Pompeii and Herculaneum Notes PDF

Pompeii and Herculaneum Survey Section: The Geographical Setting and Natural Features of Campania Geographical Setting ➔ On the mediterranean → trade ➔ Warm climate/temperature → good for growing crops ➔ Temperate climate → cool in winter + very hot in summer ➔ “Campania Felix” → lucky...

Pompeii and Herculaneum Survey Section: The Geographical Setting and Natural Features of Campania Geographical Setting ➔ On the mediterranean → trade ➔ Warm climate/temperature → good for growing crops ➔ Temperate climate → cool in winter + very hot in summer ➔ “Campania Felix” → lucky Campania ◆ Desirable place to stay ➔ H was closer to Vesuvius and the sea than P Source Content Fresco of Bacchus from the House of the - Bacchus is covered in grapes → geo, religion, economy Centenary - Standing next to Mt. Vesuvius - There is a snake - Shows us - Grapes are important - Bacchus is important - Mt Vesuvius - Snake = fertility Amphora - wine/oil vessel Wall painting from the House of Julia Felix → - Painting was of food showing how it was an important part of the city  Pompeii - Grapes + olives Natural Features ➔ Environment = high reputation for produce in Italy Fishing - Garum - Salt from sea water used to preserve foods such as fish Viticulture - Harvesting of grapes Agricultural products - Wheat - Barely - Veggies (cabbage) - Fruits (olives) Sheeps/ Goats - Wool Source Content Strabo and Pliny the Elder - P + H were market towns (economically vibrant) Mosaics of Sea Creatures from the House of Faun → - Shows the significance of fishing Pompeii Survey Section: The Eruption of AD79 and its Impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum The Eruption ➔ Warning signs  ◆ Indicators of tectonic movement prior ◆ Large earthquake in the region in 62 AD ◆ Locals were unaware that Vesuvius could erupt → caught unguard Source Content Marble relief of the Temple of Jupiter in the forum → Pompeii - Temple titled by the earthquake of 62 CE Impact Pompeii Herculaneum ➔ Death due to gas in lung ➔ Death due to being burnt alive ➔ Pumice fell on Pompeii ➔ Full brunt of pyroclastic surges ➔ Pyroclastic surges ➔ Temps greater than 400 ➔ Covered in 25 metres of ash ➔ Coastline extended by 400m ➔ Arguably impacted more Source Content Resin Lady of Pompeii - Plaster cast of a woman at Pompeii representing how they died Pliny the Younger - Compared the ash from Vesuvius to a pine tree - There was a lot of damage - His uncle had a heroic death → killed by fumes  Value Limitation - Only written account - Only mentions the - Eye witness volcano - Our account comes from 25 years later - Biassed towards making his uncle sound heroic Survey Section: Early Discoveries and the Changing Nature of Excavations in the 19th and 20th century Archaeologist Summary 1800s – 1830s Archaeological work consisted of: ○ Treasure hunting Both sites looted → statues + columns + vases + coins … ○ Poor documentation of the areas excavated Location of most objects not recorded → context was lost ○ No attempt to interpret the cities as a whole ○ Excavation haphazard Buildings judged of no interest abandoned Paintings cut from walls  Mosaics lifted from floors Giuseppe Fiorelli 1860 → Fiorelli became director of excavations ○ Created a more systematic approach Excavated along line of roads; connecting the excavated sections by moving east Slow uncovering of houses from top to bottom (different methodology) Utalised plaster casts Realised cavities held remains of decayed organic matter Used plaster to reveal human figures + other organic objects Created new system for recording work in progress Representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time 19th-20th Centuries ➔ Neoclassicism (arts produced after antiquity) + romanticism (arts which emphasis inspiration and imagination) Source Representations Mark Twain Published the book ‘innocents abroad’ → outlines what he observed in Pompeii with great admiration Edwn Atherstone “Last Days of Herculaneum” depicts eruption of Vesuvius from across Bay of Naples 20th-21st Centuries ➔ Documentaries, websites, apps allows P + H to be accurately represented Source Representations The Last Days of Pompeii movies / tv shows adaptations of Bulwin-Lytton’s 1834 book Pompeii by Bastille Song depicts an individual reflecting on life whilst POmpeii crumbles around them Site layout + streetscapes Pompeii ➔ 66 ha → 45 have been excavated ➔ Grid like structure ➔ 2 main streets ➔ 9 regions (Fiorelli) ➔ Surrounding wall + 8 entrance gates ➔ Streets ◆ Wheel groves, stepping stones, gutters + raised sidewalks ➔ Aqueduct system → fresh water ➔ 42 public water fountains + 4 water baths Herculaneum ➔ Double storey buildings ➔ 22 ha → 4.5 have been excavated  ➔ Sea wall + town wall + storm drains/underground sewage ➔ Two main streets ➔ 3 public water fountains + 1 water bath Other Notes ➔ All regions have houses ➔ Entertainment are on the outer edges Social Structure: Men, Women, Freedmen, Slaves Broad Social Categories ➔ Freeborn: elite or plebs ➔ Freedman/woman: former enslaved people who had been freed ◆ Citizen status after being freed ◆ Former master/mistress became patron ➔ Slaves: considered property Things to Remember ➔ Social mobility was possible ➔ Social structure is relative and intersectional ◆ Not a pyramid Sources Class Sources Elite Pompeii baker holding scroll + wife holding Men pen and writing tablet ➔ Held political and legal status ➔ Owners of buildings ➔ Typically were politicians, landowners and businessmen Woman ➔ Same rights but were controlled by men Statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus in H → very wealthy ➔ Could not hold political/financial offices → still contributed ➔ Brought up children Elite Woman → Eumachia - Statue of Emuchaica in Pompeii ➔ patron/client relationship with Fuller’s guild - Her building in the name of son ➔ Made building of Eumachia ➔ Inscribed her son’s name for political advantage Mobility b/w classes → Julia Felix - Advertisement from estate of Julia Felix ➔ Wealthy widow → owned property - Advertises her business showing how women ➔ Transformed parts of home in P into private-ruin could also be businesswoman and could support commercial baths and apartments themselves ➔ Born to freedman + freedwoman and rose to prominence - Frescoes featuring money + writing found in the House Lower Class Women ➔ Evidence of them working in inns/taverns, fulling industry, prostitute houses etc.  ➔ Domestic roles in houses Freedman/woman ➔ Worked in small shops, workshops, bars etc. ➔ Could own businesses and become wealthy e.g. Julia Felix ➔ Couldn’t hold political office Slaves - Frescoes around Pompeii in the forum showing slaves ➔ 40% of P ➔ Rich people had separate houses for them ➔ Domestic work ➔ Agricultural labour ➔ Children belonged to owner ➔ Could be freed → buying liberty The Economy Role of the Forum ➔ Centre of the town in both P + H ➔ Multiple Purposes → economic, political, religious ➔ Pedestrians only Parts of the Forum Site Use Temples ➔ Public = public/civic religion  ➔ Where public rituals took place publically ➔ Imperial cult had its own temple ◆ Shrine to Augustus ➔ Temple of public lares ◆ Personal gods for the people of Pompeii Macellum ➔ Covered meat, fish and veggies market ➔ Little shops/stalls around the edge ➔ Fish hooks found ➔ Wall paintings → goods sold include fish, break and wine ➔ Back of building → shrine dedicated to imperial family Building of Eumachia ➔ Benefaction dedicated together with her son ➔ Actual use is unknown but there are theories ◆ Market place ◆ Hq for fuller’s guide Basilica ➔ Law court ➔ Town magistrates sat and acted as judges ➔ Used to gather larger groups to discuss business/legal matters Comitium ➔ Meeting place for assembly ➔ Polling station ➔ Campaign posters found on walls Trade ➔ Importing and exporting goods due to the close distance from the sea ➔ Lots of trade → show off wealth + interest + luxury  ➔ Thriving economies ➔ Dynamic and thriving nature where people are actually out selling stuff ➔ Economy is not static → lots of things are happening Industries Industry Sources Info Fishing + ➔ Mosaic of Sea Life (house of faun) ➔ Garum was sold contributing to Garum ➔ Mosaic of Garum Container the economy Production ➔ Easily attainable ➔ Garum mosaics + jars means that it was popular Vineyards + ➔ Bacchus Fresco ➔ Source of income for lots Wine ➔ Villa of Regina (huge storage capacities) (P) ➔ Commercial vineyards with room Production ➔ Wine shop in H b set up for wine pressing ➔ Wine was exported and used locally Olives + Oil ➔ Olive press ➔ Olive market in forum found in P Production ➔ Amphora houses ➔ Primary source of income → only done by wealthy landowner due to long process ➔ Oil used for a bunch of things Occupations Area Example Area Example Agriculture Farmer, grape picker Food and Drink Bater, Tavern Operator Animal Husbandry Herdsmen, pig breeder Transport Mule driver, Waggoner Fishing Fisherman Construction Carpenter, stone mason Manufacturer Potter Technical occupations Doctor, architect, surveyor Art Fresco Painter / mosaic Service occupations Bath attendant, barber, prostitute Commerce Money lender, banker Local political life Categories ➔ Comitium ◆ People's assembly ◆ All adult male citizens ◆ Elected magistrates ➔ Magistracy→ 25+ rich freeborn men ◆ Duumviri → senior magistrates for one year ◆ Aediles → junior magistrates for one year: responsible for judicial system, public works, administration etc. ◆ Quinquennial duumvir → responsible for revising ‘ordo decurionum’ every 5 years  ➔ Ordo decurionum ◆ Made laws ◆ New members every 5 years → abt 100 members ◆ Lifetime