Environmental Archaeology Notes Exam PDF

Environmental archaeology notes Exam Investigations of food remains The inside of dishes and the surface of ceramic fragments must be inspected before washing: ​ - Are there any visible, decayed remains on them? ​ - Rare - They decompose quickly under natural conditions ​ Suffering from fir...

Environmental archaeology notes Exam Investigations of food remains The inside of dishes and the surface of ceramic fragments must be inspected before washing: ​ - Are there any visible, decayed remains on them? ​ - Rare - They decompose quickly under natural conditions ​ Suffering from fire, water coverage, dry microclimate: ​ - they can remain​ - ​Recognition: It takes a lot of practice ​ - Regular sampling and silting ​ - Residues: In individual form: flour, porridge, bread, cake​ - Attached to objects: soup, cooked vegetables, ready meals (one-dish dishes) ​ - Stomach contents of bog corpses and mummies​ - There is no uniform methodology ​ - It can be: dye, drug, poison ​ - If not completely destroyed:​ - Removal of the damaged layer​ - Afterwards, examination of the remaining tissue remains ​ - E.g. parts of the bracts​ - Instrumental analytical chemistry tests: ​ - Examination of macro- and microelement composition ​ - The absence of elements that wash out easily (e.g. table salt) is not authoritative ​ - Starch, sugar, protein: nothing remains ​ - Amino acids, cholesterol, fatty and oleic acids: detectable​ Ancient food remains - 7500 BC Lebanon: barley in a jar ​ - 4900 BC Portal (Switzerland): lactic acid fermented dough made of fine flour!!!​ - 3150 BC Muntelier (Switzerland): bread made of 70% fine flour ​ - ​Experimental archaeology: semolina with a Neolithic manual grindstone 5 times, 15 times, fine flour after sifting ​ - Examination of porridge and bread: macroscopic examinations: e.g. drilling: internal​ Investigation of food remains: Porridge - from the grains of chaffed cereals (alacor wheat, spelt, barley, seed wheat) + water, milk ​ - Without fermentation ​ - Flavoring: legumes and vegetables, wild apples, fruits, meat, fish Intentional burning - 3830-3080 BC, Swiss and D-German Neolithic pottery: stir-fried soup and porridge burned on top of each other - keep the water from flowing out? ​ - Example: Zürich Mozartstrasse Neolithic vessel: soup and one course (meal, fish, parsnips)​ Baking after cooking - Dry porridge like bread - A\) Moistened grains were sprinkled with flour and baked on a hot stove ( 3830 -3730 BC, Twann, Switzerland) B) wet coarsely ground cereal mixed with flour, placed on heated gravel, covered with ash. - Oldest leavened bread: - 3560-3530 BC, Twann: worn 12cm Not in an oven, but in embers in hot ashes. The dough is made from finely ground flour - Cake - Neolithic: BC 3600- 3500 Twann: with forest fruit on the top. Domestic food scraps - Middle neolithic, Tiszapolgar-Csoszhalom: decayed remains of porridge/bread - Copper Age - Zalaszentbalazs-Szolohegy: a one-dish meal made from bran wheat - Rakospalota: porridge/bread - Middle bronze age - Szazhalombatta-Foldvar - Turkeve-Terehalom, Ottomanyi culture - Gor-Kapolnadomb: muddle and late Bronze age - Balatonmagyaros-Hidvegpuszta: Mass Grave Culture: food remains from a pit - Peas, chicory lentils, angular lednek, millet porridge - Cake made of flour, lard and eggs, filled with wild strawberries - Celts: Keszthely-Fenekpuszta: fish soup - Hungarian conquest period (10^th^ century): porridge / bread - 1996: Lebeny-Bille-domb - Endrod - Rakospalota Examination of shells from household waste found at archaeological sites - What can freshwater shells tell us about the life of a late neolithic community in Gorzsa? - The examination of marine and lake/river shells from an archaezoological point of view is very widely known and used in the processing of material from international archaeological sites - There are very few studies from this perspective on European freshwater mussels - Purpose: to demonstrate the eating or gathering habits of a late neolithic tell community through the natural science examination of the freshwater shellfish material recovered from the site. Examination of shells from household waste found at archaeological sites - Detailed tests on the material of section 18: - For 24 microlayers - According to radiocarbon data - 368 years = the entire period from the first settlement to the last. - The material of each level was examined separately based on the material of the waste pit located in the deepest horizon (4898-4874 BC): - 1213 shells belong to 3 unio species (Unio pictorum, Unio tumidus and Unio crassus) - The former collection environment and the possible collection method can be reconstructed - The dominance of U, pictorum and U, tumidus in this level and in the entire section - The collection environment and method remained constant throughout the life of the tell: - Limited to the shallow coast parts of the smaller waters, backwaters, and marches of the surrounding floodplain.  A row of brown shells Description automatically generated - Unio pictorum   - Unio tumidus  A shell with a brown shell Description automatically generated with medium confidence - Unio crassus Biometric measurements: - Turtle height, turtle width, flatness index, shell weight Statistical analysis: - Size and species preference or selectivity shown during collection. Estimating the live and soft body mass of shellfish - The energy content that can be obtained from the mussel body is shown partly by Kiss (2000) and partly by means of our own regression equation applied to living fauna - Results: in the examined level, 7,5 kg of live weight x or+ 2.5 kg of shellfish meat = this is approx. a persons daily energy requirement Projected to the remaining unmeasurable turtles: - All collected shells are a smaller max. A family of 4 was able to satisfy their food needs for one day the secondary role of shellfish in nutrition. - The selectivity of the collection: - Mainly the larger, older and more fleshly specimens - Seasonlaity studies (with the help of paleontological specimens): the shells could be collected in late spring or early summer or after a cold winter or at the beginning of a new settlement phase. The testimony of the sells found in the entire section: the collection was continuous throughout the life of the tell. - Robert Kovacs: Environmental archaeological aspects of the late Neolithic tell shell material of Szegvat-Tuzkoves: - Late Neolithic age of the southern great plain, BC, 4900 and 4400, Tiszai culture, one of the largest tell Szegvar-Tuzkoves, with an area of 11 hectares, was excavated from 1986 under the leadership of archaeologist Ferenc Horvath. - Lifestyle: crop production and animal husbandry, but: to supplement their diet, they sometimes collected shells. There are 28 levels in Section I Szegvar-Tuzkoves - Three species, Unio pictorum, Unio tumidus and Unio crassus, from slow-flowing, flowing water and standing water - The vast majority of the first there was no specimen with an intact turtle taxonomic definition: - Shells with at least an intact crest are needed, because only turtles with measurable height are suitable for use in statical analysis. - Shells were excavated from houses, external walkways,pits, trenches and pile holes. - All levels contain shell artifacts, but their dominance varies from level to level - There are also periods and occasions when shellfish were no longer just a supplementary food. Cowrie (cauri) snails - The cowrie/cauri snail (Cypraea annulus): - Not a shell - Its shell consists of one piece - The sea snail that lives in the Indian ocean - Spread through Humanity's oldest amulets of natural origin: - Decoration- eye contact, against bad luck and in the hope of fertility - The peoples of the Carpathian basin also believed in it, Scythians, Celts, Sarmaians, Germans, Avars, conquering Hungarians - They disappeared here with the spread of Christianity - Money? - Seashell money spread among coastal fishing tribes: tiny, shiny, whitish-pink shells the size of a button - Hungary: cauri-finds: - Pieces: jewerly - Non pierced: in big amount: did they use as coin? Malacological investigations - Identification of finds in sediments -- examination of the environment 1 - Cave investigations: they also looked for the remains of small vertebrates in the excavated soil (Kadic Ottokar: but: not stratigraphically correct) Laszlo Vertes : - Worked with vertebrates paleontologists Miklos Kretzoi, Denes Janossy, Laszlo Kordos No. of layers: Ferenc Bartha (1959), Andor Horvath (1954) Endre Krolop (1961) - Perfection: it is not the composition that changes but the ratio - Malacology: 1887: Lajos Loczy, Malacology in archaeology: much later - Nature is changing Fauna assessment with a dynamic approach - You need well-fossilized remains in the layers -- snails and shells (Mollusca) Malacology - Carpathian basin - Its outstanding sediment collecting nature - Significant and different types of sediment accumulation in the quarter period - Hundreds of tests a very large number and good retention of malacological material Mid-1970s : large-scale faunal changes can be outlined within the Carpathian Basin during the Quaternary period - Endre krolopp: 6 faunal sections - Five in the Pleistocene the sixth is the main characteristic of the Holocene fauna development, the so-called appearance of Mediterranean elements (Zebrina detrita, Monacha cartusuana, Helicella obvia) in the fauna - The Krolopp method: - Its still basic today - After sample collection the original quantitative conditions must not change. Sampling and processing - Drying the sediment - Then pour water slowly: even the hard lumps will fall apart - Do not mix - If bound: pour 10% H2O2 solution - Wash through a sieve (0.8mm) - Dry - Repeat if necessary - Separation into fractions on sieves with different hole diameters - Definition (definition books, comparative collection) - Classification into ecological groups ( so called Lozek division) - Also examine the fragments (and rule out attributing the fragments of 1 snail to several individuals ) grouping: apex (intact +apex) and oral cavity (intact +oral cavity). Malacology - General picture -- need to use detailed studies to reveal the main trends that determine the evolution of the fauna