Dominant Approaches in Social Sciences PDF

GOOD DAY STUDENTS! LEARNERS! I FORMALLY WELCOME YOU TO MY HUMBLE CLASS! OPENING PRAYER CHECKING OF ATTENDANCE DISCIPLINE AND IDEAS in SOCIAL SCIENCES LEARNING Objectives A. To define key concepts and ideas relevant to the various approaches in the social sciences....

GOOD DAY STUDENTS! LEARNERS! I FORMALLY WELCOME YOU TO MY HUMBLE CLASS! OPENING PRAYER CHECKING OF ATTENDANCE DISCIPLINE AND IDEAS in SOCIAL SCIENCES LEARNING Objectives A. To define key concepts and ideas relevant to the various approaches in the social sciences. LEARNING Objectives B. To identify key assumptions and issues of each of the dominant approaches in the social sciences. LEARNING Objectives C. To analyze the key differences of these approaches in social sciences. LEARNING Objectives D. To evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the dominant approaches in the social sciences. During the presentation, you will randomly see a red shopping bag in the slides. And every time you see a shopping bag on the screen it means that you have to guess a word through a game called “Your Word Sounds Familiar!”. YOUR WORDs SOUNDS FAMILIAR! (1) MUCH (2) OAT (3) NET (4) DOG (5) APPLE (6) YELL PLEASE ENTER (1) MUCH (2) OAT (3) NET (4) DOG (5) APPLE (6) YELL ANSWER: MONDAY DISCIPLINE AND IDEAS in SOCIAL SCIENCES Social Sciences has different dominant approaches and ideas which identifies information and assumptions as well as the key theoretical and methodological issues associated with each approach. The pluralism and variety of approaches within the discipline reflect the wide diversity of orientations and ways of how social scientists undertake their work.  (1) DOT (2) ILL (3) VASE (3) EAT (4) RUG (5) SEA (6) ISLE (7) TOP (8) YARN PLEASE ENTER  (1) DOT (2) ILL (3) VASE (3) EAT (4) RUG (5) SEA (6) ISLE (7) TOP (8) YARN ANSWER: DIVERSITY Each approach has a different disciplinal orientation characterized by a set of “epistemological ideals and value commitments”.  (1) TIE (2) YES (3) POT (4) OAT (5) LOSS (6) OIL (7) GIVE (8) YUM PLEASE ENTER  (1) TIE (2) YES (3) POT (4) OAT (5) LOSS (6) OIL (7) GIVE (8) YUM ANSWER: TYPOLOGY  This lesson draws its organizing framework for its discussion of the nine approaches from Jurgen Habermas’s typology of cognitive interests. He was a German Philosopher and sociologist whose work was closely tied to a form of political philosophy and social criticism known as Critical Theory.  Habermas used “cognitive interests” to refer to “the human concerns that underlie a particular intellectual discipline”, arguing that “what humans study and the manner in which we go about studying is determined by the human interests and purposes that a discipline is founded on” (Fusella, 2014)  THREE (3) TYPES OF COGNITIVE INTERESTS: 1. Empirical-Analytical 2. Historical-Hermeneutic 3. Empirical-Critical  (1) NOT (2) ART (3) TIP (4) UNDER (5) RAILWAY (6) ENTRY PLEASE ENTER  (1) NOT (2) ART (3) TIP (4) UNDER (5) RAILWAY (6) ENTRY ANSWER: NATURE  THREE (3) TYPES OF COGNITIVE INTERESTS: 1. EMPIRICAL-ANALYTICAL DISCIPLINES are associated with the technical interest of understanding nature, forming general laws, and making predictions. The use of empirical procedures dominate this type of cognitive interests.  THREE (3) TYPES OF COGNITIVE INTERESTS: 2. HISTORICAL-HERMENEUTIC DISCIPLINES – data are generated by understanding human meanings and not through observation of neutral facts. (1) EAST (2) MAN (3) ALL (4) NOTE (5) CUT (6) IF (7) POLL (8) ART (9) TIP (10) EAST PLEASE ENTER (1) EAST (2) MAN (3) ALL (4) NOTE (5) CUT (6) IF (7) POLL (8) ART (9) TIP (10) EAST ANSWER: EMANCIPATE  THREE (3) TYPES OF COGNITIVE INTERESTS: 3. EMPIRICAL-CRITICAL DISICIPLINES – as its label or name indicates, the empirical-critical is governed by emancipatory interests. MACRO-LEVEL Approaches  STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  STRUCTURAL – relating to the arrangement of and relations between the parts or elements of a complex whole.  FUNCTIONALISM – the theory if design that the form of a thing or person should be determined by its use. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  It is a framework for building a theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  Interdependent as they are, they all have one goal and that is to maintain or keep the whole system, at least in its present form. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  It was developed by Talcott Parsons in the 1930s under the influence of the works of Max weber and Emile Durkheim.  (1) PAT (2) ASH (3) TASK (4) TOAST (5) END (5) RIVER (6) NOBLE PLEASE ENTER  (1) PAT (2) ASH (3) TASK (4) TOAST (5) END (5) RIVER (6) NOBLE ANSWER: PATTERN STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  It emphasizes social structure, “any relatively stable pattern of social behavior” and social functions, “the consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole.” STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM What are the examples of SOCIAL STRUCTURE?  STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM Social Structure shapes our lives in various contexts and all functions to keep society going, at least in its present form.  (1) FAT (2) UP (3) NOTE (3) COAL (4) TIE (5) IVORY (6) OH (7) NAIL PLEASE ENTER  (1) FAT (2) UP (3) NOTE (3) COAL (4) TIE (5) IVORY (6) OH (7) NAIL ANSWER: FUNCTION  STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM ROBERT MERTON – He expanded the concept of social function by arguing that any social structure may have many functions. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  Merton described the following: A. MANIFEST FUNCTIONS – the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern. B. LATENT FUNCTIONS – the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM HIGHER EDUCATION, for instance, can be seen with both manifest and latent functions. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  Merton recognized that the effects or outcomes of social structure sometimes leads to “social dysfunction”. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM WHAT CAUSES SOCIAL DYSFUNCTION? STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM What causes social dysfunction?  Lack of consensus among people in about what is helpful or harmful.  Differences in backgrounds or status STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  Social Dysfunction – is any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  The structural-functional approach built on the following premises: STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM 1. Within every social structure or system – politics, family, organizations – each member of the system has a specific function. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM 2. Those functions can be small or substantial, are dynamic in nature and work toward the same purpose: to keep the system operational within its environment. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM 3. Change is evident within any society or system; however, for the system to survive, it must adapt to that change in order to maintain its equilibrium. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM  AGIL MODEL – To maintain the equilibrium of the system, Parsons identified four (4) imperatives for societies to survive, which he called the AGIL Model.  AGIL MODEL  ADAPTATION: acquiring and mobilizing sufficient resources so that the system can survive.  GOAL ATTAINMENT: setting and implementing goals  INTEGRATION: maintaining solidarity or coordination among the subunits of the system.  LATENCY: creating, preserving, and transmitting the system’s distinctive culture and values.  STRENGTHS  Its emphasis on the importance of social order and stability and provides a framework for understanding how different parts of society work together to meet the needs of the people.  By highlighting the interdependence of social institutions, it provides a holistic understanding of how society works and how changes in one area ca impact the entire system..  STRENGTHS  It can accurately model many aspects of society, and that it relates society to other topics of study.  Structural functionalism’s clarity, problem-solving utility, and historical significance make it a valuable tool in sociological analysis and research.  CRITICISMS  Lack of explanation for social conflict or social change in addition to its “bias of political conservatism”.  Unable to explain phenomena such as social change, disagreement with social and political aims, and the influential underpinnings of the wealthy.  Its methodology gives emphasis on the general rather than specific.  CRITICISMS  Non-inclusion of psychology in the discussion of human behavior and attitude.  Its focus on social stability and social order ignore inequalities of social classes, race, and gender which cause conflict and tension in the society.  Theory’s gender-blindness to the historical contributions of women and somewhat conservative. (1) CAP (2) HORN (3) APPLE (4) NEST (5) GAS (6) EASY PLEASE ENTER (1) CAP (2) HORN (3) APPLE (4) NEST (5) GAS (6) EASY ANSWER: CHANGE INSTITUTIONALISM  INSTITUTIONALISM  INSTITUTION – an established society, organization, corporation founded for a religious, educational, economic, emotional, social, or similar purpose.  INSTITUTIONALISM  INSTITUTION – are patterns, norms, rules, and schemes that govern and direct social thought and action.  INSTITUTIONALISM  Institutionalism, therefore, is an approach that aims to understand and analyze how actions, thoughts, and meanings penetrate the social consciousness deeply enough to embed themselves into social psyche.  INSTITUTIONALISM  The study of political institutions was dominant within political science in Britain and the US in the early 20th century.  INSTITUTIONALISM  Institutionalism is an approach to economics, anthropology, and other fields that focuses on the role of organizations and institutions in shaping the world in various ways. It highlights the role of the institutions.  INSTITUTIONALISM  Institutions are entities that are defined by rules, norms, and social structures. Many thinkers at various times and across many disciplines have presented themselves as institutionalists.  INSTITUTIONALISM CONCEPTS OF INSTITUTIONS: 1. FORMAL INSTITUTIONS – include the written constitution, laws, policies, rights, and regulations enforced by official authorities.  INSTITUTIONALISM CONCEPTS OF INSTITUTIONS: 2. INFORMAL INSTITUTIONS – are equally known but not laid down in writing and they tend to be more persistent than formal rules.  INSTITUTIONALISM IMPORTANT THEORISTS: DAVID MITRANY  was a Romanian-born British scholar, historian, and political theorist.  Father of Functionalism  Functionalism explains that a state’s authority lies in functions and needs, and the ability to provide for those needs.  INSTITUTIONALISM IMPORTANT THEORISTS: JEAN MONNET  was a French political economist and diplomat.  As one of the originators of the European Union, he saw how the needs of the state are to be achieved through the principle of supranationality.  INSTITUTIONALISM IMPORTANT THEORISTS: STEPHEN KRASNER  An American professor of international relations.  Krasner argues that the American government and nongovernment organizations should prioritize the stabilization of weakened states so that American interests would be protected.  INSTITUTIONALISM TYPES OF INSTITUTIONALISM: 1. NORMATIVE INSTITUTIONALISM – is a sociological interpretation of institutions and holds that a “logic appropriateness” guides the behavior of actors within an institution. It predicts that the norms and formal rules of institutions will shape the actions of those acting within them.  INSTITUTIONALISM TYPES OF INSTITUTIONALISM: 2. RATIONAL CHOICE INSTITUTIONALISM – is a theoretical approach to the study of institutions arguing that actors use institutions to maximize their utility. However, actors face rule-based constraints which influence their behavior.  