membership Things to Remember ➔ Politics were contested in P + H (grafiti) ➔ Voters were only the freeborn men Sources Person Sources Marcus Nonius Balbus → patron of H Statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus in H ➔ Embellished town with civic monuments + public facilities ➔ Son of freedman ➔ Senator from Rome who was appointed governor of Crete ➔ Established himself as a well-liked benefactor ➔ Contributed to the building of Basilica (in forum) + baths ➔ 10 statues erected around town Marcus Holconius Rufus → patron of P - Statue of Holconius Rufus ➔ Came from a old wealthy family - Marble inscription in forum ➔ Earned fortune by operating clay pit + brickworks ➔ Funded renovation of temple of apollo + auditorium of  large theatre Elections and Programmata ➔ Programmata = people participated in elections ➔ Women influenced men voting ➔ Political activity was intense (less in H) ➔ Before election, candidate wore a white toga in public to identify themself + employed a slave to whisper his name to all he came in contact with Source Graffiti on facade of Asellina’s tavern at Pompeii Everyday life Housing ➔ Domus (Townhouse) ◆ The domus was the standard type of house for the wealthy and elite in Pompeii. It was a single-family home, often large and elaborately decorated. ◆ Layout Atrium: The central hall that served as the main reception area, often open to the sky and surrounded by rooms. Tablinum: The office or study of the head of the household, often used for business transactions. Triclinium: The dining room, often decorated with frescoes and used for hosting dinner parties. Peristyle: An open courtyard surrounded by columns, often with a garden. Kitchen and Latrine: Located at the back of the house, often small and utilitarian.  ➔ Insulae (Apartment Buildings) ◆ Multi-story apartment buildings that housed the lower and middle classes, including shopkeepers, artisans, and labourers. ◆ Layout: Shops and Workshops: The ground floor often contained shops and workshops (tabernae) that opened onto the street. ➔ Villas ◆ Large country houses on the outskirts of Pompeii, often owned by the wealthy for leisure and agricultural purposes. ◆ Types: Villa Urbana: A luxurious country residence with extensive gardens, designed for leisure and entertaining. Villa Rustica: A farmhouse with agricultural facilities, serving as the centre of a working estate. Leisure ➔ Theatres and Performances: ◆ Theatre of Pompeii: A large, semi-circular amphitheatre capable of seating up to 5,000 spectators. Hosted dramatic performances, comedies, and tragedies. Greek and Roman plays were popular, often based on mythology or contemporary themes. ➔ Gladiatorial Games: ◆ Gladiatorial games, animal hunts (venationes), and public spectacles. The amphitheatre was a central venue for large-scale public entertainment. ◆ Gladiators, often slaves or prisoners of war, trained in special schools (ludi) to fight in the arena. ◆ Extremely popular among all social classes, providing excitement and a sense of civic pride. ➔ Public Baths (Thermae): ◆ Complexes with separate sections for men and women, including hot baths (caldarium), warm baths (tepidarium), and cold baths (frigidarium).  ◆ Bathing was a communal activity that also served as a social and recreational centre. People gathered to relax, exercise, and socialise ◆ Bathing, exercising in the palaestra (gymnasium), and engaging in intellectual conversations or business dealings. Food + Dining Out Food ➔ Examples of food ◆ Seafood → close to sea (mosaic of sea life) ◆ Garum → fermented fish sauce ◆ Bread → made in bakeries (carbonised breads) ◆ Olives → olive trees in Camania (carbonised olives) ◆ Wine → produced in countryside (Villa of Regina) ➔ Diets varied b/w the classes and gender Dining ➔ Triclinium (dining room) ◆ Wealthy people would eat at home in a triclinium ◆ Made up of 3 couches in a U-shape with table in the middle ◆ Food prepared by lower class ◆ Fresco of a banquet scene ➔ Thermopolia (snack bars) ◆ Fast food → soups + wines ◆ Large pots to store it ◆ Found all throughout the city on main streets + city gates ◆ People need to dine out due to lack of cooking facilities at hoom ◆ Fueled the economy ➔ Tabernae Cauponae (bars)  ◆ Located along main roads + city gates in P ◆ Served poorer inhabitants of city + travellers looking for food/wine/entertainment/shelter ◆ Evidence of gambling + offered prostitutions ◆ Inn of Asellina Regio Clothing ➔ Differentiates b/w gender and social class ➔ Men ◆ Tunic → long t-shirt + toga ◆ Military → long tunic over a belt ◆ Bathing → naked ◆ Evidence Statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus in Toga ➔ Women ◆ Ankle length dress + veil to cover head → signified modesty ◆ Toga → signifies disgrace ◆ Two-piece modest costume for bathing ◆ Evidence Statue of Emuchia wearing the ankle length dress and veil ➔ Slaves ◆ Tunics tied at waist ◆ Slaves also wore belts Health ➔ Seeds + pips + remains of animal bones → ate meat ➔ High fluoride levels in teeth → seafood  ➔ Teeth healthy → little sugar (only for the rich) ➔ Dr Lazer: Pompeii Cast Project: human skeletal remains in P for evidence of age, sex, height, disease ➔ Dr Bisel: examined ancient bones → height, nourishment Baths Functions ➔ Parts of the Bath house ◆ Changing rooms where clothes were stored → slaves kept guard ◆ Warm room where the body was cleansed by oils ◆ Hot pool to bath in ◆ Sauna ◆ Cool room → refreshing ➔ Heating ◆ Hypocaust system = wood fired furnace burned outside ◆ System of pilae stacks → supported the floor + allowed hot steam to pass under floor What do they reveal? ➔ Baths were used ◆ Social areas ◆ Socialising w/ friends ◆ Used to hold business meetings (politics) ➔ Segregation ◆ Genders Different baths → men more nicer ◆ Wealth Benefactors displayed stuff  Food brought for them Prostitutes used by the wealthy Evidence Pompeii Herculaneum ➔ Via Stabian ➔ Forum → bathing complex which shows the different ➔ Forum → hot bathing room bathing suits for men and women ➔ Suburban bathing complex: statues of Marcus Nonius Bablus → benefactor of the baths Water Supply + Sanitation Water Supply ➔ Water supply came from Aqua Augusta ➔ Stored in castellum aquae = main water tank ➔ The pipes were connected to the fountains → most citizens lived walking distance away from fountains ( only the rich has fountains in their house) Sanitation ➔ P + H would have had stinky streets full of litter etc ➔ Sewer systems were more about drainage of standing water than the removal of dirty debris ➔ Private toilets were usually cesspits that needed to be emptied ➔ Public toilets were gross and less preferred ◆ Had a communal sponge on a stick ➔ Downpipes in P + H suggest toilets on upper floors  ➔ Private homes often had the kitchen and toilet together ➔ Public toilets were known for attracting vermin and sometimes erupted in flames due to gases Religion Private/Household Worship ➔ Shrine in your home ➔ Lararium (household shrine) → alter in the home where rituals would occur ◆ Young men (lares) holding a drinking horn ◆ Guy in the middle would be the spirit of the household and is represented by the paterfamilias ◆ Snake protected the hearth and bought fertility ◆ Also found in shops → bring business and luck ➔ Household rituals ◆ Daily household prayers for protection Source Content - Household shrine from the House of the Vettii → - Represents the lares and the spirit of the household Pompeii Public Worship ➔ Was done in temples ➔ Centred around but not only found in the forum → large temples ◆ E.g. Capitoline Triad Temple of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva ➔ Several dozens of street altars throughout the city indicates that the role of religion was in everyday life ◆ Allow them to connect with the gods physically Foreign Cults ➔ Cult of Isis ◆ Popular especially with women ◆ There was a lot of Egyptian influence ◆ Isis was the mother goddess promoting fertility and healing the sick as well as offering followers immortality ◆ Festival: Navigation of Isis → boat to seashore purifying it with water and sulphur to pray for the protection of soldiers ◆ Source: Wall scene in Herculaneum depicting worship of Isis Fresco of Priest and Priestess of Isis in Pompeii Temple of Isis in Pompeii ○ Greek influence → Corinthian columns ➔ Cult of Dionysus ◆ Grapes and wine ◆ Cult spread like contagious disease because who wouldn't want a feast and drink wine ◆ Colt was kept as a secret due to the belief that it was a threat to society however it still continued to flourish ◆ Source: Villa of Mysteries: Famous walls scenes talking about the cult of Bacchus, depicting Dionysus, his wife , fauns and winged figures engaging in rituals Foreign Religion ➔ Judaism + Christianity in P + H ◆ Source: Judaism = Graffiti of biblical names of Mary + inscriptions on amphorae Christianity = Faded inscription with the word Christian + impression of a cross on a wall in H Tombs and Burials ➔ Outside the city walls tombs line the streets of each city ➔ Strong tradition of honouring the dead ➔ Rich people = monuments showing their value in public life ◆ E.g. Umbricius Scaurus has scenes from gladiatorial games ➔ Tombs were family based ➔ Inscriptions give us information about the name rank and general lives of a particular person ➔ Incorrectly buried bodies were thought to become ghosts Key Temples Temple Information Temple of Jupiter/Capitoline Triad ➔ In P’s Forum ➔ Dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva ➔ Centre of State religion ➔ Reflects status of P as a Roman colony Temple of the Public Lares ➔ In P’s Forum ➔ Dedicated to the town lares who were worshipped an important