Define Health In Archeology PDF

August 30, 2024 **Define health in Archeology** -Discussion: a. words associated with health: lifestyle, lack of disease, nutrition, illness, habits, age b. How you would define health: The absence of disease. c. How would you measure health: blood test, quantity of physical activity...

August 30, 2024 **Define health in Archeology** -Discussion: a. words associated with health: lifestyle, lack of disease, nutrition, illness, habits, age b. How you would define health: The absence of disease. c. How would you measure health: blood test, quantity of physical activity, % of fat, functional capacities (for example walking up the stairs for example) d. Health continuum, binary? - "Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." WHO - How do we assess health in an archeological context? 1. What data do we have available? Age of death, bones, textual evidence 2. What tools can we use? A parasite , genomic evidence, bacteria , bone density, mineral deficiency in the bones, - Generally bio-archeologist look for evidence of illness, because we cant measure health. Interested in: 1. how people experiment health during specific life period (ex.:childhood),babies after weening. Is there a specific period where people can experiment poor health. 2. health in relation to social or environmental factors. Environmental toxicity, how does it impact their wellness. Social inequalities, is everyone in the community with the same level of health.How much assess to medicine, how much are they working, where they are living 3. potential cause of death. Everyone they observe are death. Skeleton indicators of health or lack of health. - Every data is interpretated, taking educated guess from the information available. Lots of variation in individual experience and hard to measure health related to that. - What is a potential archeological evidence of illness: evidence of medical intervention, bone growth indicative of cancer, parasitic infection, tooth loss - Discussion: 1. How do you define stress? Overwhelming amount of information, disruption of natural biological schedule, 2. Positive or negative connotation: both 3. How does it feel: hyperventilation, sweat, mental shootdown, worry, sensibility, sleep deprivation, irritability 4. How does it shape your behavior or lifestyle: avoid stressors which impact the experiences we have, adapt behavior to reduce stress (studying in advance), isolation (change of social behavior) - General stress response. 1. Stressors activates sympathetic nervous system (environmental, psychological, physiological) 2. Release stress hormones (cortisol, adrenaline, deviation from homeostasis "resting state") 3. Short term stress seen as adaptive response to overcome challenges 4. Long term, chronic stress understood as illness. Short term stress is body appropriate usage of stress (seeing a threat). Long term stress is exhausting for the body because using lots of energy, a lot of hormone. Stress can create illness bc it runs the body down, can make us sick. - Stress as a proxy of health Skeletal; evidence of biological disruption from stress response is one way to understand variations in health of past populations. Trying to look at when and how 1. Individual scales: inequalities within the society 2. Population scale: health disruption caused by social changes(ex.:warfare), environmental changes ( drought), cultural practices ( subsistence) - Image Une image contenant texte, Police, ligne, diagramme Description générée automatiquement Limited resource that may cause stress: money, water Cultural buffering system: we found way to adapt as a society to adapt to a stressor and minimize the way it disrupts our life and health. Social redistribution system so everyone can benefit for example. Reduced stressor for everyone. Individual factors that can amplify or buffer stress. Cultural factor can also amplify or buffer stressors. Body has certain way to react to stressors. Host resistance factors: age Feedback loop Health in biotechnology - understood as the absence of disease, indicators of stress= but this  conceptualization is problematic.          1) stress is a proxy to represent disruption of physiological homeostasis 2\) difficult to measure timing and duration 3)cannot be equated to individual perception of wellbeing that contribute to complete understanding of health What are problem with conceptualizing health as a absence of disease or stress in bioarcheology? **Reading** Thesis: This article advocates for the integration of methodological and theoretical advances from human biology and primatology, while simultaneously incorporating the theoretical constructs associated with social epidemiology into bioarcheological research. -Stress associated from deviation of homeostasis -Experimental work of Selye: general stress response: diverse range of stressor can lead to stereotypical hysiological and hoirmonal response. Positive stressor lead to heightened alert and preparation for fight and flight -Stress can make an individual ill if its long lsting -variation in stress in individuals can show variation in health \- Brown was the first individual to collect urine samples and assay adrenaline and noradrenaline from the samples collected in the field. His study suggested that different coping mechanisms and lifestyles seemed to vary in their ability to successfully reduce stress, as evidenced by variation in adrenal medullary activation. After Brown, researchs on human stress become more commun. - Stress took a wider definition in the past years, not only related to a hormonal response. - One of the earliest and most influential attempts at a biocultural approach to stress and disease in bioarcheological research is found in the monograph,Indians of PecosPueblo (Hooton, 1930). The work documents and interprets skeletal indicators of disease at the protohistoric site, and attempts to contextualize these indicators within the lives and lifestyles of the Pueblo India. - Health difficul to measure even in living population. September 06 Class 2 Epidemiology and Paleodemography -video intro to epidemiology: crash course public health \#6 to watch **Epidemiology** is the study of patterns of disease and health conditions within populations. - How often diseases