over the past ten thousand years - For the tests, large-scale sediments collectors had to be found - In which the fauna of the accumulated sediments - In addition to the determining effect of the microclimate determined by the local geomorphology - They are suitable for deducting general laws typical of the entire investigated area. - These are: on the one hand, the cave sediments in the central mountains, and on the other hand, the lake and, less often, river sediments in the plains. - Result: exploration and analysis of cave sediment fauna: - Bukk, Aggteleki-karszt, Bakony: excavations - Examination of sinkhole (plain) areas: - Sarret in Fejer county, Lake Balaton, Small-Balaton, Lake Ferto - \+ more small excavations - Reconstruction - the most significant successional stages of fauna development could be described - Central mountain areas: 1. Steppe fauna that prefers open areas 2. Fauna in close forests I. 3. Secondary forest-steppe fauna 4. Fauna in clsed forest II. - Subsidence (plain) areas: 1. River section 2. Real lake period 3. Silting peat formation. - Complex analysis of faunistic studies : - It can determined when those so-called Mediterranean immigrants appear in the Hungarian fauna - the delimitation of the Holocene fauna, its separation from the Pleistocene - The Zebrina detrita in the Holocene fauna of the Upponi Horvati-lik in the boreal climate section - Monacha cartusiana in the Bukk, in the Szentleleki-volgy rock hut - In a sample that can be classified as sub-Atlantic Helicella obvia, on the ridge between the Danube and Tisza, in the Atlantic samples of Lake Peteri - Detailed zoogeographical analysis of Holocene faunas discovered in area 1-1 beased on regularities!  A *Zebrina detrita* in the Holocene fauna of the Upponi Horváti-lik in the boreal climate section A close up of a shell Description automatically generated A *Monacha cartusiana* in the Bükk, in the Szentléleki-valley rock niche, in a sample that can be classified as sub-Atlantic  A *Helicella obvia* on the ridge between the Danube and Tisza, in the Atlantic patterns of Lake Péteri - Getting to know the laws of fauna development: - New immigrants - The change of dominance relations within the fauna - Appearance and/or disappearance of characteristic species - the former environment and its determining factors (climate, microclimate, geomorphology, vegetation, etc.) can be reconstructed. - Malaco-thermometer based on changes in biometric parameters - A good match with the so-called, base on vertebrate paleontological studies with the result o the "vole thermometer" - What is it reconstructing? - The temperature - The former relative humidity - But: only in a natural environment! - Artificial environment: house of species collected for food -- species definition - Generally complex examination: vertebrate paleontological, palynological and archaeological finds. - Correlated chronological division of snail faunas: 1. Central mountain area - Vallonia costata: Oppel zone -- Boreal - The disappearance of the Pleistocene - Open vegetation, steppe - Example: Muflon cave , Kolyuk II, cave - 8200-6500 BP A snail on a blue background Description automatically generated - Clausiliidae: Oppel zone -- Atlantic - Closed forest fauna - Examples: Kolyuk II, cave, Baradla cave - 6500-4500 BP  - Granaria frumentum: Oppel zone -- subboreal - Closed forest fauna+steppe - 4500-2500 BP - A\) Helicigona Faustina -- B) acicula polita: oppel zone -- subatlantic - Forest elements 85-90% - 2500-0 BP (A) A close up of a shell Description automatically generated (B) 2. Plains - Lithoglyphus naticoides -- Valcata piscinalis: Oppel zone -- Preborealis-Boreal - Dominance of these two species - 8500-6500 BP  A shell with a shell inside Description automatically generated - Bithynia tentaculata -- Gyraulus albus : Oppel zone -- Atlantic - 6500-4500 BP - Bithynia leachi -- Gyraulus riparius: Oppel zone- sub-boreal- sub Atlantic - 4500-0 BP  - Detection of anthropogenic activity - the image changes as a result of an external factor - Laszlo Kordos: the change in the vertebrate fauna of the Csapas-teto cave - Rejtek I. stone cabin: steppe elements appeared in the closed farest fauna - Kolyuk II., Jeno Hillebrand: change in snails - the environment has not changed for climatic reasons, but for human reasons (deforestation) - Environment reconstruction, Gor-Kapolnadomb Archaeological Site: - Settlement next to the Repce river in its terrace - Huge malacological material - Single and silting method - grove-forest association near the water, open grassy vegetation on the hill further away (based on the large individuals) - lower part of the sediment was formed in the Pleistocene (silting method) - Correlation of biozones: based on EU data Palynology -- concept and subject - Greek palunein "to sprinkle, scatter, sow, dust, flour" - Airborne pollen grains and spores produced by plants are carried by the wind (or other factors) to great heights and distances - Palynology exp: used since 1940 (suggested by Hyde and Cardiff) Subject: - Spores (reproductive cells) of flowerless plants (mosses, mosses). They can be larger, 1500-2000 micrometers in size - And pollens (male gametes) of flowering plants. They are small, 25-60 microns = together: - "sporomorph" name -- after the mature anthers burst open, they are released and spread - Mediation: wind, water, animals, insects History - Beginning: 1830s, one of the sciences of botany First researches: Sweden: - Tertiary lignite deposits (Goppert, Unger) - Examination of Quaternary peat finds periodisation of the Quarter period - birth of Palynology: Lagerheim Sweden researcher - Introduction of pollen analysis: - 1916\. Lennart von Post: the first percentage pollen diagram - First to solve vegetation history and geological promblems - First layer identification using pollen: 1926, Ewans - Palynologists: - G. Erdtman: description of pollen forms - B. E. Berglund, H. J. Birkes, F. Firbas, K. Faegri, J. Iversen, M. J. Nejstadt - Van de Hammen: introduction of paleoecology - K. E. Berhe, D. A. Danielsen, B. Frenzel: vegetation development and human interaction. Its Hungarian history - 1^st^ researcher in Hungary: Moesz 1926, but: presentation of foreign results only - Communication of the first results from Hungarian areas: Kintzler 1936 - Raising domestic Quaternary palynological research to an international level: Balint Zolyomi - Example: determination of corn pollen, beginning of cultivation -- year of 1650. - Most important researchers - Magda Jaraine Komlodi - Maria Mihalyne Farago - Elvira Nagyne Bodor - Zsofia Medzihradszky Method - Pollen analysis - Quantitative and qualitative analysis - Individual counting and determination of pollen grain under a microscope - Its important: - It is also present in apparently fossil-free sediments (clay, clay marl, sand, etc) - Imprint of the vegetation of the surrounding area - Local and regional data (it reaches high altitudes and distance) Fields and application - Application - Pollen morphology: research of recent plants (applied palynology) - Plant genetics, plant breeding - Identification of fossils - Field applications according to Erdtman: - 1\) Basic palynology: pollen and spore morphology, their theoretical areas - 2\) applied palynology: - Palynotaxonomy: morphological role in taxonomic research - Geo-or paleopalynology: examination of sporomorphs in sediments (e.g. during test drilling: coal, oil) - Melitopalynology (honey): which flowers have pollen in recent and fossil honey - For example, they are perfectly preserved in Egyptian honey that is thousands of years old - Pharmacopalinology: in healing - Jatropalynology: the study of allergens - Forensic palynology: in the detection of criminal cases. Methodology of pollen analysis: 1. Select a sampling location 2. Material collection 3. Excavation: extracting from the rock 4. Definition: microscopic examination 5. Evaluation, making a diagram Select a sampling location: - Primary aspect: good pollen preservation ability - Favourable: moist embedment condition - During the dry season: in water deposits - Unfavourable: in loose rocks - And if there are rust brown spots on the surface -- oxidation - collection: darker rocks (clay, marl, clay marl) is more suitable - sedimentation: - in the mud of lakes, in the depths of a bogs and swamp. In an oxygen-free environment, only the plasma content is destroyed - the outer wall (exine) is resistant -- high heat, acid, alkali, organic solvents, bacteria do not affect it -- it consists of organic compounds bound to lipids, they can remain for hundreds of millions of years. Designating a sampling location - the size of the lake and bog is an influencing factor: - small cavities below closed crown level: immediate vicinity - small lakes, bogs (20-200 m): 100-1000m distance data - medium -- sized lakes, bogs: 1000-10000 km - great lakes: 10 million km2 - ocean: from an area the size of a continent - the size also depends on the type of fossils and the ability of the pollen to fly - assumption: they are deposited regularly - but: there are also gaps, holes between layers. - Sampling: - From lake sediments: from a ship, with a piston internal drill - From peat: semi-cylindrical sampler with a cutting edge on one vertica edge - We have to be careful: - The sample must protected from contamination and subsequent oxidation - Layers of different ages should not mix - The surface of the rock is removed by a few cm - Collect the layers from bottom to top -- do not fall on them - Do not mix with recent pollen - Do not store in the open for a long time - Do not in early spring: pollen from wind-pollinated flowers - Not even at the beginning of summer: the grasses bloom - Best time: late summer, autumn - Sampling frequency - Generally from every 10cms - But we can collect even from every 5 cms - bog development, detection of human impacts - Slow change in nature - Sudden changes: sediment gap - flows - human effects - Amount of sample: - Clay, sand: 10-22 g - Peat: 5g - Coal : 1-2 g - Storing samples - In a wet medium, glass or nylon bag 10% alcohol + 1-2 drops of formalin - Paraffinizing the plug - Caption: location of sampling number of drilling/ excavation, number of meters - Keep in a cold place: otherwise the growth of fungal spores