statues displayed ➔ Public representation of the lares worshipped in the home Imperial Cult Building ➔ In P’s Forum ➔ Dedicated to the Imperial cult at Pompeii ➔ Originally built for the dedication to goddess Fortuna but in 3 BC Augustus was added Hall of the Augustales-freedmen ➔ Potentially linked to the Imperial Cult worship ➔ Is H's basilica The Influence of Greek and Egyptian Cultures Greek ➔ Columns ◆ Greek influence is seen in the style of columns used in both public and private buildings ◆ E.g. Greek columns from House of Relief (H) ➔ Greek Buildings ◆ Temple of Apollo ◆ Doric Temple ◆ House of Faun ➔ Layout of theatre in Pompeii ➔ Greek Mythology ◆ Alexander Mosaic → House of Faun Greek fighting Persians Egyptian ➔ Temple of Isis (P) + Worship of Isis Fresco (H) ◆ Art showing worship of Egyptian gods and Egyptian landscape ➔ House of Faun (P) ◆ Nilotic scenes → what they thought the Nile looked like ◆ Includes animals seen in Egypt and North Africa ➔ Architecture → water feature Changing Interpretations: Impact of New Research and Technologies Overall Assessment ➔ Big change = archeology has become more scientific ◆ Computers ◆ DNA research ◆ Anthropologists → studies of humans ◆ Medical imagery ◆ Laser scanning ➔ Tech has changed and improved our understanding of different aspects of the site ➔ New tech allows for reinterpretation of old assumptions and brings new information to light Herculaneum Conservation Program (HCP) ➔ Maiuri was conserving but doing dodgy things → damaging the site ➔ Problems with the site ◆ Rainfall ◆ Evidence being damaged ➔ Wallace- Hadrill → use less invasive techniques to conserve Herculaneum ◆ Weather tracking machine → understand environmental conditions ◆ Laser Speckle Interferometry → allows for paintings, plaster and mosaics to be examined without creating damage Great Pompeii Project (GPP) ➔ Started because of a massive collapse of walls around 2010 ➔ Issues ◆ Tourists smokings ◆ Dogs everywhere ➔ Started in 2013  ◆ Use social media to promote the site and conservation efforts ➔ Used CT scans to analyse plaster casts (Estelle Lazer) ➔ New inscriptions were found which challenged the portrayal of the eruption written in Pliny the Elder's letters ➔ Skeletons discovered showed evidence of Greek influence (language) Pompeii Cast Project (Estelle Lazer) ➔ Aim → understand what actually happened to the victims ➔ 2013, USYD team ➔ Archaeologists tried to preserve bodies in plaster-free methods → not sustainable ➔ CAT scans → most bodies didn't have full skeleton ➔ Casts created for many reasons → romanticising the tragedy Philodemus Project (H) ➔ Aim → reconstruct and decipher texts found in H ➔ Contained in the villa of Papyri ➔ Conservation of carbonised scrolls need to be done properly as if you touch them they just disintegrate ➔ Use technology to read the scrolls with things such as X rays and digital photography ➔ While the results were limited they did bring to slide some literature Issues of Conservation and Reconstruction: Italian and International Contributions and Responsibilities Conservation + Reconstruction ➔ Conservation → act of safeguarding the objects and structures of the past ➔ Reconstruction → repaint/rebuild things ◆ Unstable walls ◆ Foundational problems Conservation Issues ➔ Archaeology = destruction. ◆ As soon as a site is exposed to the elements, it begins to decompose. As soon as you touch things, you are destructing stuff ➔ Dangers of the natural elements (rain, hail, extreme sun) ➔ Issues with previous excavations and techniques (e.g. Maiuri- saw sites as for tourism; saw it as an opportunity) ➔ Issues with site maintenance and management ➔ Accusations of corruption in Italy ➔ Humans → touch stuff, rubbish, flash photography, backpacks brush frescoes Sources ➔ New York TImes ◆ Restored Julia Felix estate (IS NOW BEAUTIFUL + LUXURIOUS) = tourists are able to visit it- building saved by GPP ◆ Lots of tourists; not enough people for everyday maintenance of site ◆ Autonomous entity = keeps revenue generated by tickets ◆ Just restoring isn’t enough = need to maintain after restoration ➔ Minerva Archaeology + Ancient Art ◆ House of Bicentenary → classic layout for a Roman house ◆ Thick layer of tuff on Herculaneum from Mt Vesuvius eruption = hard to excavate ◆ House of Bicentenary = untouched by tunnellers (initial people who excavated H) ◆ Maiuri = uncovered House of Bicentenary for first time Ethical Issues Excavation and Conservation ➔ YES (Robert Fowler- let’s dig!): ◆ Unique enough to be excavated ◆ Partially excavated villa which must be fully excavated; volcano might hinder chances of excavating by destroying the villa (Mt Vesuvius might erupt again) ➔ NO (Andrew Wallace-Hadrill- let’s NOT dig!- leader of HCP): ◆ There is no immediate threat to actually excavate the villa (is the time now?) ◆ Talks about how CONSERVATION should take priority over any EXCAVATION ◆ H at risk due to water etc. - digging will release water Study and Display of Human Remains ➔ Italy doesn’t have issues with displaying human remains → first conference on ethics of human remains was in 2019 in Italy → idea of relics in Catholic religion ➔ Should human remains be displayed? ◆ early and later treatment of human remains in Pompeii and Herculaneum Early → little regard for human remains (destroyed/tossed aside/smashed to find ‘treasures’ + taken as souvenirs) + props for “theatrical” displays Later → much better treatment with modern techniques (harder to restore- only 100 were found despite the 1150 victims) ◆ Different attitudes with regard to the benefits of display of human remains- provided valuable info about everyday life (diet, appearance, life, nature of eruption etc.)  today, great care and respect to preserve them (not really displayed to the public due to ‘ethical’ issues even though they’re popular) ◆ the ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums (human remains = ‘sensitive materials’; require respect) is generally respected and makes no demands to ban displays ➔ Bones ◆ Sara Bisel (Herculaneum)- in boatshed, discovered 139 bodies in 1982 in H on the beach/shoreline; studied them + left for tourists to look at as they began to disintegrate (replicas of the skeletal remains were also put into museums) H was not as affected by the eruption and hence bones were intact Stories been fabricated around these human remains of bones ◆ Estelle Lazer (Pompeii)- in 2009, excavation resumed + studied these skeletons (in P: victims’ remains were revealed by Fiorelli + his casts) P was more affected, meaning we have both skeletal remains + plaster casts IN POMPEII- 80’s you see her with a lot of bones (bones were just thrown away) → PCP is now about changing interpretations of human remains ➔ Plaster Casts ◆ props in the stories of the lives of people ◆ casts reveal nature of eruption + Fiorelli’s contribution to archaeology ◆ do not offend but do disturb- show individuals suffering ◆ early history: Maiuri and use of 'stories' surrounding the casts ◆ on site: sometime haphazard display (e.g. 'Muleteer' in storeroom near forum) in Pompeian Museum until 1975 when broken into and looted - then stored in Olitorium; now stored in Naples Archaeological Museum + other museums ◆ recent exhibitions: 2015 in the 'pyramid' in the Amphitheatre; displays 20 plaster casts of the victims of the eruption casts on black stands → strange, odd way to display human remains  was displaying them inside the pyramid ethical when indigenous cultures are contentious with how remains should be dealt with Value and Impact of Tourism ➔ Double edged sword Value Negative Impact ➔ Economic value ➔ Degradation of site ◆ Ticket revenue being put back to the site ◆ Tourism and conservation don't mix ◆ Goes to conservation ➔ Intentional ➔ Cultural value ◆ Touching of walls ◆ Allows people to engage in the history of P + H ◆ Flash photography ➔ Helps the local economy ◆ Graffiti on frescoes ◆ Theft ➔ Unintentional ◆ Wear and tear Steps on Temple of Apollo being worn down Solutions ➔ UNESCO implemented the World Heritage Sustainable Tourism Program in 2011 which involved a new approach for tourism + site management ➔ WORLD HERITAGE REPORT 2017 recommends diversion of people to nearby sites such as H to conserve P, as it is a world heritage site.  