occur and variation between different group of person (age, sex, occupation) - What causes patterns observes (differentin exposure, different immune system?) - How can they be controlled (intervention put In place that can stop the incidence or spreading of a disease.) Look at both communicable (infectious) and non-communicable health patterns - Disease epidemics (communicable) - Instance of violence (non-communicable). Gun violence for example Focus on population level analyses not individual cases - Critical that the study population is a representative sample of the target population Assess health outcomes: change in health status (good or bad). Through epidemiology we can assess good outcomes such as vaccination and bad such as high incidence of smoking and potential outcomes of that. Look for component causes: variety of factors that need to co-occur to lead to health outcome. - Disease explore doesn't always lead to illness - Health impacted by social-cultural AND biological factors. How much sleep you are getting can be linked to immune system. What type of epidemiological study method do bioarcheologists use? - Experimental: intervene and study health outcomes. Ex. Giving hand sanitizer before class for one anth class but not the other. Then we see the incidence of getting sick in midterms between the classes. - Observational: compare between populations without intervention (ex: exposes vs non-exposes) (can only do that experiment in archeology bc studied population is dead) Key term: morbidity: state of being symptomatic or unhealthy for a disease or condition. (ex: having asthma) Mortality: deaths caused by the health event under investigation. (dying because of asthma) Epidemiologists have different data that paleoepidemiologist. Paleo cant always know what the cause of death is. **Paleoepidemiology** Builds on epidemiological approaches to understanding patterns of disease by observing paleopathological evidence - Document past life experiences via morbidity and mortality - Assess risks and hazards ( how are risks mitigated- can tell us about cultural practices) Pathological lesions are markers of morbidity - Analyzed as altered risk of mortality - Mortality assessed at a given age, because study population is all deceased - Requires accurate age-at-death estimation. Can be difficult without well preserved remains Take away goals: - Understand effect of disease on mortality of population (not individual) How does way of life influence morbidity and mortality of population (certain cultural practices that Increase risks?) - Improve understanding of how and why society change over time -Societies adapt to mitigate risks-hazards \- Social and technological innovation Paleoepidemiological stress model: based on General Stress Model - Stressors activate sympathetic nervous system - Release stress hormone - Hormones signal body to redirect energy to adapt to stressor  Trade-off Model: - Body is an energy bank - Multiple biological processes compete for energy in body-bank 9growth, reproduction, immune function and healing) - Stressors can leave lesions Osteological Paradox (the Osteological Paradox: Problems of inferring prehistoric health from skeletal samples, by James Wood and al (1992) ) 1. Demographic non-stationarity: populations experience growth or decline because of changes in ferility, mortality and migration - Demographic estimates based on observal skeletal age-at-death distributions might not be accurate - Ex: in a cemetery associated with a declining population, the population of young individuals will drop over time. Not because o increased survivorship to adulthood -- lower fertility or migration 2. Selective mortality: Individuals who die at a given age are unlikely to be representative of the entire living population at risk of death at that age - Cannot observe all the individuals who were at risk of disease or death at a given age, only those who died. - Only 20 years olds observed in skeletal sample are those who died at age 20. Because rest of the population join sample at a later or earlier age 3. Heterogenous frailty skeletal samples are made up of population of individuals with unknown variation in underlying frailty or susceptibility to disease and death - Not all individuals have equal chance of dying from same risks-hazards - Genetically determined immune system response, nutrition, culturally-mediated risk of exposure to disease. **Demography** Demography is the statistical study of human size populations. - Size - Composition ( ex. Ethnic group, age) - How they change due to fertility (birth), mortality (death) and migration Demographers use census data, surveys, and statistical models to analyze... **Paleo-demography** Borrows statistical approach to study pf past humans population structure: mortality, fertility, migration Can include paleo-epidemiology approach focused on health indicators. May also incorporate methods like: - Ancient DNA - Stable isotope analysis One approach to studying human response to cultural and environmental change at population level - Population growth - Population decline - Migration Paleo-epidemiology can hel us explain the population structure and changes observed through paleo-demography. 11-09-2024 Bioarcheology and paleopathology What is bioarcheology? - Analysis of human skeletal remains (ancestors) from archeological context - Also knows as osteoarcheology - Address anthropological questions about experience of past people and populations. Bioarcheology: - Quality of life - diet and nutrion, - health and disease - growth and developmentlife - Behavior and lifestyle - Biomechanics, what are people doing in a day to day - Population history - Paleodemography - population movements - Visual analysis of skeletal elements - Develop biological profile - Microscopic observation - Histology -- bone tissue - Parasitology - Bio geo chemical analyss - Ancient DNA analysis - Stable isotope analysis Biocultural approach: -Interdisciplinary framework - Integrate bioarcheological data with archeological and anthropological theory - Combine empirical methods with social theory -Allow for interpretation of social identities and experiences - Individual - Community Skeletal analysis 1. Ddescribe physical remains - MNI: minimum number of individuals - Biological profile (we estimate those things by making guesses with the evidence we have) - Age - Sex - Stature - Evidence of trauma, disease, etc 2. Integrate cultural context - Age: - Juveniles: - Epiphyseal fusion (bone growth) - Dental development (teeth fall at particular ages) - Adults (how we deteriorate) not as accurate than for juveniles bc culture and individual lifestyle has different impact on how much wear and tear is has on the body: - Pubic symphysis(where 2 site of pelvis meet) (how much micro trauma occured at the site of the bone) - Auricular surface of ilium - Cranial suture closure - Sternal rib ends - Degenerative changes ( ostheoarthritis): doesn't give a concrete age, just tells us the person is older. - Dental wear ( just from eating we wear the crown of our tooth), also need to be aware of the populational norms (what they eat can impact the way their tooth are wearing) - Sex: sex estimation relies on sexual dimorphism: expression of phenotypic differences between males and females of the same species. - Most apparent after puberty - Differences between individuals are averages observed across populations, not absolute -- sex may be undetermined. - Sex estimations methods - Postcranial: - Cranial \- Stature: - Factors impacting growth - Genetics - Nutrition - Stress - Health - Key methods - Anatomical method ( measure every bone in body that contributes to height) - Mathematical method or regression method. Ex: measure humerus of everyone in this room then measure humerus of the skeleton. If similar then same height. Not as accurate because it is a generalization. But practical because it is very rare that we have all of the bones. - **Paleopathology**: study of ancient disease, illness - Studying "disease" is understood more broadly than just an infection or a pathogen -- we want to identify and understand the many conditions thar disrupt typical biological function. - Conditions that disrupt typical biological function - Traumatic injuries - Infectious disease (bacterial, viral, fungal,..) - Joint diseases - Congenital anomalies - Cancer - Ect Differential diagnosis - Process of identifying evidence of disease and diagnosing the most likely cause, based on evidence - Critical first step is differentiating abnormal bone morphology from normal human skeletal variation - Bone characteristics like porosity and remodelling (new bone growth) is "normal" in certain skeletal elements at certain age, such as the metaphyses of immature bone but could be an indicative of a disease in other context. - Bone is limited in how it can react-response to abnormal conditions like infection or trauma: - Form new bone: if it breaks - Resorb existing bone - Skeletal; pathologies should be carefully described - Abnormal bone growth or formation - More commonly associated with chronic than acute conditions -...? - Note the skeletal elements involved and overall distribution across the body - Different disease processes can have diffuse or extremely localized impacts within the body - Areas of the body involved can be indicative of the disease (ex.: Tuberculosis is a respiratory disease that commonly impact the spinal column,...) - Note whether skeletal lesions are active (no evidence of healing-remodelling) or healed-healing (evidence of bone remodelling) - This is indicative of whitener an individual survived the disease or died with the disease ( but does not indicate the disease was the cause of the death) - In cases of chronic disease it is possible to see episodic evidence of healing in combination with active infection - Based on evidence described, use a process of elimination to identify the most likely condition that cannot be ruled out - Be as specific as possible in identifying the condition without exceeding the evidence available - Not all skeletal; elements may be present for observation - Unlikely to have soft tissue evidence, symptoms, etc that clinicians rely on - Increasingly, additional methods beyond osteological analysis are being used to aid in diagnosing and studying pathological conditions - Radiology - Ancient DNA - Paleoproteomics - Parasitology -Bioarchaeological approach to paleopathology -Paleopathological analyses can be enhanced by contextualizing them withing bioarcheological approaches to studying individuals and societies. -How do social roles, status, activity pattern diet etc create differential exposure to disease across society. -What factors influence morbidity and mortality across individuals within society Non Specific stress indicators - Disease processes that cannot be linked to a specific conditions or pathogen but show disruption of normal biological function - Examples: - Periostial reaction (bone growth) - Osteomyelitis (bone loss) - Cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis (porosity) Trauma -Fracture: partial or complete discontinuity if a bone -Dislocation: separation of two ends of the bones where they meet at a joint -Body modification: deliberate altering of the human anatomy or human physical appearance (wore a corset for example) -Fractures: can be complete or incomplete. Different mechanisms result in different fracture patterns (blunt force, sharp force, high velocity-projectile). Stages of fracture repair help us understand timing of injury. Antemortem : before death, shows evidence of healing. Perimortem: around the time of death, little to no evidence of healing. Postmortem: after death, evidence of change from burial environment 13-09-2024 Paleogenomis -1^st^ sequenced ancient DNA: Kuaga in 1984 in a California, Berkeley. Took a museum specimen and with the skin and muscles were able to get 299 base pairs. They found out KUagas are more related to zebra. -Took from 1990-2003 to sequence the first compete human genome. Now with the technologies we can do it in 1 day. The most ancient human genome was published in 2013. Using hair from the ancient Principle of genomics - All organisms, living or dead have DNA - Most human DNA is nuclear -- found in cell nucleus, organized as chromosomes - Contains recombinate DNA from both biological parents - Mitochondrial DNA is passed from the biological mother. Not in nucleus but in different organelles. Everyone has it. Cant recombine with genetic material of dad - Y DNA is passed only