Processing - Breaking up large, hand rocks - Then "exploitation" use of strong chemicals: acids and alkalis - the outer wall of the sporomorph is resistant to these - An older o lignite sample must be exposed to a stronger solvent - "Exploration" of quaternaries: acetolysises -- 2-2 specific gravity zinc chloride process (Erdtman-Zolyomi) - After: neutralization from acids - Preparation on coverslip - Storage of the remaining material in glycerine gelatin, in a corked glass Examination - Under a light microscope, with 200-400-600x magnification - Oil immerse lense - Accurate analysis of decorative elements - Photography - Important criteria - Size - Shape, symmetry - Decoration (sculpture) number of germ apertures/ pores - Layering/structure of the wall - Color - Nomenclature: artificial, semi-artificial (Lower Pleistocene), natural (Middle-Upper Pleistocene) Assessment - A prerequisite - Comprehensive knowledge of recent botany - Knowledge of the kinship relationships of recent and fossil groups - Statistical values: - Piece by piece calculation - At least 100 pollen grains are required for the percentage diagram - Search fro climate indicator plants - Aquatic and terrestrial species are separate - Tilia computer program - Results -- for aquatic environment: - Determining the start of water coverage - Relative changes in water depth - pH changes - changes to the coastline (with coastal drilling) - Degree of siltation - Results -- in terrestrial habitat - Relative age classification - Extent of the littoral zone - Climatic changes - The beginning and effects of huan activity - Problems of assessment: - Actualism principle: the needs of species are similar to todays - Extinct taxa or associations that no longer live together - The original complete vegetation picture of the area cannot be reconstructed - Influencing factors: - Different pollen production of plants - The differences between survival - Difference in transportability and spread - Secondary flowed material Influencing factors - Different pollen production: - application of species correction factors - You have to look more emphatically - Those with lower pollen production: larch, maple, linden, beech - Climate indicators: grapes, honeysuckle - Grape: its pollen is fragment, smells good, so the bees bring it ot the hives - Aquatic plants - Plants with high pollen production: scots, pine, alder, birch, hazel - They have a medium pollen production: spruce, fir - Different persistence - Resistance to: hornbeam, Scots pine, spruce - Less resistant: larch, juniper, poplar, ash, maple - so-called selective fossilisation: more resistant ones are preserved better. - Transportability and spread: - Good: mainly for wind-pollinated plants (birch, alder) - E.g. pine pollen with flying bags - These up to 1000km - Secondary flowed material - Currents, waves -- accumulation - A blurring of different ages - Older people have worse retention, but if the time difference isn't big, it doesn't show - Dating promblems - C14 -- absolute dating - But: vegetation follows climate changes with a time difference -- it can be fast or slow - Layer thickness -- time scale ratio is not always the same Changes in paleo vegetation due to Anthro genetic effect - West Transdanubia, Alpokalja, Orseg: Lenti basin - Austrian- Slovenian-Hungarian archaeological project for the investigation of small bogs and lakes - Purpose: to demonstrate the Atlantic phase (5000 years BP) and human activity in the Bronze age - Here is the results: the detection of the younger stage of the Holocene, the 2^nd^ half of the sub-Atlantic - Boreholes: Szentgyorgy-walley, Resznek, Cseztreg, Lenti, Szentgotthard-Farkasfa, \\lake Fekete, Szoce - Supported by C14 investigations - A negatice result for the bronze age - the Alpokalja may have ben an area of destruction - Or: there was no permanent river or lake cover. - The most complete picture of the history of development: Szoce moss bog - The bogs were formed from 700 years BP - Quick changement - Szoce moss bog: - River water, floodplain water coverage - And later an undrained meadow - Human influence walnut - Later: Moss bog (Sphagum) - Here 2 important changement: - 1\) tempreture decreased and human impact - The thinning of deciduous forests, the rise of herbaceous plants - Temperature change: Scots pin, moss bog (ferns) - 2\) decrease in precipitation: pedunculate oak, birch + drought tolerant underplants - Farming is more intensive -- lots of weeds - Shrinkage of bogs - Tapolca pool - The 16-17^th^ centuries it was in the Balaton side bay - Formation of a large, thick (2-7m) layer of peat - The layer sequence of the Badacsonytordemic drilling: - 1\. BP 13000 (Dryas II.) Beginning of Upper Pleistocene: still arid. Beginning of water coverage: at the end of the Pleistocene. - In the beginning it is a shallow, swampy area - frog mace, frog lens - 2\. BP 12000 (Allerod): late glacial warning, increase in precipitation - water coverage increases - pelagic seaweeds - 3\. BP 11000: late glacial cooling, decrease in precipitation - Impoverishment of aquatic vegetation - 4\. BP 10000: beginning of Holocene: dried out - 5\. BP 9000: boreal: new water cover - Neutral or weakly acidic peat - March fern - 6\. Middle Subboreal: - Pelagic seaweeds - Human activity: large plantain - Copper and bronze age es bronzkor: lots of grain pollen - Iron age: high water level -- no pollen - A part of Lake Balaton - Shallow lake drillings: 8-10m - the beginning and development history of the water coverage of the 4 sub-basin differ - Keszthely, Szigliget, Szemes, Siofok basin - Lower Pleistocene: swamp/fluvial environment - Late Glacial: 1. Keszthely (BP 15000), later Szigliget-Szemes and later Siofok basin fied with water - Total: 5000 years difference - Shallow water quality - Occasionally drying bogs - Beginning of Holocene: deepening - Subboreal beginning (BP 5100): uniform open water surface - Early sub-Atlantic (ca. BP 2500): greatest depth - The appearance of taxon, suggestive of agriculture: - In general: - Subboreal (BP 5100-tol): walnuts, then rye and wheat - Subatlantic: grape, corn - Keszthely basin - Earliest investigations - Rye, walnuts, weeds (larve, sorrel), later wheat - Around BP 700: forest pine plantation. - Szigliget basin: - BP 2500: walnut and rye - After that, lots of weds -- a lot of tillage - A species of diatom that likes polluted waters (Synedra ulna -- appears with the soil m - Chestnuts, lots of nuts - Reduction of wheat, walnut plantations + forests - Szenes basin: - Beginning of subatlantic: Walnut + undergrowth of deforestation - Rye, wheat, later corn, weeds - Initial ratio: 92% mixed deciduous forest, 0.5% grain - Later: 67/1.26%, 84/1.39%, 72/17.24% - Pine forests and decidupus forests became rare, from BP 700: decline of the pine forest - warmer tempreture - grapes - Siofok basin - BP 2500: next to walnuts, flax, the thinning of pines - Sub-Atlantic 2^nd^ half : weeds, animal husbandry - From BP 700: undergrowth of deforestation - Later: planting conifers - South Transdanubia, Kovacsszenaja stone cabin: - The investigation was requested by: the Komloi museum, palynologist: Wlvira Nagyne Bodor, 2001 - Subboreal and subatlantci layers (9000-7000 and 5000-2500 years BP) - Despite the hazel dominance, it is not boreal - A mocsar visszahuzodasa - A lot of charcoal remains - There is no elm - No beech higher groundwater level - 1\. Subboreal: human settlement: - Fishing-hunting, animal husbandry (plants that indicate trampling) - Forest fires -ash + soil erosion - Geography: in more remote areas - Here: high mountain conditions in the lake: algae -- destruction indicates soil erosion. - 2\. Colder tempreture: 3000 years - Intensive burning - Trampling weeds disappear - Intensive farming -wormwood - 3\. Warmer tempreture: 2500 years - Climate indicator honeysuckle - 4\. Cooler, wtter weather: sub-atlantic phase - There is little deciduous forest - Lots of charcoal -human impact - There is no more charcoal in the uppermost part of the layer - Coniferous forest: planting or temperature reduction Archaeological palynology = Archaeopalynology - Sampling at an archaeological site: - Pit: probably secondary material - Tiled floor of the house, walking leve: T - Hn sampling is required - Well: it is most promising of it is buried naturally - Grave : examination of flower appendage - Head/chest area - Food: honey - Perfume vial, scented oil - 3 methods of sampling - Pre-exploration Drilling - Sampling from the cutting wall of the well - During continuous exploration - Important: it should be free of turbulence and compaction - Record the plants that are currently blooming there - Control pollen precipitation sample: - A microscope slide in a 10cm diameter Petri dish - Apply Vaseline - Put it out in a place exposed to air movement - As long as sampling is in progress - Then close it - Rather, sampling from multiple locations - A large amount of soil sample is required (at least the size of a matchbox, but preferably half a kg) - After all: these soils are generally poor in pollen - Lets take a sampe not only the phenomenon, but also below and above it - Sampling: - Every 5-10cm, but from every layer - Film box pressed horizontally into the profile - It can be closed immediately after pulling out - Ait-tight packaging, in a double bag - Pollen graph: - From juxtaposing multiple graphs - Vertical axis: depth and chronological data - Horizontal axis: pollen of specific plants in percentage Diatom investigations - Changes in the water depth of lake Balaton can be detected on the basis of the diatom flora - Examination of Krisztina Rokob, university of West hungary -- EMK, Sopron Age of Lake Balaton - 10.000.000 -- 2.000.000 - J. Aczel (1889) a remnany of aMiocene loess sea - Lajos Loczy (1913, 1920) lower Pleistocene - 300.000 - Jeno Cholnoky (1918, 1938) 300.000 years - 150.000 - Andor Kez, Bela Bulla (1943) investigations on Zala terraces 150 thousand years, Riss-Wurm interglacial - 20,000 - Balint Zolyomi (1952,1985) -- pollen stratigraphic studies, 21 boreholes - After Wurm III. maximum 15-20 thousand years - 15000 - M. Mihaltzne Farago (1982) -- from Dryas I. 15 thousand years BC - 10,000 - Nagy Laszlone (1986) -- palynologic investigation. 