Greek World Persian Imperialism ➔ Sealey: ◆ Aim was conquest ➔ Persian King: Cyrus the Great ◆ Founded Achaemenid Dynasty ◆ Ionia was the final frontier b/w Persia and mainland Greece → ruled by Greek tyrants ◆ Cyrus sent troops to conquer Ionian cities ◆ Enslaved the Greeks ◆ Forced to obey Persia Ionian Revolt → William Shepherd Background ➔ Geographical Context ◆ Ionia, located on the western coast of Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), was a region of Greek city-states under Persian control. ➔ Persian Control ◆ After the fall of Lydia (546 BCE), Ionia came under Persian rule. ◆ The Ionian cities were governed by tyrants installed by the Persians, who were often unpopular among the local population. ➔ Discontent and Causes ◆ Heavy taxation and demands for tribute by the Persians. ◆ Desire for political autonomy and dissatisfaction with tyrannical rule. Outbreak of the Revolt ➔ Initial Spark (499 BCE):  ◆ The revolt began in Miletus, led by its tyrant Aristagoras, who initially sought Persian support for a campaign in Naxos but failed. ◆ Facing backlash and fearing retribution, Aristagoras renounced his tyranny and encouraged a rebellion against Persian rule. ➔ Spreading of the Revolt: ◆ The revolt quickly spread to other Ionian cities, which also deposed their tyrants and established democratic governments. ◆ Aristagoras sought support from mainland Greece, securing aid from Athens and Eretria. Key Events: ➔ Athenian and Eritrean Involvement: ◆ Athens sent 20 ships and Eretria sent 5 ships to support the Ionians ➔ Attack on Sardis (498 BCE): ◆ The Ionian rebels, supported by the Athenians and Eretrians, marched to Sardis, the satrapal capital of Lydia. ◆ They succeeded in burning part of the city, including the temple of Cybele, but were ultimately forced to retreat. ➔ Persian Counteroffensive: ◆ The Persians, led by Darius I, launched a counteroffensive to suppress the revolt. ◆ A series of battles ensued, with the Persians gradually reclaiming control over the rebellious cities. ➔ Naval Battles: ◆ The naval battle of Lade (494 BCE) was a decisive conflict where the Persian fleet defeated the Ionian fleet. ◆ Internal divisions and lack of coordination among the Ionians contributed to their defeat. Conclusion and Aftermath: ➔ Fall of Miletus (494 BCE): ◆ Miletus, the heart of the rebellion, was besieged and captured by the Persians. The city was sacked, and its inhabitants were either killed or enslaved. This marked the end of the Ionian Revolt. ➔ Repression and Punishments:  ◆ The Persians reasserted their control over Ionia, installing more compliant local rulers and re-establishing order. ◆ Harsh punishments were meted out to deter future rebellions. ➔ Long-term Consequences: ◆ The revolt exposed weaknesses in Persian control and highlighted the spirit of Greek resistance. ◆ It set the stage for future conflicts between Greece and Persia, as the involvement of Athens and Eretria led to Persian plans for retribution against these city-states, ultimately leading to the Persian Wars. Historical Significance: ➔ Greek Unity: ◆ The revolt fostered a sense of unity among the Greek city-states, despite its failure. ◆ It underscored the cultural and political differences between the Greeks and Persians, galvanising future resistance. ➔ Persian Response: ◆ The revolt led Darius I to focus on securing and expanding Persian control over the Greek mainland. ◆ This desire for retribution directly influenced the Persian invasions of Greece in 490 BCE (Battle of Marathon) and 480 BCE (Second Persian invasion). Key Figures: ➔ Aristagoras: The tyrant of Miletus who instigated the revolt and sought support from mainland Greece. ➔ Darius I: The Persian king who decisively suppressed the revolt and later sought to punish Athens and Eretria for their support of the Ionians. Marathon Key Features Athenians v Persians ➔ 30 000 Persians ◆ Datis and Artaphernes commanded the Persian army under Darius I’s orders ◆ Darius I wanted revenge for the Ionian revolt → made servant remind him about it for years  ➔ 11 000 Athenians ◆ Led by Militades ◆ Aided by 1000 Plataenas ◆ 1000 men each from 11 tribes ◆ Asked Spartans for help → religious festival meant they couldn't ➔ Persian Motivation (Tom Holland) ◆ To extend Persian conquest ◆ Revenge for the Ionian revolt Pre-Battle ➔ Darius was angered as the Athenians had sent their help during the revolt ➔ Darius sent envoys the Sparta in Athens to demand surrender and were denied ➔ Mardonius (Persian commander) led his forces, fleet and army, from Western front ◆ Invaded Macedonia ◆ Fleet was hurt and he was deprived of his command ➔ Datis replaced Mardonius ◆ Army crossed through the Aegean → conquered islands on the way ◆ Landed in Eritrea Suffered a week of assault → town left in ruins Revenge for the burning of Sardis during Ionian Revolt Battlefield ➔ Greeks chose the site → mountains prevented Persian cavalry from joining Persian infantry ➔ Along the coast ◆ Easy for the Greeks to maintain high position ◆ Easy for Persains flee Strategy ➔ Athenian ◆ Miltiades was the general for Athens and responsible for the war strategy He didn’t want to do the defensive strategy and instead wanted to meet the Persians in the middle ◆ The Athenians had a good defensive position as they were camped on raised ground, with steeper ground rising sheer behind them ◆ The Athenians prompted the battle and fought on their own terms → noticed half the Persians were leaving ◆ Motivated by the possibility of the Persians retreating back to the sea and attacking Athens from there ◆ Athenians formed a position where the left and right wings would close in on the Persians ◆ Had to summon all available hoplites → even then they were still outnumbered 2 to 1 ◆ Utilised a ‘phalanx’ formation that proved to be successful ➔ Persian ◆ Darius would lead the army at Marathon Reluctant to initiate battle ◆ May have been aware that the Athenians were expecting reinforcements ◆ Decided to split the army into 2 → half would go and attack Athens Army did not attack at Athens and instead returned home Armour + Weaponry ➔ Athenian armour and weaponry was much more advanced compared to the Persians ◆ Bronze armour vs quilted jerkins ➔ Persia had a variety of soldiers ◆ They all worked for Persia but many of them didn’t share a common language ◆ Meant that it was hard to manage ➔ Athenians had heavy armour and weaponry unlike the Persians ➔ The Persians were lightly armoured and couldn’t take the Athenians in a head-on confrontation → relied on archers Outcomes Greece ➔ Moral + psychological victory ◆ Motivates them for the rest of war ◆ Shows Persia can be defeated ◆ Sign that the Gods are w/ them ➔ Led to more poli joining ➔ Provides insight into Persian military tactics and skills ➔ Gave them ten years to prepare ➔ Showed that Athens could win without Sparta Persia ➔ Sees it as a minor loss ➔ Showed that the Greeks were not not something to underestimate ➔ Allowed them to see the flaws in their fighting abilities Interwar Period Persian Preparations ➔ Change of strategy → decided that a combined land and sea offensive was needed ◆ This would require a large army to march from Persia to Greece, accompanied by a navy to provide support and communication ➔ Diplomatic manoeuvres ◆ 481 BC Xerxes (X) sent envoys throughout Greece with the exception of Athens and Sparta demanding earth and water the traditional tokens of submission → Many states complied with his demands ➔ Recruitment of army and navy ◆ Combine infantry and cavalry forces of over 200 000  ◆ Navy included warships, supply ships and horse transports ➔ Building the Hellespont ◆ A bridge built of boats was constructed across the Garus part of the Hellespont to enable a more efficient movement of troops ➔ Supply depots set up ◆ Stores of provisions for the army and Navy were established at key locations along the coast of Thrace and Macedonia ➔ Bridging the Strymon river ◆ The Strymon River in Thrace was bridged near its mouth not far from the supply depot at Eion ➔ Canal dug through Mt Athos Peninsula ◆ This was to allow the fleet to pass safely Greek Preparations ➔ Persians were not their priority ➔ Themistocles’ (T) Naval Policy ◆ T believed that Athens future lay on the sea as a trading power → advocated improvement to the harbour at Athens and the beginning of a major shipbuilding programme ◆ T had suggested fortifying the Piraeus peninsula and this work was interrupted by the Persian attack ◆ Used to the war against Agina to point out to the Athenians that a large fleet was needed if they wished to control sea routes Persuaded the Athenians to pay for the building of a fleet using the silver from the mines ➔ Preparations for Invasion ◆ Delegates were more Greek states met in 481 BC to plan and prepare for defence ◆ Hellenic League was established and it was agreed that all disputes between Greek states should cease The league lacked unity from the star tas the sense of Greek national identity had not yet been born  T realised the importance of unity and was willing to surrender the overall command to the Spartans The Peloponnesian states advocated a strategy base of the defence of Isthmus → would result in the sacrifice of the Northern states many already submitted ➔ Delphic Oracle ◆ In 481 to 480 BC the Athenian saw advice from the Delphic Oracle ◆ Oracle's response was pessimistic and advised Athenians to abandon or resistance to Persia ◆ Athenians requested a second reading ◆ Oracle advised to look to wooden walls Older people believe the woods referred to the fence surrounding the Acropolis where only that would survive destruction Others believe the wooden walls referred to the wooden ships Athens was building ○ They recommended Athenians abandoned Attica and build a new city abroad ○ T Also saw the wooden walls as wooden wavy nestles and argued that the Athenians take their ships and stand against Persia that the island of Salamis ○ Oracle used words divine Salamis which meant Greek success ➔ Second meeting of the Hellenic League ◆ Decided that the best overall strategy to counter the invasion was to contain Persia's army and Navy in narrow areas This would make it impossible for them to deploy the huge number of tropes and ships in a traditional open formation ◆ Another important strategy was to prevent the Persian fleet from carrying out its role of maintaining the extended supply lives to the army ◆ The first legend of defence at which the Greeks chose to implement the strategy was the narrow mountain pass at Tempe in Thessaly  However it was discovered that there were several routes through the mountains that the Greeks could not all defend As well as the mounded people not being reliable ◆ Alternative was a narrow pass between the mountains and sea at Thermopylae Thermopylae (Cartledge) Key Features Greeks v Persians ➔ 7000 Greeks ◆ Comprised of mainly Athenians, but many other Greeks participated in the battle, most notably the Spartans Led by the Spartan King, Leonidus ➔ 300,000~ Persians ◆ 10,000 ‘Immortals’ The Persian emperor’s elite bodyguards who would be immediately replaced if one fell ◆ Led by the King of Persia, Xerxes I Pre-Battle ➔ King Leonidas was less optimistic going into the battle due to many reasons ◆ Oracle of Delphi prophesied that a Spartan King would fall if the Persian army were to lose ◆ The Spartans set out for battle during a religious festival, which is considered bad luck ◆ When picking soldiers for his army of 300 men, he only chose those who had male heirs to continue the family line Battlefield ➔ Athenian Navy held off Persian ships to prevent them from landing on the shores behind Thermopylae ◆ This forces the Persian army to fight at Thermopylae  ➔ The Greeks chose Thermopylae as their battlefield due to the many benefits ◆ Narrow pass which was easily defensible ◆ Gateway to Greece ◆ Mountainous ◆ Peninsula (a piece of land surrounded mainly by water) ◆ Easy for the rest of the Greek army to escape Timeline ➔ The Battle occurred in 480 BCE during the Greco-Persian Wars ◆ Greek Strategy Leonidas stood with his fellow Spartans in the narrowest place of the pass Greek army defended the lower wall Other Greeks stood behind the Spartans Leonidas sent 1000 Phocians to guard a hidden path that was discovered that would lead the Persians to behind the Greek lines ◆ Persian Strategy Xerxes had a throne set up on a nearby hill ➔ Xerxes commenced battle on the 4th day ◆ Greek Strategy The Spartans groomed themselves and exercised as a way to psyche themselves up OR as a religious practice so their bodies would be prepared for the afterlife ◆ Persian Strategy Gave the Persian army time to rest Believed that when the Greeks saw the size of his army they would run away in fear ➔ On the 5th day, Xerxes ordered his troops forward ◆ Greek Strategy Greeks lined up in a ‘forest of spears’ Stood soldier to soldier and formed a wall of shields ◆ Persian Strategy Sent his most mediocre soldiers in first Persian swords were not effective against Greek shields ➔ For two days it seemed that the Greeks would win. ◆ Greek Strategy During the first two days of battle it is said that the Greeks killed over 10,000 Persian soldiers ◆ Persian Strategy A Greek shepherd asked to meet with Xerxes ○ Told Xerxes about the Anopaea path, a secret path that went through the mountains and would lead the Persians behind the Greek forces ➔ During the night, Xerxes led his forces through the path ◆ Greek Strategy Leonidas was informed before the Persians reached them, and ordered his soldiers to retreat south for the final battle He sent the other Greeks home but him and his 300 Spartans, and a group of Thespians (Thebes) stayed back ◆ Persian Strategy The Immortals quickly defeated the Phocians ➔ On the third day (8th day) the battle would finish ◆ Herodotus Account The Persians attacked first  ◆ Greek Strategy Leonidas and his men repositioned themselves in an open area in order to kill the Persians Fought like they had nothing to lose ◆ Persian Strategy Towards the end of the battle they used bows and arrows to kill the remaining soldiers instead of hand to hand combat → considered cowardly Armour + Weaponry ➔ Greek Armour ◆ Sculpted breastplate ◆ Wore masks to intimidate their enemies ➔ Greek Weapons ◆ Used thrusting spears ◆ Short swords for close combat ◆ Thick shields made of wood ➔ Persian Armour ◆ Light protection ➔ Persian Weapons ◆ Relied heavily on archers ◆ Fast moving warfare Outcomes ➔ Effect on Persians ◆ Lost many soldiers  ◆ Blow to Xerxes’ army’s morale ◆ Delayed and hindered the Persian army ➔ Effect on Greeks ◆ Inspired fellow Greeks with the Spartan sacrifice ◆ Sent a message of hope and pride, evident through the commemorative statue ◆ Allowed the other Greek soldiers to escape and prepare for future battles ◆ Military disaster for the Greeks The Persian invasion had only been halted for a little ○ The way to central Greece was now open for them Postwar Strategy Greek Motives + Strategy ➔ Reasons: ◆ Defeat the Persians? ◆ Hold off the Persians long enough? ➔ Smith ◆ Themistoclese saw Thermopylae as a delaying tactic so that they could evacuate the Athenians Would flee to Troezen (women + children) → chosen at it was located in the Peloponnesian Peninsula ○ More secure compared to Salamis And Salamis (old men + belongings of Athens) → where final battle would commence ○ Salamis is quite vulnerable but these men are considered to be expendable Some remained in Athens (small amount of priests and the elderly) Themistocles uses religion to convince them to leave → says Athena wants them to leave ○ A magical holy snake disappeared without eating its food, meaning that Athena has abandoned Athens  ○ Subtly states the ‘wooden walls’ in the prophecy were the ships ➔ Clediemus ◆ Cryptic that criticised Themistocles He criticised the disappearance of the solid gold gorgon head that vanished and attributed it to Themistocles ○ Recognised for his ability to evacuate everyone in time ○ Athens deserted but enough people left to repopulate Artemisium (Smith) Triremes ➔ Warship used by both Greek and Persian navies ◆ 3 banks of oars, one above another ◆ Manned by abt 200 men ◆ Persian ships from Phoenicia, Egypt and Ionia ➔ Persian tactic → maintain close formation and row alongside enemy ships to crash sides and rain arrows ➔ Greek tactic → ramming with forward keel of each trireme equipped with bronze plated ram, where open formation allowed them to manoeuvre Actual Battle ➔ Storm destroyed up to 200 Persian ships with wreckage spreading 80km ➔ Greeks were intimidated → Themistocles bribed Spartan admiral in charge of Navy, Eurybiades, to stay at Artemisium ➔ Greek navy of 271 triremes were able to avoid dangers of storm in Euripus channel ➔ Persian fleet took position at Aphetae, Greeks off Artemisium ➔ Persians hoped to encircle Greeks with 200 ships that were destroyed in another summer storm  ➔ 3 battles fought 1. Greeks rowed out to meet Persian fleet, 700 Persian ships to fight Persian wanted to capture Greek triremes intact, X promised a bounty for every ship taken → money more motivating than glory Greeks used Kyklos defence → smaller force formed circle with rams pointing outwards, preventing enemy ships disrupting their formation Upon signal Greeks charged Persians head on and stopped any manoeuvrability 2. During the night, storm damage to Persains encouraged Greeks to raid part of the Persian fleet engaged in ship repair 3. In final encounter, Persians sailed towards Artemisium Persians formed an offensive semicircle, in which Greeks attacked head on Both sustained casualties, Persians withdrew No clear win, Greek navy then hears of loss at Thermopylae Persians seek to take Boeotia and advance through Attica to the gate of Athens Themistocles to evacuate his city → sacked later Results of Artemisium ➔ Despite indecisive results, Greek morale was high and Athenians given prize for valour ➔ Persians moved slowly along the coast whilst sacking coastal villages ➔ Persians arrived at Phalerum (Athens harbour) at same time army entered Attica ➔ Central Greece lay wide open after 3 days of battle, Boeotia submitted and cities burnt ➔ Difficulties of the battle seen in weather, Greek raids, and restricted fighting in straits ➔ Meant Persians would not be able to divide fleet and make raids against Peloponnese as diversions ➔ Could not afford risk of defeat and loss of the campaign, forced to concentrate at 1 point Therm + Artem Assessments What Went Wrong? Thermopylae ➔ Greeks were very outnumbered by the Persians ➔ Significant part was the traitor who told X about the secret pathway → allowed the Persians to ambush the Spartans Artemisium ➔ “Tactical Retreat” → response to the loss of Thermopylae ➔ Even at the start not psychologically ready ➔ Storm takes out ⅓ of Persian fleet → moderate loss, but Greeks still outnumbered ◆ Their loss made the Persians kept their fleet together Sacking of Athens Persian Advance: ➔ After Thermopylae, the Persian army marched southward, encountering minimal resistance due to the Greek withdrawal strategy. ➔ The Persians reached Athens, finding it largely deserted except for a few defenders who had taken refuge on the Acropolis. Destruction: ➔ The Persians attacked the Acropolis, the last stronghold of the defenders, leading to a fierce but brief resistance. ➔ Xerxes' forces burned and destroyed significant parts of Athens, including the Acropolis and various temples, in retribution for the Greek resistance. ➔ The sacking symbolised the peak of Persian aggression and their temporary dominance over mainland Greece. Salamis (Strauss) ➔ Marked the beginning of the end of the Persian invasion of Greece  ➔ Ships that returned from Artemisium lay off the island of Salamis → under Eurybiades command ◆ 381 Greek ships ◆ Around 500 Persian ships ➔ Debate on where the fleets should engage with Persians (HERODOTUS) ➔ Acropolis was taken → set on fire (X’s revenge for burning of temple of Sardis during Ionian Revolt) ➔ Salamis chosen to engage Persians and protect Athenian refugees ➔ T gave a speech to convince Greeks to fight and stay at Salmis ◆ Also threatened to remove Athenian fleet and sail to Italy to reestablish Athens (#blackmailboss) Persian Conference ➔ Xerxes did not have to fight at Salamis, and could have bypassed the island. ➔ Motives for battle expected to be removal of the Greek fleet. ◆ Likely a response to pressure from the approaching winter ◆ Xerxes could not afford to divide fleet with low numbers after storms ➔ Xerxes held conference with naval commanders to get viewpoints on forcing a sea battle ◆ They spoke in favour of Xerxes desire for battle in fear ➔ Xerxes took