to males, from the biological father. - Molecular anthropologist or anthropological genomicists apply genomic tools to study anthropological questions. Ancient DNA -Ancient DNA (aDNA) : DNA from any sample that is degraded or was not recently collected frina living individual and preserved (different tissues and materials will preserve DNA in different ways) - Bone - Teeth - Hair - Belongings - Mummified tissue - Environment - Anthropologists-archaeologists who study ancient DNA are called paleogenomicists. Contamination -Contamination: any DNA derived from sources other than the specimen being analyzed. - Archaelogist-researcher - Burial environment - Lab environment - Reagents - Degradation and contamination are the 2 biggest challenges in aDNA research. Preservation - Some environment are better for DNA preservation - Ideal condition: cold, dry - Poor preservation conditions: highly acidic soil, high heat and humidity, water movement - Fluctuations in temperature, humidity, and pH effect preservation - Different tissues are known to preserve DNA differently (soft tissue doesn't preserve as well as tooth enamel or dental calculus). Paleogenomic Lab - Positive pressure, cleanroom environment -- HEPA air filtration - Unidirectional workflow to prevent contamination from amplified and-or modern DNA samples - Wear PPE: hooded lab suits, boot covers, gloves x 2, sleeves, caps, masks - Decontamination and frequently sterilize equipment, supplies, reagents - Bleach - UV lighting (damages DNA and prevents it from replicating) - Decontaminate samples - Use extractopm negatives or EBC (extraction blank controls) -- collect every sort of environmental data to prevent contamination. Sample collection - Sample can be collected in filed, or from existing collection - Consent is a critical issue in paleogenomic research, especially with Indigenous Ancestors - Who provides consent for the dead? (key issue) - Archaelogist - Museum curator - Descent community - Research on other than human samples can impact human populations. Ethical concerns for animals needs to be similar to human bec animals may be connected to humans Documentation - Most aDNA methods are destructive - Record data before sample is destroyed: - Photographs - Morphometrics - Macroscopic observations Decontamination - Samples can have surface contaminated from the field - Soaked in bleach or UV'd to decontaminate in the aDNA lab. (could also destroy a sample) - DNA on surface an also be of interest to researchers. - Who handled an object in the past. Pulverizing sample - To release DNA from cells of sample, need to break it down into form that can be easily chemically digested. - Reducing tooth or bone sample to powder males it easier to dissolved cellular material and release DNA. - New, less destructive methods that skip this step. Digestion - Digestion: put bone powder in solution with enzymes that will break down the cells, releasinf the total genomic DNA into a solution. - "Digest" solutiom then undergoes extraction protocole - A single digest can produce enough volume for several extraction orocedures, digested bone powder can be stored in freezer for future uses - Extract DNA by washing away all other cell components, leabing only DNA in solution. - Sample preparation -- lysis -- protein removal -- DNA binding -- wash -- DNA elution Amplification - Copy template DNA sequences usin DNA primers and polymerase. PCR chemical reaction that copy DNA? DNA sequencing - Clean and concentrate DNA in PCR product (removing salts and other reagents) - Quantify DNA - DNA sequencing machines reads the DNA strands and outputDNA sequence data for analysis - Bioinformatic analysis of sequence data allows us to ask infinite questions from the same data set. Applications - Different types of DNA sequences used to address different questions of interests in archeology - Mitochondrial (mtDNA) - Hypervariable region or control region - Whole genome - Y-DNA (only biological male have this DNA) - Nulear (nuclear DNA) -- genetic info from dad and mom - Also introduce biaises from DNA type - Population view: tracking how population relate to each other - Metagenomic: sequencing all genomic material in sample, simulteanously sequencing genoms of multiple species. - Human saliva = human + bacterial + viral + diet DNA - Environmental DNA (eDNA) (ex : sample of cave dirt)= plant + animal + microbed , etc ( we can extract neetherdans from a place where we didn't have any bone. So we can still get information about the people, the plant and animals that were living at one place without remains) - Paleogenomicists aren't only interested in humans - Co-evolution of pathogens and microbes - Domestication of plants and animals - Environmental change (how environment changed through time or the sort of diseases humans are at risk bc of the environment) 18-09-2024 Parasitology -Why care about parasites: Help us understand disease in skeletal remain, teach us about environment, how people interact with environment, can show someone is experiencing a stressor (energy being diverted because someone is sucking your blood), What is a parasite: - Parasite: an animal or plant that gets nutrients by living on or in an organism of another species. Neg connotation - Types of parasites: - Ectoparasites - Helminths - Protozoans - **Ectoparasites**: lives outside of the host. They can be pathogen vectors -- capable of transmitting pathogens to host. Ex.: mosquitoes, lice (head and pubic), tiques, leches, fleas, mites. In archeological record, we could find the actual parasites or we could identify the fact that these parasite were in a human. - **Helminths:** parasitic worms, typically living in gastrointestinal tract. Feed off nutrients from host and use host to reproduce. - Example: - Flukes(trematodes)-type of flatwork. May infect blood and organs like bladder, liver, lungs, intestines, ect. - Tapeworms (cestodes) -- live in the intestines. - Roundworms (nematodes) - live in the intestines. - Protozoans: one cell (microscopic) organism. Live in your intstines or blood and tissues. Spread through contaminated food or water, person to person contacts or through the bite of a vector. - Classified according to how they move - Amoeba: for temporary false feet (pseudopods) to move. EX. Entamoeba