning of social interactions. Tragedy of the Commons: Overuse of shared resources without ownership or regulation. Social Contract: Trust and cooperation are crucial for collective action. Study Tips: 1. Understand Theoretical Approaches: ○ Structural Functionalism: Stability and imbalance. ○ Conflict Theory: Power dynamics and corporate influence. ○ Symbolic Interactionism: Subjective meanings and social constructs. 2. Analyze Case Studies: ○ Coral bleaching, bee population decline, and extreme weather events.  3. Think Critically: ○ Evaluate the effectiveness of proposed solutions like international agreements and carbon taxes. Lec7 Key Concepts: 1. Labour Market and Working Conditions Sweatshops: Factories in less economically developed countries (LEDCs) characterized by: ○ Low wages (e.g., $300/month at Apple’s Shenzhen factory). ○ Long work hours (12-hour shifts, 6 days a week). ○ Unsafe conditions (e.g., caged windows, suicide nets). Notable Incident: The Savar Building collapse in Bangladesh, 2013: ○ 1,134 workers killed, 2,500 injured. ○ Factory workers forced to return under threat of losing pay. 2. Karl Marx and Alienation Alienation: Workers are estranged from their creative potential. ○ Monotonous tasks deny fulfillment (e.g., assembly lines at Apple). Human Nature: Marx posits work should involve creativity and pride in outcomes. Maslow’s Hierarchy: Aligns with Marx; creativity is at the top of human needs. 3. Globalization Definition: Increased interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and governance across nations. Key Drivers: ○ Technological advancements (e.g., internet, smartphones). ○ Economic agreements (e.g., Bretton Woods, IMF). Effects: ○ Integration of markets. ○ Outsourcing of jobs (offshoring).  ○ Growth of multinational corporations (MNCs). 4. Free Market Economics Principles: ○ Minimal government intervention. ○ Market driven by supply and demand. Free Trade Agreements: ○ Examples: NAFTA, WTO policies. ○ Remove tariffs and trade barriers, fostering international trade. Consequences: ○ Loss of local industries. ○ "Race to the Bottom": Nations compete by reducing labor and environmental standards. 5. Power Dynamics: Corporations vs. Nations Multinational Corporations: ○ Increasingly powerful, often surpassing nations in economic influence. ○ Use free-trade zones to bypass national regulations. Corporate Tactics: ○ Threatening to relocate operations for favorable tax and labor laws. ○ Examples: Apple moving headquarters to Ireland for lower taxes. 6. Labour Unions and Worker Power Historical Role: ○ Advocated for rights (e.g., 8-hour workday, safety standards). ○ Organized strikes to pressure employers. Current Challenges: ○ Decline in union power due to globalization. ○ Increased supply of global labor undermines bargaining. 7. Proposed Solutions International Cooperation: ○ Establish global labor and environmental standards. Consumer Responsibility: ○ Support ethically sourced and locally made products. Study Tips: 1. Understand Key Theories: ○ Focus on Marx’s alienation and its modern applications. ○ Grasp globalization’s dual role: economic growth vs. worker exploitation. 2. Examine Case Studies: ○ Apple factories in China. ○ Bangladesh factory collapse. ○ NAFTA’s impact on labor markets. 3. Think Critically: ○ Evaluate the balance of power between corporations and governments. ○ Analyze the effectiveness of free-market policies versus regulatory frameworks. LECTURE 8 Culture Definition: Culture includes material and non-material components that define a way of life. ○ Material Culture: Physical objects (tools, art, architecture) that reflect cultural practices. ○ Non-Material Culture: Intangible aspects (beliefs, norms, language, values). Key Components of Non-Material Culture: 1. Symbols: Carry shared meaning (e.g., national flags). 2. Values: Standards of morality and ideals. 3. Norms: Rules guiding behavior, divided into: Folkways: Informal, tradition-based behaviors (e.g., shaking hands). Mores: Morality-based, often codified (e.g., laws). Taboos: Actions strongly prohibited (e.g., incest). 2. Abstract Nature of Culture Post-Modernism: A lens to analyze how culture is constructed and experienced. ○ Key Idea: Hyperreality (Baudrillard): When representations (e.g., Instagram personas) distort or replace reality. Cultural Characteristics: ○ Ubiquity: Culture affects everyone and is shaped by collective actions. ○ Obstinance: Culture resists individual control and evolves beyond its originators. 3. Cultural Transmission and Change Socialization: The process of learning cultural norms and values. ○ Primary Socialization: Happens in early childhood via family. ○ Secondary Socialization: Involves exposure to external groups (e.g., peers, media) and often leads to cognitive dissonance or cultural displacement. Path Dependency: Cultural norms persist due to historical practices, even when they are inefficient or outdated (e.g., QWERTY keyboard, sexual norms). Cultural Lag: When societal norms fail to keep pace with technological or social innovations. 