8 boreholes 10 thousand years BC The latest research results on the creation of the lake 89/ 5000 State Institute of Geology, 1981-86, 1990-95 - 33 (deepened into Quaternary layers) 10-12. Deep bed drilling layer row: - Sedimentological - Mineralogical - Organic, inorganic, geochemistry - Isotope-geochem - Paleontological (pollen, Mollusca, Ostracoda, diatoms) The origin of lake balaton - Pleistocene A map of the ocean Description automatically generated  - Holocene A map of the country Description automatically generated  The latest 5000 years - Significant water level fluctuations (precipitation, temperature changes) - Water level 104.5 m and 112.5 m AF between (8m fluctuation) - The water surface could have been at most twice as large as the current one (water depth of 6-7 m) Changes in the water level of Lake Balaton in the last 2800 years (Bendefy 1965) - Artificial interventions - Romans (III. sz.) -- Galerius -flood gate 104,5 m A.f - Tatars (1242) -- 112-113 m A.f - Ottomans (XVI. Century) -- 112-113 - Drainage from the 1760s - 1863 -- Siofok flood gate -- Siofok water level "0" = 102,74 m A.f - Today -- 104, 84 m A.f (general deepness: 3,35 m ) Methods of historical reconstruction of the lake - Historical data, sources - Geochemistry, isotope-geochemistry: Ca/Mg ratio, stable isotope - Paleontology: - Palynology - Pollen of terrestrial (coastal) woody and herbaceous plants age classification, climate change - Pollen, spores of aquatic vegetation water overage - Diatom residues water coverage, water quality - Mollusca (Mollusca) and crustaceans (Ostracoda) water depth, water quality change The diatoms - Unicellular algae, Tribe Heterokontophyta, class Bacillariophyceae - They are common and widespread in both seas and fresh waters - Their pigments: a -- and c- chlorophyll, a- and B-carotene, the yellowish-brown xanthophylls (fucoxanthin, neofucoxanthin, diatoxanthin, diadinoxanthin), lots of brown fucoxanthin yellowish-brown color - Cell wall: silica with different degrees of hydration Two-part diatom: epitheca. Hypotheca The importance of diatoms in the research of lake history - The silicon skeleton is well-preserved in the lake sediment. - The skeletons of the species found in the sediment indicate changes in the aquatic environment ( pH, salinity, water temperature, water depth, productivity). Plankton  Bentos  Coating diatoms A close-up of a microscopic view of a plant Description automatically generated The method of work - Investigation of diatoms (diatomas) in the sediment core of borehole To-28 located in the middle of the Siofok sub-basin To-28 as furas  - Centre if Siofok sub-basin - Water depth: 4,40 m - Drilling depth: 11,55m - Time of drilling : 12-17 09.1989 Examination and extraction of diatoms from the sediment 1. Cleaning and breaking the material of sample approx.. into 0.5-1cm pieces 2. Dissolving the binding material of the rock (hydrochloric acid) 3. Destruction of organic material (sulfuric acid) 4. Preparation of preparation - Dripping onto a slide, drying, embedding in hyrax reason (2,3,4) the preparations were made as 5cm Examination of the preparations - Differential interference contrast (DIC) - Microscope (Olympus BX-2) - 1000x magnification (100x immersion objective) - Photo documentation (digital camera) - Race level determination: - K.Krammer, H. Lange-Bertalot: Susswasserflora von Mitteleuropa (1970-1999) Examination of the To-28 borehole - Diatom examination every 10cm, up to a depth of 3.36 m (29 preparation in total) - Determining the frequency of species - Grouping species according to lifestyle and determining their proportion according to depth Counting diatom shells in the preparations - After registering 400 shells, the results were acceptable, because after that few new species appear Changes in the number of species according to depth in Lake 28 - 0,00-0,15m -- rich flora - 0,20-0,35 m -- a few species, broken shells, kust the small species are intact - 0,90-1,25m -- small number of species - 1,2501,85m -- larger number of species and individuals, good condition - 2,05-2,10m -- barren - 2,10-2,50m -- empty area, no remains - 2,60-2,63 m -- the appearance of the first diatom Often broken diatom skeletons, poor preservation condition water movement, underwater currents, washouts The most massive species - Fragilaria pinnata E. (sediment)  - Fragilaria brevistriata Grun. (sediment) A close up of a metal object Description automatically generated - Aulacoseira granulata (E.) Sim. (planktonic)  - Fragilaria construens (E.) Grun. F. venter (E.) Grun. (sediment) A close up of a white object Description automatically generated - Amphora pediculus (Kutz.) Grun. (sediment)  - Navicular subminuscula Manguin (sediment) A close up of a logo Description automatically generated - Cocconeis neothumensis Krammer (coating resident)  - Fragilaria leptostauron (E.) Hust. Var. martyi (Heribaud) Lange -- Bert. (sediment) Garden reconstructions: secular and ecclesiastical gardens from the Renaissance and modern times - The garden ideas - Knowledge about the garden - Which were decisively integrated into the organic worldview of the Middle Ages Christina and Islamic garden isea - The eason foe their formation are the same - The early Mediterranean and ancient nature knowledge garden interpretations of the Bible (and the Koran) - With symbolic meaning they jointly contributed to the development of the vitalist worldview of the European Renaissance - Not many garden types - They separate later e.g. from the monastery gardens to the medical gardens - Medieval gardens - Roman empire: civilization, plant cult - The gardens of the monasteries from the attacks of the barbarians - The extravagantly rich flower cult of antiquity was not completely lock in the wake of the barbarian attack - The VI. From the 19^th^ century, the work of converting the northern barbarians began - Bith in wuropw and Asia. Here the Christians, there the Buddhist proselytes brought the new faith and thus the plant cult to the north Hungarians - The garden is also one of our words that Hungarians already know and used in Levedua - The only question is in what sense: a place protected only by a fence Istvan Gyorffy: in the beginning, where the cattle were herded - At that time, monastic garden culture was already flourishing in the West - But: they could have been fruit trees early on: Apple, pear - It took a long time until from this ancient garden, still completely preserved as a legacy of the animal cult - Home garden on the lank of the Danube-Tisza - Then it could have been a flower garden among the wealthy - And the initiator and controller of this development for centuries was the monastery garden - Hungarians did not get to know all garden plants in the Danube-Tisza region - Onion and horseradish were already known and used in the far east due to the Turkish kinship of these words - But this is not proof that it was grown in a garden - Not even that he grew it all, because he could easily pick it in nature - This can be said even more for salad plants in Levedia, he must have also acquired prices commercially attested by pepper - Which is also an old word of Turkish origin - However, cooking vegetables, spices and herbs could not have played much of a ole in the life of Hungarians in the East - Everything grew in importance only in the land of the Danube-Tisza - settlement = new life - A few of our Slavic words prove that it was here that the Hungarians came to the monastery garden plants for the first time through the Slavic mediation: - Bunch, varadics, beans, cabbage - Monastery garden plants - At first and for a long time, the first Hungarian gardeners cam from among the conquered Slavs - Lack of written sources - Unfortunaly, so far in Hungary, we have not been able to find a single record of the former monastery gardens in our medieval literature - Although of course, gardens were planted in Hungarian monasteries just like elsewhere in the west and south - The life of medieval monks is "international" - the flora of the gardens of the Benedictines in hungary did not differ frm the vegetation of the average monastery garden - And this, from the monastery garden data researched in the west, we can rightly conclude what the Hungarian monastery gardens were like - And we can also determine what their influence was on the Hungarian garden and the Hungarian cult of plants and flowers - The monastery garden was originally a legacy of imperial rome - Its horizontal system and plants are identical to the ancient peasant gardens of Italy - Works of Roman horticultural writers, for example Columellas - The ornamental gardens of the rich, the vila gardens of the emperors and the powerful were destroyed almost without a trace in the floods of migration - But the Roman peasant garden found a place in the lives of the inhabitants of the monasteries - List of plants in the monastery gardens: - It is most widelt preserved by the royal devree, which the VIII. At the end of the 19^th^ century, somewhere in the west, some Carolingian king issued him as a leader for the administration of his estates. - It was once believed to be Carolus Magnus, but today it seems much more likely that Lajos Jambor is the owner - A royal decree known as Capitulare de villis from its opening words - Dated around 795 - The area to which he gives instruction is the south of France, probably Aquitania - But after a few years it was copied and became known in Germany through the copy - But: the apparently great influence of the Capitulare on the entire European garden culture is not primarily explained by the royal order. - The flora of the lists of garden plants that became known from the middle ages -- even from much later years -- is without exception parallel to the list of plants in the Capitulare - It also had the force of a royal decree in Germany - some learned Benedictine formulated it - In this list they tried to explain the occurrence of plants that cannot be kept outdoors in the Central European clmate by saying that the monks kept them in the greenhouses. - Names such as laurel tree, pinia also accur the Capitulare is designed for the Mediterranean landscape - There are plants unknown to the Romans (Arabic names) - The Capitulare probably did not reach Hungary, not even in copy - But , the Benedictines also appeared here