histolytica (E. Histolytica) causes dysentery - Ciliates: use short, hairlike structures (cilia) to move and gather food. Ex. Balantidium coli (B.coli) causes dysentery - Flagellates: use one or many whip-like structures (flagella) to move and sense surroundings. Ex: Giardia intestinalis causes giardiasis, Trypanaosoma brucei causes sleeping sickness - Sporoazoans (protozoans?? (apicomplexan) -- adults aren't capable of moving. Plasmodium causes malaria, cryptosporidium causes cryptosporidiosis **Paleoparasitology** - Studies human and animal parasites and their host- pathogen coevolution through time. - Study parasitic organisms through recovery of their preserved remains in paleontological, palaeoecological, medical archeological contectx - Apply to understand way of life of past populations and ancient societies: - Paleopathologies - Hygiene - Dietary- food habits - Waste management -Identify parasites in archaeological contexts using: - Macroremains- observe the preserved parasite directly - Dissemination and reproductive forms -- observe eggs of parasite for example - Biomolecules -- aDNA of parasite recovered. -Macroremains: body parts of adults worms or larvae - Typically will degrade, preservation is typically rare because they are soft-bodied - Preservation requires extreme dry, cold or humid environments, or conditions favoring mineralization. - When tissue and organs are preserved, internal parasite macroremains may also be preserved - Natural, environmental mummification -- cold dry, hot dry, salt saturated or waterlogged anaerobic environments. - Intentional-cultural mummification -- cultural treatment that prevents decay - Also look for macroremains of ectoparasities - Belongings -- clothing, combs - Living space -- naturally shed **Reproductive forms** - Eggs produced by helminths during reproduction. - Ovoid elements whose size varies between 30-160 microns long x 15-100 microns wide - Shell contains chitin and other materials that improve likelihood of preservation - Most commun type of evidence -- works produce thousands of microscopic eggs per , host possibly infected by hundred of worms Cysts of parasitic protozoans - Spherical or ovoid in shape and vary in size from 2 to 90micron - Fragile, rarely preserved - Requide extrene and constant conditions of humidiy -Paleoparasitology cause in 1910 was observations of Schistosoma ?ematobium eggs in ancient Egyptian mummies (1250-1000 BCE) (M.A differ?) -Individual level: assess burial soil for parasite remains (macros or egss) (need to control for environmental contamination) -Population level : assess waste areas like latrine (help us understand parasite load across the population) **Biomolecules** -Antigens: toxin that induces immune response in the host - Possible to detect paleoantigens of parasitic protozoa - Specific: allow for the direct identification of parasites. - Antigens most likely found in soft tissues -Ancient DNA - Detect DNA of species that do not produce many eggs - Detect different strains of the same species to study evolution across time and space in relation to human populations, immune function, etc - Confirm differential diagnosis of potential pathogen and disease. -Paleoparasitology necessarily an interdisciplinary field and methor: - Understand ecology of past environment. - Geograohic distribution of pathogen and-or vector - Human culture and behavior (past and present) -- parasite exposure (people may change the way they act because of a specific parasite) - Clinical knowledge of impact of parasite on host health. 20-09-2024 Agricultural revolution What is that - Neolithic revolution -- transition from hunting and gathering to agricultural subsistence during the Holocene. - Significant period of social, cultural and biological transition - Increased food production -- able to grow2 the plant as many as they could - Storage of surplus of food - Property ownership -- where people are growing their food. Excess food = excess wealth - Social hierarchy - Task specialization -- people start focusing on specific things: crafts. Farmer,... - Increased fertility and population size - More food so supporting a growing population but lots of negative consequences of health and wellbeing - Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture (Cohen and ARmelagos, 1984) - Shift from diverse foraging diet to limited diet of complex carbs for crops. Sugar rich carbohydrate diet has a bigger proportion. Before agriculture, they had a diverse diet because they didn't want to kill all the animals as there wont be any animal to reproduce and eat in the next year. - Nutrionional deficiencies - Worsening dental health - Sedentary population (permanent/semi-permanent villages) -- shift in how people lived. People now live in the same environment/place for their life - Close proximity to domestic animals that are vectors of disease - Poor sanitation -- before people were in contact for a short time if there was poor sanitation condition - Increased interpersonal violence -- larger population and people living closer to each other Global phenomenon - Population domesticated plants in at least eight independent centers throughout the world (so didn't come for one place and started spreading): - Asia - Western Pacific (new Guinea) - Africa (Sub-Sahara) - Americas Why agriculture - Disappearance of Pleistocene megafauna resulted in need for new food ressources via domestication -- unlikely as there was many other food ressources that didn't get extincted with the climate change and many new sources appeared. - Need to increase predictable food sources, reduce risk - Interacting variables: - Climate change in the Pleistocene to Holocene. Hot, drier climate - Evolution of animals and plants adapted to the new landscape -- easier to identify which plant could be domesticated - Local factors such as water availability and knowledge of local flora and fauna by human populations. Dietary isotopes - Previous research relied on remains of food stuffs - Impacted by preservation bias - Charred materials like seeds may be preserved. Plant remains can be preserved if carbonized. - Animal bone more easily preserved - Biases from butchering and processing. EX. If butcher a sheep far from village. Small fish bone can mineralized and disappear - Cant