position on cliff to watch over battles events ➔ Xerxes hoped for Greeks to quarrel and betray each other Themistocles Trick (#pranksta) ➔ While debated, T is praised for luring X into Salamis ➔ T sent a slave to a deliver a message to X ◆ The message said that the Greeks were going to leave out of fear of the Persians and if X wanted to defeat them he would have to do it right now (AESCHYLUS) Actual Battle ➔ X divided his fleet to catch Greek triremes ◆ Egyptian triremes would take no part in battle ◆ Phoenicians and Ionians blocked the channels around the small island of Psyttaleia at east and south ➔ Persians waited all night ➔ Corinthian squadron of 50 ships hurry northwest as bait ➔ Ships had their sails up as a trick → battle calls for them to be left on shore ➔ X sent in numerous squadrons into the narrow channel ➔ Persians trapped ➔ Phonenician leader was killed early on → X couldn’t convey orders for a distance ➔ Phoenicians + Ionian Greeks fled ➔ Queen Artemisia of Halicarnassus rammed a ship on her own side to make the Greeks think she was an ally, letting her flee to safety → X thought she brought down a Greek ship (#baddiewhomanipulatedbothsides) ➔ In the end Persian’s lost real bad Significance of Salamis ➔ High casualties for Persia → many high ranking officers ➔ At least 200 Persian ships sunk ➔ Persian land sea attacks now impossible ➔ Loyalty of Ionian Greeks weakened → revolt in 479 BC ➔ Persians established headquarters at island of Samos → army without supply lines Xerxes Leaves Greece ➔ X chose to leave Greece was a result of 2 meeting with Mardonius and Queen Artemisia (HERODOTUS) ◆ Leaves Mardonius behind with 300 000 troops ➔ Athens had been punished → fulfils Darius’ wish ➔ Mardonius attempts diplomacy and bribery to break Greek alliance ◆ Athens refused → Mardonius marched against Athens evacuated once again (#horribleplacetolive) Spartans sent a force to help under Pausanius Platea (Herodotus) 1st Phase ➔ Plataea was chosen bc it was good for cavalry and was close to Thebes ➔ Perians built 900 acre stockade along river as backup protection ➔ Mardonius camped men along Asopus River facing Greek Mt pass entry ➔ Greeks came from Cithaeron ranges on opposite side of river ➔ Mardonius send cavalry repeatedly to harass Greeks ➔ Cavalry retreated due to leader being killed 2nd Phase ➔ Pausanias moved troops to Asopus Ridge, giving Greeks room to function ➔ Mardonius continued to send cavalry, stopping Greeks from getting water from the river ◆ Leading the Greeks to rely on water from a nearby spring ➔ Persians intercepted Greeks brining supplies  ➔ On the 12 day, mounted archer fouled the spring → meant no water ➔ NOTE: still no infantry involvement 3rd Phase ➔ Pausanias and Greeks moved at night → 3 divisions separated ➔ Mardonius thought they were escaping (#stupid) → sent cavalry and infantry across the river ➔ Spartans dominantly impacted ➔ Pausanias attempted to get help from Athenians → overtaken by Thebans and Thessalians ➔ Megarians and non Peloponnese went to help Athens ➔ Peloponnese led by Corinth attempted to close gap b/w them and Spartans ➔ Spartans waited in battle formation for Pausanias who ordered they charge in ➔ Mardonius were killed → Perisan troops fled due to lack of leader ➔ Other Persian commander took the rest of Persians and fled back ➔ Greeks breach the fort ◆ Took no prisoners and slaughtered fugitives ➔ 10 days later Greeks took Thebes and put leaders to death for medising Significance of Platea ➔ Put an end to the invasion of mainland Greece ◆ Struggle continued in northern Aegean and East → Greeks took offensive ◆ Showed how the Greeks could work together and succeed ◆ Encouraged the Ionian Greeks to revolt against the Persians Mykale ➔ Ionian refugees informed Spartan admiral Leotychidas from the Greek fleet that Perisan could be defeated easily ➔ Greeks sailed to Samas, Persians retreated and built another stockade ➔ Leotychidas proclaimed freedom for Ionian Greeks so Persian army would mutiny and change sides ➔ Greeks landed further down coast ➔ Persains faced Athenains with wall of shields, line broke and Persians retreat to stockade ➔ Greeks broke palisade (fence) and Spartans arrived to fight ➔ Ionians guarding hills passes changed slides and slaughtered Persians ➔ Greeks burnt Persians ships and the fort and took control (HERODOTUS) Results ➔ Greeks retired to Samas to decide future of Ionia ➔ Peloponnesian naval commanders suggested Ionians settle in medised cities ◆ Typical of Peloponnesians who didn’t want permanent troops in Aegean area ➔ Athenians objected for both impracticality and Ionians were originally Athenian colonists ◆ Agreed to enrol Ionians in Hellenic League ➔ Greek fleet with Ionians sailed to Hellespont to destroy Xerxes’ bridges but they were already gone ➔ Athenians attacked Sestos, refusing to leave until Persians all killed, captured, ransomed Significance ➔ Ended Persian threat to greek mainland and freed Greeks of Ionia ➔ Greeks and Persians continued to be at war with each other until 448 BC ➔ Ushered new phase of Greek history → supremacy of Athens Role and Contributions Themistocles (T) ➔ Persuaded Athens to pursue naval power ➔ Convinced Athenians to spend the silver found at Laurium on ships ➔ Was important for the creation and continuation of the Hellenic League → brought together 31 states to fight the Persians ➔ T convinced Athenians and wider Greeks that Delphic Oracle’s message refereed to wooden walls of the ships ➔ Convinced Athens to evacuate → IF TROEZEN INSCRIPTION is to be trusted ➔ Promoted land and sea strategy of Thermoplae and Artemisium ◆ Essential in Artemisium ➔ Helped the decision to fight at Salamis ➔ T’s trick at Salamis is what made the victory important ➔ Sources ◆ HERODOTUS: T was regarded everywhere as the wisest of the Greeks and was held in high esteem by the Spartans ◆ THUCYDIDES: T could easily consider complex matters and quickly reach a conclusion ◆ PLUTARCH: T was considered a very honest man ◆ EHRENBERG: It was T’s naval policy that determined the course of the century ◆ BURY: T realised the potential of Athens with the energy and perseverance to see his vision through ➔ NOTE: his career would end in disgrace Leonidas (Leo) ➔ Was an inspiration for Greece ➔ Led the Peloponnesian forces north with the 300 ➔ Prompt action prevented many Greek states medising ➔ Realised the pass at Tempe was indefensible → moves to Thermopylae  ➔ The stand against the Persians at Thermopylae bought time for Greeks to organise ➔ Inspired Greeks to fight ➔ Sources ◆ HERODOTUS: Leo fell fighting bravely, with many other brave Spartans ◆ A. R. BURN: Leo sacrificed his own life so that others may live to fight another day Eurybiades (Eury) ➔ Spartan general in charge of the Greek fleet at Artemisium ◆ Not keen to fight at Artemisium ◆ Had to be bribed by T to stay ➔ At Salamis, he sought advice from captains on where to fight ➔ Eury was convinced by T to fight at Salamis ➔ Eury was awarded the prize of courage (wreath of olive) Pausanias (Paw) ➔ After the defeat of Persia, Paw’s rep suffered due to his arrogance ➔ Significance for his contribution at Plataea ➔ Commanded force of 100 000 men from 24 states that were independent and jealous ➔ Maintaining unity of the Greek army was an achievement ➔ Faced logistical problems in supplying troops with food and drinkable water Conclusion Reasons for Greek victory and Persian Defeat ➔ Paw’s leadership at Plataea  ➔ T policy of developing Athenian naval strategy ➔ X’s overconfidence ➔ Greek unity ➔ Superior Greek army and equipment ➔ Geography of Greece ➔ Greek Morale → defending their home ➔ Leo’s legacy ➔ Themistocles’ stubbornness at Salamis ➔ Spartan leadership ➔ Athens’ willingness to comply with Spartan command of the navy → something that was very unexpected due to the history b/w the two states ➔ Impact of delaying Persian forces at Thermopylae ➔ Decision to fight at Salamis ➔ Mardonius’ recklessness in persuading Xerxes to invade Greece ➔ The Persian need to supply a massive force in foreign territory ➔ Gods on the Greek side (impacts morale [doesn't actually do anything]) ➔ Greek military tactics ➔ Superiority of Greek triremes ➔ Greek decision to avoid reckless, early confrontation Delian League Origins ➔ Athens was accepted as a leader ◆ Pausanias accused of medism ◆ Pausanias arrogance offended the Greeks  ➔ Sparta didn’t want to continue to fight Persia ➔ Larsen → Founded as a permanent offensive and defensive league Aims ➔ Compensate the greeks for the lost by looting the persian kings lands ➔ Liberate the states still under persian control ➔ Economic motives for athens ➔ Conduct naval war on persia ➔ Larsen → Not to create an empire for athens ◆ Athens represented equally ➔ Thuc. says they had hidden motives and wanted an empire from the start ◆ Buckley: Criticises Thuc emphasis on the Athenian suppression of their allies rather than the campaigns against Persia for using hindsight to add onto the Athenians motive Organisation Money + Ships ➔ Led to phoros (tribute) → determined by Aristides the Just ◆ Kagen → All controlled by the Athenians and the league was ok with it as they needed the Athenians ➔ Phoros could either be money or ships ◆ Ships meant that they had to serve the league ◆ Money was used to fund ships and men → Athenians ➔ All money went to the treasury at Delos Leadership ➔ The league was divided into zones ➔ They voted at delos → each state had one vote HOWEVER the allies could easily be manipulated ito voting with Athens (Kagen + Larsen) ➔ Athens was the official leader (haegamon) ◆ Supplied commanders ◆ Gave them more influence → pro-Athenian