and they could have the same role iin the organization of the country - We find plants names sporadically in many of our medieval documents - The names of trees that played a big role in establishing the borders - But such a medieval text, in which monastery garden plants are mentioned in greater numbers, can only be read in the Pray codex, famous for its first Hungarian language text - This is the XII. And XIII. made at the turn of the century. Among other things, our codex keeps a calendar for those times - And in its calendar section, each month is accompanied by a health rule - Which prescribes what vein cutting is recommended and when it is not - When to take a cold and when to take a warm bath - In which month, what food to eat and what teas to drink , how to keep the stomach in order - These rules: the simple life of the Benedictines had prescribed health rules - Later the people started to use also - These rules shed light on why the medicinal plants and so called herbs that were kept in the gardens of every monastery were needed in the monastery gardens - And why over time these herbs ended up in the gardens of the nobles and the common people - When garden culture took root in castles and villages. - In the sanitary rules of the Pray codex we find names of 27 plants: - Gingiber - Reu\[onticum - Agrimonia - Radix - Ruta - Levesticum - Vetonica - Bibinella - Absincium - Funiculum - Lactuca (salad) - Sinape - Salvia - Savina - Apium - Uve (grape) - Caulis (cabbage) - Malva - Pulegium - Clara - Costum - Mastix - Piper (pepper) - Gariofilum - Cinnamonum (cinnamon) - Gysopus - Satureia - Regarding the pkants of Hungarian monasteries from later times, our most important sources are the XV century glossary - 1\. Glossary form the beginning of the century from Schlagl - It was found in the Premontre monastery of the Upper Astrian village of Schlagl - Istavan Szamota published it in 1894 - 2\. Glossary from Beszferce - It is preserved in the archives of the county of Besztercenasod - It was prinited by Hendrik Finaly - These lists are revisions of a Latin-German dictionary of Bevarian- Austrian origin into Latin-Hungarian - Both served as textbooks for teaching Latin at schoo, - Together, the two glossaries contain about 200 plant names - The plants - Monastery garden plants can classified into four groups - At the beginning of the Capitulare we find the flowers of the Middle Ages - At the end, we read the names of the fruit trees - It is easy to pick out vegetables an hebs from the others - The rest are the herbs, from which the herb garden was called the herbarium in the monastery - The so called Herba - Today, the memory of the medieval name herba is best preserved by herb tea - the explanation for this is closely related to the foundations of the medieval flower cult - Herbs especially in the Middle Ages were full of strong-smelling plants - At that time, the scent was the most important indicator of the healing properities and power of the plant - The ancient stock of herbs in the monastery garden are the most strongly scented Mediterranean plants - Medieval man, in his simple-mindedness examined the plant with his nose, as he examined the earth with his tongue - The medieval herb cult is one of the first steps to the flower cult - There was no lack of herbs in the gardens of gentlemen until recently - In the later centuries of the Middle Ages, in the age of chivalry, we see these strong-smelling plants again in castle gardens - Although here they were already separated from the more decorative flowers and had to hide in the background - But in botanical literature, they play the main role not only in the Middle Ages, but also during the Renaissance - The Baroque Age: - The herbs have already entered the second part, the one about the vegetable garden - But they did not disappear without a trace in the barque ornamental gardens either - E.g. rosemary, scarlet sage, marjoram - Monastery gardens and peasant gardens - European peasant gardens are the direct continuation of medieval monastery gardens - \- Anton Kertner, an Austrian botanist who also played a notable role in the history of botany in Hungary, drew attention as early as 1855 - Distributions of begging monks - They were also planted on the graves - Atb the same time: - The ancestor of the manor gardens, the knightly castle garden was in most cases under the direct or at least indirect supervision of monks - It is natural that it is a continuation of the monastery garden - In the Middle Ages it barely grew with a few plants - Plants in medieval cemeteries - Monastery garden herbs can be found in all village cemeteries in Hungary, where the cult of flowers has entered cemeteries - But: in many places, even today, they are considered orchards and mowing fields, especially the old cemetery - This is a medieval tradition - Sanct Gallen Abbey dates back to the IX. It preserves a monastery plan from the first quarter of the 20^th^ century , probably made for a southern landscape, which places the graves in the orchard - The Middle Ages did not yet know the cult of flowers in cemeteries - The Renaissance gardens - The citizens of the city looked at lide on earth differently than the people of the Middle Ages - The more affluent also had country villas and estates in addition to their city palaces and houses - In this they also tried to resemble the inhabitants of ancient Rome - The gardens: cheerful atmosphere - Their essential accessories are pergolas: plants planted in decorative pots - The roads are lined with evergreens - Bird cages - A variety of water surfaces - Most of the garden elements were also found in antiquity - But: Renaissance garden organization is different in some fundamental ways - Garden and house, for example, firm a much closer unit - The former, as it wer , usher the person into the house so it had to be planned together - Later on it was also of great importance that one person, if possible designed the garden and the villa - The garden and building built on a common main axis - Spectacular bonds between them - The formal elements on the façade were often repeated in the garden, projected onto a horizontal plane. - The garden, like the façade, is a surface - The roads are its artistic divisions and decorations - Their non-functional role is the most important - The roads have become impassably narrow countless times - Thereby showing their primary aesthetic role villa d\'este - The shape of the garden and the planted plants both played a key role in the common axis of the garden and the house - The axis guides the eyes - Which usually rests on a statue, a highlighted flower, or perhaps a fountain - The garden was surrounded by walls and demarcated - At the very end of the shafts is a wall niche - There may be a latticed viewing window - Sometimes with a small statue - Usually with water and a bubbler - They loved the sculptures anyway - Already in the renaissance, gardens that are actually sculpture parks are forms - Areas further from the main axis are less prominent- that's where the crops go - Fruit trees - Vegetable gardens - Grape arbors - In the early renaissance, there are more fruit and vegetable gardens, they are clearly visible and the ornamental garden is still small - Later, especially in the gardens of wealthy garden owners, this ratio reverses: - The ornamental garden is getting bigger and bigger - And they are trying to hide the smaller and smaller orchard. - Favorite plant: cypress, ivy, laurel, lemon tree, yew tree - They mainly chose plants that had a geometric shape from the start - Or they tolerated shearing and shaping well - To fit into the regular periods - The regularly mowed lawn surface and well-shaped boxwood hedges were the most common - Terraces, stairs - Great progress was made in landscaping during the Renaissance - In the Middle Ages, they tried to level the sirface of the garden, if it was possible to make the area either completely horizontal or slightly sloping - The terraced design was used exclusively in the cultivation of cops and in vegetable gardens - At he beginning of the Renaissance, a gently sloping surface was preferred - Where it was possible to reach the villa on a higher ground with a good view by a slightly uphill road - Later, however, they noticed and took advantage of the possible aesthetic benefits of terraced garden design - Although terraces were already used in ancient gardens, they could not form a close unity with the buildings , which was resolved in the Renaissance - Spectacular difference - That, in contrast to ancient gardens, in Renaissance horticulture - There was no attempt to hide the steps connecting the terraces on the contrary - It was used as decoration - The stairs are highlighted: - They became effective decorative elements the façade decorative elements of the villa - Building can be repeated on the supporting walls and stairs: columns, pillars, niches, statues - The terraced garden type was first used by the Renaissance architect Bramante in the garden of Belvedere Castle - We can only imagine based on the descriptions - Because it changed a lot during subsequent reconstructions - The garden of the Villa d'Este in Tivoli, next to Rome, Italy - The first really impressive garden that shows the characteristics of Renaissance gardens even today - Although it is not quire as it was when it was built - The villa was built in 1550 for Cardinal Ippolito d'Este. In addition to the relatively simple architectural forms of the building, the beautiful garden prevails even more. - The villa stands on the top of a mountain, with a steep slope in front of it, and below it lies the almost flat area with the huge garden - The mountain top and the flat area are connected by terraces surrounded by giant retaining walls - The largest road forming the main axis and the smaller roads divide the garden into square surfaces. - It shows the monumentality of the garden: - He had his own fountain master in the person of Tommaso da Siena, whose name is associated with the creation of water facilities in several Renaissance gardens - It is enriched by numerous fountains, water-curtained caved, waterfalls, water columns and a water organ- designed together with the building by an architect name Pirro Ligorio - The