identify who was eating different foods and how much - Stable isotopes are evidence of the chemical composition of individual's diet - Allow us to see how much of different types of foods individuals are eating - Terrestrial vs marine foods (C13) - C3 vs C4 plants (C13) - Trophic level of foods consumed (N15) (chemicals cycle up so from plant to animal, animal to human) Frontiers \| Carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen stable isotopes in modern tooth enamel: A case study from Gorongosa National Park, central Mozambique Malnutrition - Shift to reliance on carbohydrates resulted in a change in nutritional quality of diet. People eat less diverse, focus more on one food. Reliance on less food - Examples: - Maize - Deficient in amina acids lysine, isoleucine, and tryptophan - Causes low iron absorption - Low bioavailability of bitamin B3 (niacin) - Millet and wheat - Deficiency in Iron - Rice - Deficient in protein - Inhibits Vitamin A Anemia - Deficiency of RBC can have many causes - Iron deficiency anemia causes exoansion of blood-forming tissues to increase production of RBC - Causes compact bone on surface of skull to become porous porotic hyperostosis - Elevated frequency of porotic hyperostosis in agricultural settings - Reduced availability of dietary iron - Intestinal parasites (feeding of of you-blood- or from the food coming in you) Growth disruption - Reduced growth rate of children - Lengths of bones of children per age - Reduced adult height - Stature can rebound, depending on timing of stressor and growth - Can be caused by nutrition or stressors Enamel defects (proof of growth disruption) - Linear enamel hypoplasia: enamel defect from discruption of cells forming enamel - Evidence of growth disruption during childhood, when enamel forms - Non-specific -- caused by a variety of disease, by nutrional disruption, or combo of stressors - Comparison of foragers and farmers shows increase in frequency of these defects, which could have been due to nutritional declines. Dental microwear - Microwear: analysis of microscopically visible wear on the chewing surfaces of teeth - Pits and scratches on teeth - Evidence of the consistency of the food consumed - Inclusion of particles introduced by food preparation : more microwear for those using grainstones as it leaves little Dental caries - Dental caries: lesions (cavity) resulting from tooth decay - Cariogenic bacteria adhere to tooth enamel - Metabolize sugards from carbs -- produce acid -- demineralize enamel - Infected tooth can affect surrounding tissue and bone, lead to tooth loss - Increased carb consumption (domesticated plant) = increased tooth decay and worse oral health - Introduce infection that grows throughout the body and affect the general health. Can cause more problems than just in the mouth - In areas where rice was the crop domesticated, there is a debate if this pattern holds true as rice isn't considered as cariogenic. Infectious disease - Population increased in size - Semi-permanent or permanent settlements (decrease in mobility) - Increased spread of infectious disease - Pathogen needs access to enough new hosts to continue reproducing - Often can't re-infect a host who has developed immunity - Generally, populations with agricultural subsistence had a higher number of infections than those that were not - Difficult to identify acute diseases - Rely on evidence of chronic infections disease If agricultural transition resulted in such poor health, why did populations adopt it? - Indicators of bad health and stressor didn't kill people. There were able to have their family around, grow their food. Overall, people had a more stable source of food (with surplus), allowed to change culture and society. Did they necessarily feel it was a negative outcome? There was an increase fertility, less energy invested to move around. 25---09-2024 **Animal Domestication** -Domestication - Co-evolutionary process that arises from mutualism - One species (the domesticator) constructs an environment where it actively manages both the survival and reproduction of another species (the domesticate) - Allows domesticators to receive resources and/or services - Examples of benefit: help us hunt, labor(traction), meat and milk, transport -Domestication of animals Wild animal \-\-- domesticated animals incorporated into human society - Human controls animal behavior, nutrition, reproduction, range of movement, life span, etc - Human provides healthcare, protection against predators, starvation, uncontrolled populations growth, negative climatic influence, etc - Animal population can grow larger and live longer than wild species in similar environment - Expand to geographical regions and environment that are not accessible for the wild forms. Domestication process - Domestication likely arose through development of consistent interactions - Not necessarily specific intent in mind for all purposes -- like traction 1. Tamed, likely young animal 2. Assembling and managing groups of tamed or controlled animals 3. Inter-breeding tamed animals allowed selection of desirable traits - Stronger, more meat, docile, etc 4. Expanded use of animals and integration into human society Usage of domestic animal - Traction, meat, milk, skin/fur, transportation, hunting (maybe not intentional but ny interaction more, realized the benefit, was a slow process) Evidence of domestication - Animal demography in archeological site -- usually when you hunt, want the bigger animal. But if there is a young animal, could mean domesticated/raising animals. - Morphological changes: comes from selective breeding. Animal a bit smaller when domesticated because people were trying to control the animal. Needed to make the animals more manageable since living in close proximity with other humans and other animals too - Genetic changes: using aDNA we can see how the genetic code changes, used for non morphological changes: change in temperament, change in fur color. We can look at the genes that code for this characteristic. - Paleopathology: we can see evidence of when animals are being used. (looking for lesion in bones, muscle markers, stress markers in enamel, osteoarthritis) - Evidence of care and social relationships -- if animal lose tooth and cant eat food, human