4. Media and Technology Mass Media: Channels (e.g., TV, internet) that communicate widely. ○ Functionalist View: Functions: Information sharing, socialization, social control, and entertainment (CASE acronym). Dysfunctions: Overwhelming information can lead to narcotization (apathy). ○ Conflict Theory View:  Media serves the interests of the powerful, promoting hegemony (Gramsci). Ownership of media is highly concentrated, leading to cultural imperialism (e.g., dominance of U.S. media in Canada). ○ Symbolic Interactionist View: Media consumption is shaped by individual experiences, leading to digital tribalism and polarization. 5. Fake News and Media Skepticism Fake News: Dissemination of false information for profit or influence. ○ Drivers of Distrust in Science: 1. Skepticism in newer generations. 2. Internet/social media algorithms reinforcing biases. 3. Feedback loop between media, politics, and public beliefs. ○ Impact of Social Media: Falsehoods spread faster than truths because they are more novel and provoke stronger reactions. 6. Key Sociological Concepts Cultural Diffusion: Exchange of cultural practices between societies, accelerated by globalization and technology. Hegemony: Dominance of ruling class ideas that are accepted as common sense. Symbolic Interactionism and Technology: Highlights the impact of smartphones on constant connectivity, anxiety, and the commodification of relationships (e.g., online dating). Exam Tips Focus on relationships between concepts (e.g., cultural lag and media influence).  Be ready to explain specific examples (e.g., QWERTY vs. DVORAK keyboards, hyperreality). Discuss implications of media concentration and cultural diffusion. Study Notes: Lecture 9 - Gender Inequality Key Concepts 1. Gender and Inequality: ○ Ascribed Status: Traits assigned at birth or involuntarily later in life (e.g., gender, race). ○ Achieved Status: Traits acquired through individual efforts (e.g., education, job). 2. Master Status: ○ Dominates all other statuses and shapes life experiences (e.g., gender, race). 3. Feminism: ○ Definition: Belief in social, economic, and political equality of sexes. ○ Four Tenets: 1. Patriarchy is a key driver of inequality, comparable to class. 2. Gender roles are socially constructed, not biologically determined. 3. Inequalities exist at both macro (structural) and micro (interpersonal) levels. 4. Gender inequality can and should be changed for societal benefit. 4. Intersectionality: ○ Framework analyzing how overlapping social identities (e.g., race, gender) compound discrimination and privilege. Gender as a Spectrum 1. Biology as Non-Binary: ○ Includes diverse configurations beyond male/female (e.g., intersex traits, non-binary chromosomes). 2. Gender Identity: ○ Internal sense of being male, female, both, neither, or somewhere along the spectrum. 3. Gender Expression: ○ Outward presentation of gender through appearance and behavior (e.g., masculine, feminine, androgynous). 4. Sexuality: ○ Spectrum of sexual orientations beyond heteronormativity. Male Privilege 1. Examples of Male Privilege: ○ Greater safety in public spaces and professional environments. ○ Reduced societal expectations around physical appearance and caregiving. ○ Economic benefits like the “fatherhood premium.” 2. Challenges for Women: ○ Higher rates of harassment, wage gaps, and underrepresentation in leadership. 3. Importance of Awareness: ○ Recognizing privilege helps address systemic inequalities. Structural and Cultural Sexism  1. Structural Sexism: ○ Inequality embedded in societal institutions (e.g., wage gaps, educational disparities). ○ Women dominate lower-paid, caregiving roles due to societal expectations. 2. Cultural Sexism: ○ Gender roles perpetuated by societal norms (e.g., children’s toys, media representation). ○ Reinforces stereotypes of women as caregivers and men as breadwinners. Toxic Masculinity 1. Definition: ○ Harmful norms associated with traditional masculinity (e.g., emotional repression, aggression). ○ Linked to higher rates of violence, substance abuse, and mental health issues among men. 2. Societal Contributors: ○ Mixed messages (e.g., objectification of women alongside calls for respect). ○ Lack of comprehensive sex education. Gender Wage Gap 1. Causes: ○ Occupational segregation: Men dominate higher-paying fields (e.g., STEM). ○ Societal expectations around motherhood: Women more likely to leave work for caregiving.  ○ Statistical discrimination: Employers view women as costlier due to potential maternity leave. 2. Solutions: ○ Paternal leave policies to equalize caregiving expectations. ○ Laws to prevent wage discrimination. Key Theories in Gender Studies 1. Standpoint Theory: ○ Knowledge is shaped by social positions (e.g., gender, race). ○ Marginalized groups offer unique insights into societal structures. 2. Symbolic Interactionism: ○ Focus on meanings and interactions (e.g., micro-level impact of sexism). 3. Conflict Theory: ○ Power imbalances perpetuate gender inequality (e.g., male dominance in leadership). 4. Structural Functionalism: ○ Views gender inequality as a systemic issue needing structural change. Exam Prep Tips: Focus on definitions (e.g., gender identity, toxic masculinity) and examples (e.g., wage gap causes). Study feminist frameworks and their critiques of patriarchy. Understand the role of culture in perpetuating gender roles and inequalities. Study Notes: Lecture 10 - Racial Inequality Key Concepts 1. Race as a Social Construct: ○ Not biological: Race is not scientifically valid; no genetic test can define race without relying on social definitions. ○ Socially constructed: Traits like skin color are arbitrarily chosen to categorize people based on social significance (e.g., history of slavery in the U.S., colonization in Canada). ○ Race is defined as: “A category of people perceived to share distinct physical characteristics deemed socially significant.” 