decisions ◆ In charge of money Motive ➔ Thucydides: athens had a hidden agenda as they wanted to be an empire from the start ➔ Modern Sources: did not want to be an empire (Buckley, Kagan, Larsen) ◆ Criticises Thuc. for using hindsight ◆ It was an organisation within hellenic league ◆ Everyone got a vote Permanence ➔ Throwing of irons in the sea ◆ Permanence of the battle ◆ Death on betrayers (Jacobsen) Activities Eion ➔ Present persia from getting foothold in the region ➔ Had gold mines and timber ➔ Assisted by Thessaly tyrant ➔ Turned into a klerukkhia ➔ Naval and trade base Skyros ➔ Rumours of piracy → would have benefited the Athenians as it would have cleared up trade routes showing the flexibility in the league's aims to further athens (Buckley) ➔ Not greeks ➔ Oracle saying bones would be retrieved of an athenian hero → no evidence of the oracle ➔ Assisted by thesally ➔ Conquered the island Karystos ➔ Medised → extreme pressure ➔ Not part of the league but reaping benefits ➔ Could become persian naval base ➔ Forcibly brought into the league ➔ Shows athens willing to deviate from aims (Buckley) Byzantium ➔ Under pausanias control ➔ Taken by athens ➔ Shows that the leadership exchange wasn't as peaceful Naxos ➔ Revolted against athens hegemony ➔ Not allowed to leave ➔ Forced to continue to pay tribute ➔ Loss of autonomy ➔ Shows athens harsh treatment (Thucydides) ➔ Free ally to subject state Eurymedon ➔ Against Persia ➔ Completely remove the threat of persia invasion in greece ➔ Majority of allies would have felt that the league’s goals were completed and that meant that they didn't have to continue paying tribute (Kagen) ◆ This led to the Athenians enforcing harsher control Empire Transformation 1. Eurymedon ➔ Achieved aims ◆ Persia threat gone ◆ Safety to aegean and asia minor ➔ League not needed ➔ Kagen: reasonable for allies to want to pull out ➔ Buckley: cimon realised the opportunity for athens to become an empire 2. Thasos - Fight over gold mines and trade - Athens didn't let members leave even 5 yrs after Eurymedon - First time that Athens used the leagues resources and Athens’s position as leader for their own personal benefit - Thasos asked Sparta for help but due to the helots and earthquake sparta couldn't - Athens took their navy and walls - Buckley: athens was self-seeking and imperialistic 3. Egypt - It was a fight with Persia - Persia won → gave athens and excuse to move the treasury from delos to athens - Buckley: due to the many rebellions athens was forced to be harsher 4. League meetings stopped 5. Cimon returns 6. Peace with persia → don't need league (again) 7. Euboea ➔ Revolted during Athens v Sparta ➔ Athens took Euboea ➔ Made the chalcis decree → fully shows their submission to athens 8. Samos ➔ Samos wanted to go to war with mytilene ➔ Was not allowed according to Athens ➔ Samos did it anyway ➔ Athens made them a tribune paying state 9. 440: everyone but lesbos and chios were subject states 10. EMPIRE CREATED!!!!! 🥳🥳🥳 Athenian Imperialism (Buckley) Naval Power ➔ League forces were all athenian ➔ Athens encouraged states to pay money rather than ships ➔ Athens controlled all the trade in the area ➔ The basis of athen’s power was due to their fleet ➔ There was always an Athenian fleet patrolling the Aegean which acted as a deterrent from anti-athenian thinking → ➔ Most of the allies were reliant of trade leading them to comply with athens as they did not want to jeopardise their trade routes Force Against Allies ➔ Allies couldn't leave → Thasos ➔ Allies couldn't look beyond league → Samos ➔ Allies could be forced in → Karystos ➔ Attempt of any of these things led to violence and war resulting in a loss of autonomy Cleruchy ➔ Clerchuy is where the citizens keep their original citizenship ➔ Strategically placed to act as the empire’s watch dogs ➔ Lower classes were sent to live there ➔ Made the allies fearful and provide a guard Klerukhies ➔ Land taken from the allies and given to the Athenians ➔ The original owners of the land have to pay rent in terms of produce with the rest of it being sold ➔ It represents how the athenians were fully treating their allies as subject states Garrisons ➔ A group of soldiers ➔ Placed on suspect states ➔ Protects athenian officials who have to go to the state for matters such as tribute ➔ It acted as puppet governments ➔ It could be justified before the peace w/ persia as a way to protect the allies but their continuation of existence after peace with persia shows it just was a way for athens to control their allies Control of Finances ➔ Athenains forced a uniformity in the coins used across the league ◆ The original coins were taken to be melted ➔ The justification was that it would make trade easier but for the allies it was a act of taking away their independence ➔ Athenains also moved the treasury from delos to athens ◆ Even though original it was athenians taking charge of the money ◆ The money used to help the Athenains grow  ➔ The mandatory tribute that has to be paid was justified as for the league but in reality was used for the athenians to grow as empire Oaths ➔ The oaths taken were very permanent ➔ They were uses a subtle form of control ➔ If a state refused to sign the oath it would lead them losing their autonomy ➔ Examples of oaths were the chalcis and erythrae decree ◆ They both showed the clear submission to athens with words such as obedient Control of foreign policy ➔ The allies were forbidden from leaving ➔ They weren't allowed to contact persia and/or sparta w/o permission ➔ They weren't allowed to fight with other members ➔ This is all contrasted in the PL ➔ These rules show how ambitious the athenians were Peloponnesian League Nature ➔ Confederation of states that were allied and led by sparta ◆ Allies to sparta and not each other ◆ Could go to war with each other if no PL war  Contrasted with DL ➔ During war ◆ Sparta provided all officers ◆ They were all under spartan command ➔ Members did not regularly give a tribute ➔ Sparta's power was based on their military prowess ➔ Helots were important for sparta's superiority Composition ➔ Membership made it clear that the allies were not equal to Sparta ◆ Purpose was to maintain Sparta's control ➔ there were two chambers → allies + Sparta ◆ Both had to be unanimous for the vote to pass ◆ HOWEVER: only Sparta could initiate policy Activities ➔ Had to fight internal wars → helots ➔ Major activity was the peloponnesian wars Sparta's Response Thasos ➔ Asked sparta for help → couldn't due to earthquakes and subsequent helot attack  ➔ Allowed athens to continue their imperialistic policy → meaning sparta was the only thing that could stop them Messenian Revolt ➔ Helots revolted ➔ Sparta asked for help from their allies ➔ Cimon brought Athenian troops to help ➔ Cimon was told to go away from sparta → led to his exile Cimon Exiled ➔ Cimon was basically the only pro-Spartan person ➔ So his humiliation let his opps free to spread anti-spartan propaganda ➔ This led to the rise of Pericles as he wanted to expand athens power ◆ Specifically into the corinthian gulf which involved athens with corinth Buckley’s Assessment ➔ Herodotus: Athens rose due to political opportunity + spartans did not like that → they saw it as an exploitation of the failure of Pausanias and they were prepared to go to war with athens ➔ Thuc: the exchange of leadership was friendly and sparta wanted to give away the leadership to athens ➔ Buckley agrees with herodotus ➔ Hawks ◆ Were scared of athens growing power → trying to convince them not to build wars after Platea  ◆ They refused to accept athens as an independent power ◆ Athens behaviour after the battle of eurymedon would have confirmed their worst fears → Athens needed to be controlled ◆ HOWEVER: there is no reaction until thasos as they were preoccupied Helots Earthquakes Anti-sparta collision set up by themistocles which included argos ➔ Doves ◆ Accept the limitations to their leadership ◆ They want sparta to be in charge with the PL but they accept dual hegemony with the whole of greece ➔ Themistocles changed his attitude and focus form the DL to what he considered Athens biggest enemy Sparta ◆ He encouraged hostility among the states of the PL → argos etc. ➔ This led him to being exiled Peloponnesian War 1. Dismissal of Athens from Messenian ➔ Athens reacted aggressively → due to the humiliation that they faced ➔ This led them to ally with Sparta's enemy 2. Megara allying with Athens ➔ Sparta's rule being challenged  ➔ Megara provided a entrance into the Atikka 3. Battle of Oenoe ➔ Athens won 4. Battle of Halieis ➔ Corinthians and Epidaurians defeated Athens 5. Battle of Aegina ➔ Atheanina victory ➔ PL council oked 300 PL hoplites to help ➔ Didn't matter ➔ Aegina became Athens tribute paying state 6. Doris ➔ Sparta wanted to check the athenian influence in boeotia 7. Battle of Tanagra ➔ Spartas won ➔ Didn't matter as much ➔ Athens immediately took Boeotia → tribute paying state 8. 5 year truce → lasted 3 ➔ Seen by Sparta as necessary breathing time for the necessary and inevitable attack on Athens 9. Sacred War ➔ Check if pro-Spartan gov was in charge at the oracle of Delphi ➔ Athens won → letting Delphi be indeed as it should be ➔ Was an excuse for Sparta to intervene in central greek affairs + spread anti-athenian propaganda 10. Battle at Euboea ➔ Sparta had cornered Athens ➔ Sparta retreated ➔ Don't know why ◆ Plutarch: Kings Pleistoanax and Cleandrides were bribed ◆ Buckely: this was too simple and more likely there was a deal in which Athens got the sea while Sparta got the land Wouldn't have been welcomed by hawks → led to exile 11. 