Renaissance, which started in Italy, did not remain an isolated phenomenon, it spread over time to the whole Europe: - In each country, it shows local characteristics in both architecture and garden architecture - What is also important : the Italian scale is exaggereated, everything is bigger than in Italy, especially the size of the terraces and surfaces of the garden - In France the embroidery character of the design of the indivisual garden parts -- parterres -- is fulfilled - They practically embroider with the planted plants: - Arches, bastions, columns and windows are cut from living plant material - It can be done mainly with boxwood - A magical Hungarian garden - On the south side of the Budavar Royal Palace, next to the so-called Italian Bastion or Rondella, a small, charming garden remains - Which still preserves the former Renaissance garden structure and its magical atmosphere - The small protected place surrounded by walls, with a small well and special plants. It takes you straight back to the age of Mathias Corvin, the builder - Who also played a significant role in the spread of Renaissance garden architecture in Hungary - Thanks to Mathias's humanist thinking, receptive to the arts, and his connections with Italy, Renaissance culture flourished early and strongly in the country - The garden of the Visegrad Palace - Gergely Buzas: the garden fountain of the royal palace in Visegrad - The aqueduct system of the Visegrad royal palace built in the time of King Sigismund and the numerous decorative fountains connected to it are a unique memorial complex - E are aware of a total of four decorative fountains from the Sigismund era - Erno Szakal reconstructed two of them: the ornamental courtyard and the wall on the eastern upper garden - A wall well was found on the street façade of the palace in 1972-1973 - The foundation of the fourth well was fund by Miklos Hejj in the garden, but the pieces of its ascending parts were completely scattered in the palace area. - The art historical importance of garden wells - Medieval free standing fountains can be divided into three main types - Wells with a pool, a bowl, or wells with both a pool and a bowl - These types are all of antique origin - Many Roman relics of the bowl wells have survived - These were usually small wells decorating gardens - The round well bowl stood on a column or baluster. Without a gargoyle, or with a gargoyle fountain statue - The XIII can be classified in this group - Medieval wells that have survived since the 18^th^ century are usually bays, rather they can be considered as basins - They were made with a bowl standing on a wide plinth - Such as the well of the Cistercian monastery in Heiligenkreutz or the Marktbrunnen in Goslar - Appeared during the Gothic period - On the central pillar rising above the bowl a turret or fiala placed above the gargoyle - One of the first known monuments of this form is the two-bowl bronze well of the Cistercian monastery in Malbrunn - This was placed in the well house of the corridor in 1878, originally it was in the open. Today's lower roof dates back to the 19^th^ century was made in the century. The well's round bowls are supported by columns - The spout pillars of the larger number of wells with pools that have survived show similar variations - This is the structure of the XIII-XVI. most Viterbo fountains from the 19^th^ century - The gargoyle heads placed on the pillar - The conicle gable rising above them - Presumably, it was made as a modifier version of this type of well from the Buda Castle, the well found together with the Sigismund-era sculpture find - The basin-flowering well type has several XV-XVI. century memory has survived - For example, the market square fountains of Freiburg, Urach, and we know countless depictions of them, among others as wells in gardens - There was also a version of this type of well where the fountain was replaced by a round, segmented pillar - Which held an orb or statue. During the Renaissance, this version completely supplanted fialing - The future of landscape architecture - Even today, many historic gardens are being destroyed by incompetent hands in the name of restoration - It is natural that in the case of a protected building the owner is obliged to renovate the monument, but in the case of gardens this is still far fro the case - But: the Faculty of Landscape Architecture of the Corvinus University has started a specialization in monument and garden architecture - It is not only the park of representative Baroque castles that is worth restoring - But also the original garden of a small village mansion can be rebuilt. Environmental history-climate history - Environmental history - A new inter- or multidisciplinary research area: the study of the relationship between the natural environment and human communities, societies and civilizations - = the ecological view of human history - Origin: not recent - big myths, e.g. the story of Noah - But : during the research of human history, historians of the modern age did not take it onto account until the last third of the 20^th^ century - The natural environment - Nor its changes - Historical ecology and climate history - Ecology: E.P Odums approach - Science dealing with the study of ecosystems - The ecosystem: "a unit includes all living organisms in a given space, which are in an interactive relationship with their physical environment, and material and energy flows. Between the living and non-living elements of the system" - However, there are significant differences between the practitioners of ecology - The concept of "living organisms" does a person include: - 1\. It represents a fundamentally different quality from other actors of evolution, and can only be interpreted as part of the ecosystem with strong constraints - The opinion of historical and human ecologists: wedge - Man is both the subject of history and the Earth's dominant biological species - Both qualities must be taken into account during ecosystem analysis. - Climate history is one of the youngest sciences - Its birth: - \- it was necessary to assume that the climate has changed significant between the time limits of human history (and not only in geological ages) and is still changing today. - According to Hubert H. Lambs, the term climate refers to the general weather conditions experienced in a given place during a given period of time - According to international conventions, that period is 30 years - The observations of which are already sufficient to determine the climate - If we compare the current conditions to the history of the Earth as a whole, we are living in a cold era - The poles are covered by ice caps on a geological scale - These areas were largely ice-free - If mans appearance and history define the horizon for us, then we live in a warm era - Considering the 2-2.5 million years of prehistory and history, the last Wurm ice age ended only 15-12,000 years ago - After that the geographical image of the earth was transformed at an amazing speed: - Sea level rising by nearly 100m due to the melting of the ice sheet - \- it cut off preciously frequently used land routes - E.g. the Bering Strait in the place of the emerging North Sea, there were migration routes leading to the island of Iceland and Britian - The last continental ice sheet melted 6-7,000 years ago - Climatic historical periods in the Carpathian Basin and Europe - For the interpretation and analysis of the climatic changes affecting the Carpathian Basin region the Middle Ages and the Modern Age - The events of the million -year or millennia time scale are of little use - From this point of view, the analysis of centuries old climare changes is of primary importance - It is asvisable to narrow it down to the last two millennia of human history, in the last two thousand years - Result: we have data on 4 climatic environmental changes - They influenced the medieval and modern history of the Carpathian Basin. - Period of the Roman optimum climate - The first clearly identifiable climate-historical period, the \"period of the Roman optimum climate\" = climatic optimum - It began in the middle of the 1st century BC - It lasted throughout the 4th century AD - The \"cooling down of the age of migrations\" - Between the 4. és a 9. centuries - The \"medieval climatic optimum\" - From the 9th century - Till the beginning of the 14th century - The „Small Ice Age" - until the end of the 19th century. - the current warming began in the 1880s - The climate in Pannonia was very mild during these centuries - \- Dendrological reconstruction of András Grynaeus - \- on the Iron Gate section of the Danube by Emperor Trajan AD. Roman stone bridge built between 101 and 106 - It was in use for 170 years - Such a structure, resting on the river bed and narrowing it, can only remain intact if the Danube does not freeze over, or only very rarely. - The warm period was accompanied by rising sea levels in Europe - the water level rise almost reached one meter in the Mediterranean region by the end of the imperial period. - Weather diary of Claudius Ptolemaios: Rain fell in Alexandria in every month except August - Viticulture/Grape production: - During the imperial period, the northward expansion of grain culture continued. - Although Emperor Domitian - At the end of the 1st century AD, he banned grape production north of the Alps - but this decree was issued by Probus. He withdrew it around 280 AD. - The Romans spread viticulture in the British Isles and Germanic territories - and this agricultural innovation was helped by favorable climatic and environmental conditions. - \- Britain became self-sufficient around 300 AD as a result of the successful planting of grapes - And after that, no more wine was imported from the continent - The cooling of the age of migration - Cool and dry Drought Peak 1: - In Central and Central Asia and the steppe region of Eastern Europe - The remains of the ports that were later flooded indicate: - that the water level of the Caspian Sea around that time was lower than it is today - Which suggests that little precipitation fell in the Volga watershed as well - Rivers and lakes in Central and Central Asia have dried up, and the carrying capacity of the area has radically decreased - problems