2. Ethnicity: ○ Refers to shared cultural heritage or nationality (e.g., language, religious practices, traditions). ○ More fluid and identity-based compared to race, often less tied to physical traits. 3. Immigration: ○ Driven by push factors (e.g., war, poverty) and pull factors (e.g., job opportunities). ○ A key political issue due to racism and prejudice, particularly as immigrants increasingly come from non-European regions. Forms of Discrimination 1. Overt Discrimination: Direct, open, and explicit (e.g., hate crimes, segregation). 2. Subtle Discrimination: Indirect and ambiguous, often unconscious or implicit. 3. Systemic Discrimination: Embedded in policies or practices of institutions, creating disadvantages for marginalized groups. 4. Adaptive Discrimination: Occurs due to the prejudices of others (e.g., a landlord denying housing to avoid upsetting other tenants). 5. Cultural Racism: Cultural norms or values that perpetuate racial inequality. 6. Whitewashing: Reframing history or events to downplay racism or discrimination. Critical Race Theory (CRT):  1. Race is socially constructed and used to oppress marginalized groups. 2. Racism is a persistent and systemic feature of institutions. 3. Progress for racial equality happens when it aligns with the interests of dominant groups (interest convergence). 4. Marginalization is intersectional and compounded by overlapping forms of disadvantage (e.g., race, gender, class). Key Case Study: Police and Racial Bias 1. Disproportionate Policing: ○ Black Americans are 2.8 times more likely to be killed by police than White Americans in the U.S. ○ In Canada, Indigenous people (5% of the population) account for 38% of recent police shootings. 2. Feedback Loop: ○ Historical over-policing of marginalized communities creates distrust, reinforcing further negative interactions. 3. Statistical Discrimination: ○ Over-policing specific groups creates skewed statistics, falsely justifying continued targeting (e.g., higher arrest rates for Black individuals). Key Movements: 1. Black Lives Matter (BLM): ○ Emerged in 2013 after Trayvon Martin's death, focusing on racial injustice and police brutality. 2. Anthem Protests: ○ Initiated by Colin Kaepernick in 2016 to highlight racial injustice, particularly within law enforcement. Historical Context of Discrimination 1. Slavery & Black Codes: ○ Post-slavery laws (e.g., vagrancy laws) effectively re-enslaved Black Americans. 2. Civil Rights Movement: ○ Faced significant resistance, including state-sponsored surveillance and violence (e.g., targeting the Black Panther Party). 3. Economic Disparities: ○ Wealth and income gaps persist due to historical and systemic barriers.  ○ Example: In Canada, Black men earn $15,000 less annually than other Canadian men. Proposed Solutions: 1. Acknowledge and address systemic discrimination and cultural racism. 2. Foster proportionality in addressing racism and policing. 3. Promote pluralism over assimilation, allowing cultural diversity to thrive. WEEK12 lec 11 Key Concepts 1. Social Control: ○ Informal Social Control: Non-official actions to enforce norms (e.g., teasing, ostracizing). ○ Formal Social Control: Official rules enforced by institutions (e.g., criminal justice system, laws). 2. Criminal Justice System Components: ○ Law Enforcement Officials: Enforce laws and maintain order (e.g., police). ○ Criminal Courts: Ensure laws are applied fairly. ○ Prisons: Punish and rehabilitate offenders. 3. Crime Trends: ○ Laws and crime vary globally (e.g., drinking age, hijab laws). ○ Adult males are disproportionately crime perpetrators. ○ Theft is the most common crime; violent crime is rare. 4. Role of Media in Crime Perception: ○ Media overemphasizes violent crimes like murder, creating a distorted perception of crime prevalence. Why People Commit Crimes 1. Durkheim (Structural Functionalism): ○ Crime can reaffirm social norms or lead to societal change. 2. Merton’s Strain Theory:  ○ Society promotes common goals (e.g., wealth) but doesn't provide equal opportunities. ○ Five adaptations to strain: Conformity: Accept goals and legitimate means. Innovation: Accept goals but use illegitimate means. Ritualism: Reject goals but follow legitimate means. Retreatism: Reject both goals and means (e.g., hippies). Rebellion: Reject and replace goals and means (e.g., radicals). Conflict Theory on Crime 1. Causes of Crime: ○ Inequality and systemic marginalization. ○ Code of the Street (Elijah Anderson): Respect and toughness are key in marginalized areas. Police are seen as outsiders, leading to self-regulation via violence. ○ Hypermasculinity: Dominance and aggression as survival traits. 2. Penalties and Inequality: ○ Wealthy individuals benefit from better legal representation and avoid harsher penalties. ○ Alternatives to prison (e.g., community service, fines) are less accessible to the poor. Exam Tips Focus on concepts, theorists, trends, and key ideas rather than specific dates or statistics. Review the 5 adaptations in Merton's Strain Theory and examples provided in class. Understand the Conflict Theory perspective on systemic inequality and its role in crime.