30 year treaty → lasted 6 years 12. Samos Athenian Democracy (Kagen) Isokratia → Demokratia ➔ Wars put stress onto Athenians ➔ Post Plataea/Mikalae, Athens worked on reconstruction of the city ◆ Long walls between Athens and Piraeus (Sparta did not support) ◆ Rebuilding of acropolis using League funds ➔ Assumed leadership over the Delian League → brought about the end of Persian control of Ionia and the Aegean. ➔ Athens wins the Persian Wars → democracy is bringing success to Greece. ➔ Kleisthenes reforms → Athenian confidence in the system. ➔ Signs that the Athenians could turn into an empire, even though they won the wars. ➔ Embedded a new order, established a new place for the aristocracy (contrary to demokratia, but in line with Isokratia) ◆ Great houses still played major roles in the war, but were restricted by Kleisthenes' constitution. ◆ Everyone is more focused with Persia, and thus are not concerned with trying to stop Kleisthenes. ➔ Demos need strong leaders to guide them, and now must serve the state. ➔ Athenians had the ability to establish a political base (by wealth, status, or extensive connections through family). ◆ Political influence was enhanced by the benefits of education (good speakers → good politician) ◆ Military opportunities given by Persian war allows members of the aristocracy to rise to power Assembly might grant/reward leadership to the 10 strategoi, who were annually elected by the assembly (normally 1 from each tribe) ○ Gave an opportunity for people to prove their worth by showing their opinion ➔ Changes in archonship ◆ During times of war, the strategoi implemented and shaped policy Military conditions Gradually merges into the most important level of government ◆ All circumstances → continues traditional rivalries between families Achieve influence over rivals by supporting reforms, ostracism, ect. ➔ Themistocles is often seen as the master of politics at the time ◆ Xanthippus, Miltiades, Aristides were all ostracised during the second Persian war as a result of Themistocles’ actions ◆ Influence of Themistocles declines (Anti-Spartan policy less popular, rise of Cimon) ➔ Rise of Cimon ◆ Beat Themistocles through military success and connections with families ◆ Cimon’s pro-Spartan policy was successful ◆ Emphasis on ordinary people, generals and higher ranks don't get too powerful ➔ All offices were annual, had to pass popular approval ◆ Vetting process – dokimasia - applied to all magistrates before entering office ◆ Euthyna - end of year meeting to reflect on years activities ◆ Ostracism is still a nuclear option to deal with medism/tyrants ➔ General trend is movement towards DEMOKRATIA. ◆ “The People Decided” at the start of every legislation, (every man) agreed. ◆ Thetes (lowest class) run parts of the assembly, and were a crucial part of the defence forces → importance as citizens. ➔ Light infantry/navy were pro-democracy because they got free troops. ➔ Constitutional developments → Democracy reaching towards greater control for the council/assembly. ◆ Reductions in the function of the chief general ◆ (487) Assembly and council were the centre of decision making ➔ (462) Ephialtes attacks the position of the Areopagus ◆ Ephialtes was a strong proponent of democracy, and was Anti-Cimon. ◆ Cimon’s decline (Spartan expedition/rejection) Enough support for Ephialtes to succeed Ostracised :( ◆ Division between aristocracy and everyday people was deep, Ephialtes was assassinated later. ➔ After the death of Ephialtes, Pericles led the Athenains. ◆ Pericles was the most powerful Athenian at the time. ◆ He is the son of Xanthippus, and the descendant of Kleisthenes.  ◆ Very sophisticated education ◆ 3 main changes to democracy 1. Athenian state continues its march to democratic rule 2. Greatly increased its military strength (naval power) 3. Tightened control over the extensive empire that it gained. - First European age of enlightenment. - (457) Hoplite class (2nd class) was admitted to be archons/can participate more fully - Introduction of pay for jurors - Both parents must be Athenian citizens to apply for citizenship - Aristotle → restricts population to reduce expenses of the state - Cultural thoughts about “what makes an Athenian” Qin Shihuangdi Survey Geography (Lewis) ➔ China consisted of the drainage basins Yellow River and the Yangzi ◆ Land was flat and wet enough for agriculture ➔ Area had several distinct geographical features ◆ Very hilly → as a result of much of the land was not amenable to cultivation and this scarcity resulted in highly concentrated populations ◆ Limited arable land was separated into core areas → alluvia plains, coastlands and interior basins Separated by high mountain cains or elevated plateaus that divided into distinct regions ◆ Lack of natural harbours → trade along the coast was uneconomical  Because of this all bulk trade relied on inland waterways → had limitations since there were no navigable water links between Yellow River and Yangzi ◆ Rivers erode rock and soil in the western highlands and carry it down into the plains where it is deposited as silt → moving swiftly in narrow channels through the mountains, the Yellow River carries off a great deal of soil ◆ Yellow River was the core of Chinese civilization under Qin & Han empires → 90% of population ◆ The Yangzi drainage system, still a frontier region in this period, was also naturally divided into three regions ◆ Because of the dry climate, the soil leached by rainfall remained highly fertile and alkaline ◆ In the East, soil was deposited by the river → more vulnerable to flooding and sanitisation Rainfall followed a modified monsoon pattern → 70% in August, little in spring and early summer Yellow river fell to a quite low level at the peak of growing season → irrigation with river water was impossible Farmers depended on wells owned by the wealthy and maintained by the Imperial state The combination of large-scale government-financed flood control system + family owned irrigation system shaped the political economy of North China Warring States Background ➔ Three centuries were various rival Chinese state battled for territorial advantage and dominance Geography, Topography and Resources of Qin ➔ The control of land and water was fundamental to the structure of the empire. ◆ Early Imperial China was very hilly and thus had limited arable land, thus one had to carry grains hundreds of metres by pack animals, which cost quite a lot. ◆ Northern China had quite a lot of harbours, furthermore the Yellow Valley River was very important to China. ➔ The Qin State was quite west compared to all of these states and thus was considered barbaric in a sense and thus is a distant state. Social Structure ➔ Demographic changes are evident  ◆ The improvement in agriculture was probably accompanied by the significant increase in the size of the population. ➔ It is evident that the Shi class (nobles) also increased during this time thus leading to a change in power Political Structure ➔ New system of taxation → money made by the peasants would go to the central government ➔ There are also evident commercial and industrial changes. ◆ A significant indication is the appearance of various kinds of metal currency of fixed values in different states. ◆ Commercial development is evident through the growth of cities and there was also a tendency towards specialisation of industry. ➔ Qin gradually adopted more cultural practices along with multiple schools of thought as they slowly yet surely emerged as time went on ➔ Legalist Shang Yang is what really transformed Qin into a superpower. ◆ The reforms made by him emphasised the importance of laws upholding the power of the state. They had groups who were responsible for reporting one another's crimes to each other Legal Structure ➔ The Qin political changes evolved to create a more centralised government. ➔ The creation of a written and codified law, the people who believe in this system are called legalists. ◆ This law and political notion came from notions and ideas as a result of Shang Yang. Shang Yang was a political revolutionist that implemented very good and significant ideas regarding legalism. ➔ The punishment system was transformed. ◆ Harsh punishments in order to encourage people to follow the laws Political Developments ➔ States sought out alliances ➔ Administrative reform during this period → states focus on agriculture and war. ➔ Trade was also taxed constantly and large markets developed into cities. Military Developments ➔ Favoured the mobilisation and deployment of even larger forces + the substitution of infantry and cavalry for war chariots. ➔ Marked the introduction of more efficient weapons and longer campaigns. ➔ Cavalry was introduced to equalise battlefield forces in conflicts with mounted northern nomads. ➔ Mounted soldiers were equipped with lance swords and renewed compound bows. ◆ The crossbow was also introduced making military training easier for people. ➔ City Walls were also used to be able to effectively protect states. Background and Rise to Prominence Family Background ➔ Long reign of King Zhao came to an end → outlived his nominated successor ◆ Lord Anguo was the new crown Prince → had a bunch of bastards ➔ One of the bastards Yiren was sent as a hostage to Handan, state of Zhao ➔ Local Handan merchant Lu Buwei promoted Yiren ➔ Lu Buwei convinced Yiren to seek patronage of Huang (parentless wife of Lord Anguo) ➔ Lu Buwei travelled to Qin to convince Huang to sponsor Yiren ➔ Yiren is confirmed as Lord Anguo’s heir ➔ Yiren gained respect and a wife (Zhougji) and son (Ying Zheng) ➔ Historical Debate on Parentage: ◆ The Shiji suggests that Yiren fell in love with Zhougji wh