can give mash food, so not a cause of death anymore. Evidence of animal specific cemetery. - Zoonosis: an infectious disease that has jumped from a non-human animal to humans - spillover - Can jump back to animals -- called spillback - May evolve to become human-only infectious strain - Zoonotic pathogens may be: - Bacterial - Viral - Parasitic - Enzootic -- only between animals - Endemic -- became only between humans - Can be spread to humans through direct contact or through food, water or the environment. - Animal blood and saliva -- with the pathogen in it - Respiratory droplets - Contaminated water -- no need direct contact with the animal - Animal waste - Animal products -- meat, eggs - Most studied health impact of animal domestication on humans - Animal serve as a vector and reservoir of many pathogens and parasites - Domestication brought animals into close and consistent contact with larger human population - Allowed infectious disease to spread to and amongst humans - Animals that have been domesticated for the longest period share more diseases with humans than other species with shorter history of domestication. -- coevolution had a longer time to develop - Genomic evidence of pathogen co-evolution - Pathogens can jump from animals to humans and vice-vera - Mutations help identify strains across hosts - Paleopathology - Differential diagnosis of disease in animals and humans -- we can try to identify diseases that are share by both at the same site. - Paleoparasitology -- animals can help to spread parasites. Animals can be a vector for parasite. Can help us identify zoonotic disease. Still have to study the environment bc parasites can be in environmenent. We don't know if its from animal to human or other way around when looking in a archeological context. Genomic evidence helps us understand that better when looking back at the start. \*can tract mutations to go back to the source. 1- Stress models includes cultural buffering stress: help buffer stress. Stress models 2- Stress- deviation from homeostasis. We atudy stress because leaves traces but health doesn't 3- reduces mortality, better diet, health benefits, meditation and prayer, better living conditions, less likely of infectious disease, recruitment of healthy, high status individuals 4- 27-09-2024 **Globalization** - Complex connectivity -- dense network of intense interactions and interdependencies between disparate people brought together through the long-distance flow of goods, idea and individual - Uniquely model phenomenon? - Long-term historical trend? - Repeated phenomenon? - Identified by demonstrating a correlation between the increased flow of products and people and evidence for the array of cultural changes that are commonly associated with globalization. - Ex.: Each place adapts Mcdo and each place do unique dishes. We can identify mcdo in every place but there is some uniqueness in every place. Cultural change and adapting in own way **Health impact** - As population grew, also developed cultural and technological innovations that allowed them to move more easily - Domesticating animals - Building roads and ships - When people moved, populations became more interconnected - When people moved, pathogens moved with them. - Globalization doesn't require the whole word. **Parasites on Silk Roads** - 2000 year old personal hygiene sticks with cloth recovered from latrine - Eggs of Chinese liver fluke, roundworm, whipworm and Taenia tapeworm - Closest region endemic for Chinese liver fluke is over 1000 km away - Ancient travelers migrated along Silk Road with their parasite. - Example that when people move, pathogens move with them **Health impact** - Cultural change can impact quality of life - Introduce variety of new stressors that impact health - Increased human mobility led to introduction of pathogens in new populations - Human conflict and death **European colonization** - European nations explored and colonized other nations around the globe during the late 15^th^-20^th^ centuries - In North and South America, European contact and colonization caused severe decline in Indigenous populations - Estimated between 75% and 95% of population - Novel pathogens may have caused disease epidemics, mortality **Local disease landscape** - Paleopathological evidence that Indigenous populations already experienced disease local to their environment - Treponematosis (nonvenereal syphilis) - Tuberculosis - Poliomyelitis (polio) - Rabies - Endemic diseases rarely occur in epidemic proportions as already circulating in community so some adaptive immunity - For a epidemic, needs a new pathogen **Novel pathogens** - European pathogens were introduced at different places and times over several centuries: - Influenza - Measles - Mumps - Smallpox - Resulted in waves of epidemics, rather than single event **Pathogen co-evolution** - Pathogens introduced by Europeans did not have co-evolutionary history with the immune system of Indigenous peoples - Most lethal pathogens introduced to the America are zoonotic - Measles, mumps and tuberculosis most likely evolved from bovine reservoirs - Co-evolved with European populations since animal domestication, allowing for adaptive immunity - Pathogens needs their host to stay alive enough for them to be able to reproduce and spread around. So they need to be virulent enough to affect many people without killing their host. Red- queen hypothesis. - In the America, transition to farming evolved regionally p some populations alternating between hunting-gathering and farming through time. - Domesticated like camelids and guinea pigs did not transmit major disease-causing zoonotic pathogens - Limited number of pre-contact epidemics in the America - Hemorrhagic fever epidemic, cocolitzi, caused by Salmonella enterica at the time of contact in Mexico - Parasite Trypanosoma cruzi ( Chagas disease) - Tuberculosis infection from seals -- limited human-animal pathogen reservoir **Immunological naivety** - No adaptive/acquired immunity to pathogens - Only have innate generalized immune response - 'Virgin soil epidemics' (Alfred Crosby) -- everyone in a population get infected simultaneously because there is no herd immunity. Everyone is equally susceptible. - Acquired immunity ( Active vs passive -- active after having an infection or getting vaccine -- passive is the immunity acquired from someone or something else) **Acquired immunity** - Infectious disease is the strongest selective pressures affecting the evolution of the human genome - Mycobacterium leprae (leprosy) most prevalent in Europe around the 12^th^ and 14^th^ centuries CE. - Declined in 16^th^- century Europe while simultaneously increasing in other regions of the world. - Ancient DNA analysis of M. leprae have revealed low mutations rate without reduction in virulence compared to modern strains. - 16^th^-century decline in European leprosy cases may be explained by selective changes in European host immunity to better combat M. leprae infection. - IN brief: host immune function changed to adapt the pathogen and not the pathogen that changed. **Other possible explanations for massive mortality in relation to colonization?