the silk road, which has been operating for about 400 years, has also declined. - drought is a constant and very serious threat - In the 8th century, a catastrophic drought became permanent in the Carpathian basin - presumably contributed to the downfall of the Avar Empire. - The blow primarily hit the \"true Avars\", the warrior class, - And it may have affected the partly semi-nomadic, partly settled part of the people, - the Gepids and Bulgarian-Turks living together with the Avars in the Carpathian lowlands. - Because they could keep their pigs on acorns next to the beech and oak forests at the foothills - They could grow rye with their plows that scratched the clearings here - They could keep bees and fish - This may be the reason why the early Slavic toponyms of the Carpathian basin are limited to forested and watery regions suitable for this way of life - Then: according to Greenland oxygen isotope studies: - Warming occurred in Greenland as early as the beginning of the 7th century - Then, with significant fluctuations, it lasted until the end of the 12th century. - The medieval climatic optimum - The islands of the Atlantic Ocean, 1920s, hypothesis of Danish archaeologists: - Dated to the end of the first millennium, a period with a very mild climate - Between 900 and 1300 - Base: early medieval Viking colonization of the North Atlantic islands (Orkney, Shetland, Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland) - The Norman inundation of the European coast began after the Danish attacks on the British Isles in the 790s - The first Norman settlements in Iceland were established in the 870s - Ottar reached the White Sea around 870-880. - Harald Hardrade, King of England and Norway in it reached Spitsbergen in the middle of the 11th century. - Norman colonization of the North Atlantic - The most surprising enterprises: the Icelandic Normans: - Red Erik probably took possession of the southern part of Greenland in 985, establishing two settlements, the Eastern and Western settlements. - His son, Leif Eriksen, or Lucky Leif, landed in North America around 1000 - Leif probably ended up first at L\'anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland - from where he sailed on to explore new lands - He went to Helluland and Markland - These two names probably mean Baffin Island and Labrador. - In the sources, the name \"Vinland\" is mentioned as the third area. - The location of this has caused many headaches for researchers. The name means \"land of wine\". - \- In the so called saga literature: - Vinland was an area where wild grapes suitable for making wild rye and wine were found - And the climate was so mild that the domestic animals did not need to build stables for the winter - Assumption: it could have been in today\'s New England, New Brunswick, or even New York. - Since no trees were found at all on the \"Green Island\", the Vikings also obtained the wood needed for building houses and ships from the temporary settlements in Vinland. - The medieval climatic optimum - Oxygen isotope studies of the Greenland ice sheet - Viking conquest of the North Atlantic was not possible - as the Norman shipping route along 65 degrees north latitude became permanently ice-free as a result of warming - and strong storms were rarer. - Warming in Greenland in the VII. from the 12th century with more or less interruptions to the 12th lasted until the century - After the fall of the Roman Empire: the center of gravity of European civilization shifted to the north-western part of the continent. - The Mediterranean basin was lost to Western Christianity for a long time - At the same time: new coastal areas (Baltic Sea, North Sea and Irish Sea) - integrated into the circulation of the European economy - \- partly thanks to the favorable climate - Thus, regions such as the Low Countries or the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, where there were no Roman antecedents, became the civilization zones of medieval Europe - Agriculture expanded far to the North: - The Normans in Iceland in the 11th century. century, grain cultivation was introduced. - On the western coast of the Scandinavian peninsula, according to archaeological findings, the climatic limit of barley cultivation was stretched around 70 degrees. - In order to support the growing population in the interior and northern areas of the continent, new agricultural methods adapted to the ecological conditions were developed. - At the same time: the climate in the Mediterranean and Caspian Sea regions was much wetter than today. - The water of the Caspian Sea was 8 meters higher than its current level. - Not one of today\'s small rivers in Sicily became navigable during the \"medieval optimum\". - The process by which European agriculture became able to cultivate the interior of the continent was called by George Duby the \"medieval agricultural revolution\". - The most important new tool: - heavy plow, suitable for breaking up compacted forest and soils under the influence of water - he period of optimal climate in the Middle Ages created a suitable basis for the expansion of European, including Hungarian agriculture. - Calculations by Paul Bairoch: - During the medieval agricultural revolution in the XI. and the XIII. century, the performance capacity of European agriculture doubled - Which was followed by a rapid increase in population - In Scandinavia, the warm period lasted from 971 to 1100. - In Central Europe until the 13th century, with mostly dry summers. - On a century scale, the frequency of extremely cold winters in Europe has also decreased. - From the 9th century, four extraordinary winters are known from the Swiss Alps. - During the medieval climatic optimum, we are aware of only one extremely cold winter per century. - And between 1235 and 1303 we do not know of any particularly cold winter. - From the beginning of the 14th century to the end of the 19th century, strict winters became much more common. no less than 7 extremely cold winters were recorded in the 14th century - During the medieval climatic optimum, the winter weather proved to be little variable in the long term. - At the same time, in terms of the average temperature of the winter, there were both warmer and colder phases, but the fluctuations were roughly in the same range as the average of the reference period of the 20th century (1901--60). - An early cold period can be identified between 1060 and 1085. - Another is more moderately cold between 1115 and 1180 - there was a more volatile period between 1115 and 1126. - Warm periods: 1086 to 1114, 1180 to 1205, 1236 to 1255, and 1280 to 1302 - The sources containing climate and environmental history information in Hungary are insufficient to reconstruct the weather of the climatic optimum in the Middle Ages. - But: Andrea Kiss\'s research - some data that can be included in the framework of European climate-historical reconstruction. - In 1074, King Solomon led his army across the frozen Tisza to the Battle of Kemej. - We know the exact time of the battle (February 26), so we can make the crossing for the days before the battle. - According to contemporary sources, the winter of the same year was very cold in Lower Saxony, Westphalia, Franconia and Hesse - According to Byzantine sources, the year 1125/26 was very cold in the southern areas of Hungary - Similarly, the winter was harsh in Bohemia and Moravia this winter. - The freezing of the lower section of the Danube in the winter of 1146/47 was an extraordinary event, Princess Anna Komnena also mentions it in her notes on the Second Crusade. - In the winter of 1241--42, the line of the Danube could be defended against the Tatars for a while - who in the fall of 1241 destroyed only the areas east of the Danube. - But due to the strengthening of the cold weather, the Danube froze over, and thus the defense line became untenable. - The climate of the 13th century may have been relatively dry in the Carpathian Basin. - In Szécsény in the Uplands, a parish church was built at the beginning of the 14th century over a well that was still in use in the 13th century - During the burial of the well, its internal wooden structure was dismantled down to the level of the water. - The ground water level that can be reconstructed in this way is approx. it was two meters lower than the 8th century level. - Climatic characteristics of the little ice age during the Late Middle ages - Turn of 13th and 14th centuries: one of the most important climate-historical era boundaries in European history - = around the time the medieval optimum climate ended and the \"little ice age\" began. - Following F. Matthes, the concept is used in a double sense: - 14-19 age of glacial advances between the 2nd and 3rd centuries - and the climate of this period - Its beginning: multiple views - According to Christian Pfister, at the beginning of the 14th century - 1560s by Raymond S. Bradley, after Hubert H. Lamb - The deterioration of the climate was first reported by the Norman settlers of Greenland around 1197-1203 - Viking records: sea ice increasingly blocked the route to Iceland and Europe around this time. - According to a Norwegian king\'s mirror, the so called \"Konungs skuggsja\" written around 1250: - In the North Atlantic areas, the sea froze more and more frequently at the beginning of the 13th century. - Due to the deterioration of the climate, the Greenlandic Normans traveled large areas in search of food. - during their hunting trips, the Vikings reached Baffin Bay - They came into contact with the Eskimos who were expanding to the south. - \- The decrease in hunting prey in the north forced the Eskimos to the south as well, who started trading and warring with the Norman settlers in Greenland in the first half of the 13th century - As a result of the general cooling of the North Atlantic region, at the end of the 14th century, all connections with Vinland were severed - The last record dates from 1347 Indirect data: - the archaeological excavation of the Herjolfsness cemetery in South Greenland - - From the 11th century to the end of the 15th century, the height of Norman men in Greenland decreased by 13 cm, from 177 cm to 164 cm. - -The change in height of the Icelandic population shows a similar trend, the Viking warriors of the 10th century were 173 cm tall on average, but by the 18th century the average height was only 167 cm - In 1492 VI. (Borgia) Pope Alexander wrote worriedly about the northern outposts of Christianity: *\"The church of Garda, which is located at the end of the Earth, in Greenland (\...), ships rarely reach this country, because very large areas are covered by ice (\...) neither bishop nor priest has been there for about eighty years.