** -killing them -enslaving them with bad conditions -negative cultural buffering system that introduced stress in the population: practices disrupted, moved to places, didn't have same food, same housing. Which created a health disparity -a lot of people died from pathogens, but a lot of other factors that led to health disparities and people were more susceptible to die from pathogens. -no direct osteological evidence as it happens very fast. So need to take in consideration bias of people reporting because introduced from people coming from a different culture, population. 02-10-2024 Industrialization - Another critical epidemiological transition in human history - Profound technological, environmental and social change - Mechanisation of industry and farming - Increased pollution - Population growth from fertility rates and migration. Number of birth exceeds number of death. Population grew in specific region because of migration. Mostly moved in urban region, draw by jobs. Also some people moving into rural (reading?) - The initial wave of poor health during the 18^th^-19^th^ centuries shifted to increased life expectancy and decreased levels of infectious disease during the later 19^th^ century, linked to public health measure. - We see a shift in mortality about diying of acute things vs people dying later but still have health challenges. (chronic disease) -- epidemiology shift - Introduction of gas, new energy Timeline of industrial revolution - Happened at multiple places throughout the word. Not only in Britains. Date shift as the industry is adaptions and social/technological changes happen. Pre-industrial period ends up earlier in England compared to other places. - In South Africa and Australia, main industry developed was mining. Changes in archeology looks different from the urbanization change that took place in England. In England industrial period started around 1830 How to read research article? 1. What is the author's goal or the research question. -Summarize existing data -Test new hypothesis 2. What methods are being used 3. What is the sample 4. What are the key findings and how are they supported -How does it relates to course topic Guiding questions: - What was the Industrial Revolution: - The years between around 1750 and 1900 were a period of rapid change in Britain. There were big changes to where people lived, developments in science and technology, and a growing democracy. These all had implications for health. - Used a lot of workers, didn't necessarily get better conditions. Big increase in social hierarchy, reflected in health disparities between social classes. - Pathogen: big increase in infectious diseases: typhus, typhoid. More people increase the spread of pathogen, more waste. People didmt understand that cholera was because of water contamination. Wasn't linked to the idea of germ theory. Once people understood that, then we started to see a social buffering system. Rules on how people needed to filter water. A drop in acute infections. Then an increase of life expectancy, quality of life because people aren't getting those pathogen infection. Thatsvwhen we see the shift between acute conditions vs chronic, more modern issues - What patterns of health impacts have been observed? Using what evidence? - In working kids: diet low in animal protein, respiratory diseases (because worked in mills:fumes), severe growth delay and pathological lesion because lived in stress. Long bone growth, enamel defect - Methods: bone analysis (osteological), sex estimation for gender, amelogenin peptide analysis(for protein in tooth enamel and to estimate sex), isotope analysis ( used soil to know the food chain and what they ate) - In some place, negative cultural buffer that added stressor: child labor example. Why did they work? To get financial means but conditions were bad which led to those problems. So culturally buffer were that they needed to work in those condition - Low life expecting expectancy - Industrial revolution had a negative impact on health. However most infectious diseases were not impacted by industrial revolution. - Context number, sex, age at death, stature, presence/absence of selective pathological conditions - How do these patterns vary in rural vs urban populations - Yes, variation. The overcrowding promoted by urbanization brought poor conditions. - Urban was easier if you were rich. If kid in rural, leave family to work. As government, doesn't want to set rules against that. Recruitment of kids by telling them it will be a good job. - Microchanges necause respondinf in different ways - What are the health differences across social classes - Orphan/low class family kids: kids sent to work in rural area - 'Social mobility - moving from one social class to another - was improving. However, there was still a big gap between the lives of the rich and poor. The middle class was growing and many moved out of town centres to live in the *suburbs.* Working-class people lived closer to the factories, often in overcrowded conditions.' - Joiint problem because of repetitive labor as opposed to richer people who didn't needed to do that much labor - Upper class has more food, excesss in food: diabtes vs lower classes that had malnutrition. - What are the limitation and biases in our understanding of health during this time -Paleopathological indicators of child stress \- **REVISION CLASS**