\"* - The sporadic European contacts of the Greenlandic settlements survived until the end of the 15th century - The clothes in the Herjolfsness cemetery continued - European fashion until around 1500. - However, around 1540, when a ship from Hamburg docked at the coast of Greenland, the sailors did not find any inhabited settlements on the island - Climate change has had particularly serious consequences on the southern coast of the North Sea - The frequency of storms and high tides increased greatly from the 13th century - These natural calamities were similar to the contemporary disasters in Bangladesh and China. - The four great floods of the 13th century are estimated to have claimed between 100 and 300,000 lives. - The most destructive sea tides occurred on the Dutch coast in the first half of the 15th century - The sea invasions of 1421 and 1446 together claimed more than 200,000 lives. - On November 1st and 2nd, 1570, the most serious sea invasion of historical times devastated the southern coast of the North Sea from France to the northwestern German territories, and based on the records of the time, the number of victims is estimated at 400,000 - Population of Europe - Estimates are 75-85 million - By the beginning of the 14th century, it reached the upper limit of the supporting capacity of contemporary agriculture. - It was aggravated by the strong cooling that started at the beginning of the 14th century, à the living space of the European population became significantly smaller. - Depopulated: - The northern agricultural areas - mountainous agricultural landscapes - 1\. Crisis: between 1313 and 1321: the entire growing season was cool and rainy. - As a result of all this: terrible famines - But: they did not affect the different regions of Europe at the same time and not equally: the effects were first in the north, east and in the area of ​​the Alps - The period between 1310 and 1347 was particularly wet in Western Europe - in the mountains of continental Europe, the upper tree line was 100--200 m lower. - We can separate out two periods that were associated with very unfavorable conditions in most of Europe: - Between 1310 and 1319 (especially 1313 -- 1317), the winters were unusually harsh, and the summers were very wet and cool. - The year 1315 proved to be the most catastrophic during the cooling period (which had its effect until 1321). - Cold winter in the Mediterranean at the beginning of the 14th century, then unusually mild winter between 1310 and 1330 - After that, in the 1320s and 30s, dry and hot summers dominated again in Western and Central Europe (especially in 1331, 1333 and 1336). - However, the winters of the period from 1300 to 1330 were unusually cold throughout - In \"Nonarium Inquisitiones\": in England, until the beginning of the 1340s, the lands around many villages remained uncultivated - Population decline partly caused by famine - Partly the depletion of the land - Partly due to the destruction of grazing animals. - Between 1348 and 1350, this malnourished European population was hit by the first wave of plague of inner Asian origin. - In the 2nd half of the 14th century, the **plague**, which returned several times, **destroyed about a third** of the European population. - Between 1342 and 1347 (especially 1342, 1345, 1346 and 1347) summers became wetter and wetter again. - Around 1342, due to the large-scale advance of the sea ice, the sea trade route between Iceland and Greenland moved much further south. - The weather of the years 1345, 1346 and 1347 could also be a consequence of the fact that when the plague reached Europe in 1348, it found a rather weakened and starving population, - as a result of which it was able to cause enormous destruction. - In Western Europe, rainy summers were dominant in the 1340s and 1360s. In the climate of Western Europe in the 14--15 During the 20th century, a clear increase in the amount of precipitation and the frequency of floods can be observed - At the same time, 11 droughts/dry periods in East Europe! - East Europe: 32 long dry periods - -- still 11 dry periods per century - In addition, however, the Caspian Lake 13--14 century (about 4 m between 1250 and 1350) water level rise - the increase in precipitation in the Volga (which feeds the lake by about 81%) watershed - -Northward shift of western cyclones - -And with this the gradual drying of the southern steppe areas - The decrease in the average summer temperature: - In Ukraine already in the 13th century - In Western Russia in the 14th century - The period that followed became wetter and cooler until the end of the 16th century - The first signs of the Little Ice Age appeared in the 1390s in Czech lands - In the decades 1400--1410, they are already cold and very rainy - The situation was the same in the decades 1430--70. - In the 14th and 15th centuries, hot summers were the majority - The strengthening of the continental climatic character can be clearly traced during the 15th century in Central and Eastern Europe - Peak of harsh and snowy winters in the decades 1420--1450 in the Czech Republic - In Poland in the decades 1420--70 and in Russia in the period between 1440 and 1460. - According to Pfister, between 1300--1330 and 1405--1440, the winters in Central Europe were particularly cold - Hungary: Only sporadic data from the centuries of the late Middle Ages: - Increase in the frequency of floods - The extent of water spaces - Research results of György Györffy and Bálint Zólyomi: - 13--15. According to the documents of border descriptions and border renewals in the 19th century, the old border marks in the Great Plain could not be approached because of the waters. - At the same time: the widespread spread of water mills from the 13th century also on streams whose water was no longer sufficient to drive mills in the 20th century - Climatic changes in Central Europe during the early modern period (16^th^-17^th^ centuries) - The spread of literacy - a much more accurate picture - Changes in the climatic character of the seasons can already be detected - **[Winters: ]** - Similar to the 20th century reference period (1901--60) were the plots between 1520--1545 and 1602--1650 in Central Europe - The winters between 1687 and 1698 were memorably cold in Central Europe Winters in northwestern, central, and eastern Europe between 1675 and 1715 turned out to be generally dry and cold - In 1714, the series of cold winters ended in Hungary - **[Springs:]** - The temperature of the springs in the second third of the 16th century can be compared with the springs of the 20th century in the whole of Central Europe. - Extremely warm climate period - [Summers:] - In the 16th century, the summers can be divided into three sections of approximately equal length from the point of view of climate history - The middle third of the century includes two warm, dry summer periods (1534--1536, 1556--1559) and a cooler one (1541--1544) - Prominent anomaly: 1540, rivers dried up in Central Europe, extensive forest fires - The relationship between nature and society in the period of early and mature feudalism (XI -- early XVI centuries) Hungary - In the era, the role of farming and animal husbandry was decisive in landscape design - in addition to these, the importance of mining in the mountainous regions stands out - Agriculture: - The development of agriculture comes from several origins: - From the traditions of Hungarian steppe farming - From the production experiences of the Avar-Slavic population - In the second half of the era, it was enriched by plant cultures and technology introduced by foreign (Walloon, German and West Slavic) settlers: - In the 13th century, the Walloon settlers in Olaszliszka (Liszkamező) in Hegyalja first irrigated the fields from artificial canals in our country. - Different farming systems and forms of border use - The new order of land use in the Great Plain: - According to Glaser, the Great Plain landscape was divided into \"chambers\" with chernozem-like soil formed on free alluvial cones. - Between the \"chambers\" are marshes and fens located on the waterways of the river valleys. - \- Glaser\'s chambers (life chambers) became the main areas for settlement and farming, while the floodplains became the main areas for meadow and pasture farming and livestock breeding. - well complementing each other\'s production profile - Farming began in the high interior areas of the priceless plains - On the edge of the free levels - Around the winter quarters and then the permanent settlements - The floodplain settlements - The advantages of both landscapes were exploited - Connecting them - They quickly developed into market and fair places - The natural geographical conditions for farming were the most favorable on the loess plains of the lowlands and the wooded fields with chernozem soil. - (for example: Bánát, Bácska, Hajdúhát, Békés--Csanád louse, Mezőföld) - In the Arpadian Age, forests formed large patches of land in addition to the loess wastelands of the landscapes: - Birch-oak forests, loess oaks with Tatar maples - High oak forests, etc. - Thanks to the activities of the royal foresters, the level of forest cover even slightly increased compared to the level immediately before the conquest. - Areas of alluvial cone plains with quicksand soils - (between the Danube and Tisza, Nyírség, South Mezőföld, North Bácska, Deliblát, Inner Somogy) - And the alluvial cone surfaces at the edge of the basin: - (Pest plain, Cserhát, Mátra and Bükkalja, Harangod, etc.) in addition to farming, shepherding - Our hilly landscapes: - Mostly on brown forest soil The areas of plowed cultivation gradually developed - (Gödöllő hills, Szekszárd hills, Baranya hills). - The arable fields of the lowland and hilly landscapes: - mainly millet, wheat and rye - On the foothill sur