INSTITUTIONALISM TYPES OF INSTITUTIONALISM: 3. HISTORICAL INSTITUTIONALISM – is a new institutionalist social science approach that emphasizes how timing, sequences, and path dependence affect institutions, and shape social, political, economic behavior and change.  INSTITUTIONALISM TYPES OF INSTITUTIONALISM: 4. SOCIOLOGICAL INSTITUTIONALISM – is a form of new institutionalism that concerns “the way in which institutions create meaning for individuals, providing important theoretical building blocks for normative institutionalism within political science”.  INSTITUTIONALISM TYPES OF INSTITUTIONALISM: 5. INSTITUTIONAL ECONOMICS – focuses on understanding the role of the evolutionary process and the role of institutions in shaping economic behavior. 6. DISCURSIVE INSTITUTIONALISM – is an umbrella concept for approaches that concern themselves with the substantive content of ideas and the interactive processes of discourse in institutional context.  INSTITUTIONALISM TYPES OF INSTITUTIONALISM: 7. CONSTRUCTIVIST INSTITUTIONALISM – this is so whether the field in question is directly denoted as or must do more with bringing constructivist ideas into some other field, or with bringing ideas back into the theory in contrast against structuralist/and or system.  INSTITUTIONALISM TYPES OF INSTITUTIONALISM: 8. FEMINIST INSTITUTIONALISM – is a new institutionalist approach that looks at how gender norms operate within institutions and how institutional processes construct and maintain gender dynamic.  STRENGTHS  It has focus on structure. Explains how rules, norms, and laws, shape behavior and social outcomes.  It is dynamic. It recognizes that institutions change over time, adapting to new circumstances.  Ideas matter considering how beliefs and ideologies influence the development and evolution of institutions.  STRENGTHS  It is multi-disciplinary drawing insights from various fields, offering a comprehensive understanding of social phenomena.  It shows practical applications helping people to understand and design better policies for positive society.  CRITICISMS  Its individual agency that might underplay how individuals can influence or challenge existing institutions.  Measuring impacts which make it difficult to isolate the effects of institutions from other factors.  Static view, some theories might not fully capture the dynamic and unpredictable nature of institutional change.  CRITICISMS  Its focus on national national institutions, neglecting the influence of global or transnational ones.  Formal vs. Informal, might overemphasize formal institutions (laws, rules) while neglecting the impact of informal ones (social norms, cultural values). MICRO-LEVEL Approaches  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY  It is a powerful tool in making sense of why people act or behave in the way they do. Nonetheless, it is not a comprehensive theory that can fully account for one’s behavior or action.  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY  According to Elster (1989), the essence of rational choice theory is that “when faced with several courses of action, people usually do what they believe is likely to have the best overall outcome”.  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY  Individuals actions are based on their preferences, beliefs, and feasible strategies. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY  But as Ward (2002) observed, rational choice theory “needs other perspectives to help explain why individuals have the interests they do, how they perceive those interests, and the distribution of rules, powers, and social roles that determine the constraints of their actions.”  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY  Rational choice theory also called as rational action theory or choice theory, states that individuals use rational calculations to make rational choices and achieve outcomes that are aligned with their own personal objectives.  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY  Using rational choice theory, it is estimated that the outcomes provide people with the greatest benefit and satisfaction given the choices they have available.  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY  It is used to model human decision making, especially in the context of Microeconomics.  It helps Economists better understand the behavior of a society in terms of individual actions as explained through rationality in which choices are consistent because they are made according to one’s personal preferences.  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY  For economists, rationality simply means that when you make a choice, you will choose the thing you like best.  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY  In this theory, cost benefit analysis is always performed in every given situation and is considered an instinctual response to every human.  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY Questions commonly asked during cost-benefit analysis:  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY ASSUMPTIONS OF RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY: 1. Individualism 2. Optimality 3. Structures 4. Self-Regarding Interest 5. Rationality  SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM  SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM is a sociological framework that focuses on the different meanings individuals attached to objects, people, and interactions as well as the corresponding behaviors that reflect those meanings and interpretations.  SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM  It is a framework that actualizes the nature of humans to make sense of their actions and interactions through external cues from their everyday life and environment (Vejar 2015). SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM  GEORGE HERBERT MEAD was an influential figure in the field of symbolic interactionism. Gestures, according to him are important in communication. When we interact with others, our posture, tone of voice, voice inflections as well as hand and facial movements convey significance.  SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM  The process of self-discovery or self development is enacted by the usage of gestures three fold through THE PLAY STAGE, THE GAME STAGE and through a stage called GENERALIZED OTHER.  SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM PLAY STAGE – Young children identify with key figures in their environments, such as the mother or father, as well as occupational or gender- specific roles to which they have been exposed (e.g., police officer, nurse) and replicate the behavioral norms that correspond with such roles. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM GAME STAGE – Children extrapolate from the vantage point of the roles they have stimulated by assuming the roles that their counterparts concurrently undertake..  SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM GENERALIZED OTHER – As people developmentally evolve , their anticipation of the generalized other helps them construct morally sound and appropriate behavior, such as the employee who arrives promptly to work in order to avoid scrutiny from his colleagues. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM There are three overarching promises that constitute symbolic interactionism: SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 1. The first assumes that the meaning is an important element of human existence a concept that is both subjective and individualistic and that people consequently act in accordance with the meanings they construe. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 2. The second premise asserts that people identify and modern unique symbolic references through the process of socialization. This postulation suggest that people are not inherently equipped with interpretive devices that help navigate through the complex realms of human behavior. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 3. The third tenet of symbolic interactionism affirms that there is a cultural dimension that interests the symbolic “educational” development. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM Symbolic interaction has both 'insider' and 'outsider' critics. Insiders' criticism focus on the method and the central concepts of symbolic interactionism, particularly the ambiguity of major concepts used particularly the concept of the "self". This criticisms attack the utility of symbolic interactionism in the production of cumulative and generalizable knowledge. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM Outsiders' critique, on the other hand, highlights the structural bias in symbolic interactionism. This bias refers to the claim that symbolic interactionism perspective is ahistorical non- economic and a limited view of social power and social organization (Gecas 1980, 1459). INTERDISCIPLINARY Approaches  HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM HUMAN – Humans have the capacity to interact with its environment. Humans and the environment have that “mutual” interaction with each other. They have the capacity to change or influence the balance of the society. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT – Is a complex of many variables which surrounds man as well as the living organisms. The complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (climate, soil, living things) that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survival. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM SYSTEM – It may be described as a complex of interacting components together with the relationships among them that permit the identification of a boundary-maintaining entity or process. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM HUMAN ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM – Also known as the Coupled Human and Natural System or CHANS It is an approach which conceptualizes mutual dependence between human and environmental systems.  HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM HUMAN ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM – This theory follows the ideas that social and natural systems are inseparable. Systems which combine both human and natural components to show complex interactions and feedback between them. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCES – Humans depend on their natural environment to survive. We need the environment to provide energy, water, food, and other materials. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCES – In prehistoric times, people lived in areas where they could hunt and gather foods. Later, they moved to pastres and fertile soils for farming. Today, rapid transportation and technology allows people to be less dependent on their immediate environment. However, people still need to access to resources. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM  NATURAL RESOURCES – Useful material found in the environment. People depend on many kinds of natural resources: 1. Renewable resources are resources that earthly or people can replace. 2. Nonrenewable resources are resources that cannot be replaced in a relatively short period of time. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM  ENERGY RESOURCES – sources of energy are important for human activity. Some resources, such as wind and sunlight are renewable. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM  FOSSIL FUELS – are nonrenewable resources formed over million years from the remains of plants and animals. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM THREE (3) PILLARS OF SUSTAINABILITY:  Economic Viability  Environmental Protection  Social Equity HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM To understand and appreciate the human- environment system approach in the social sciences, the following discussion outlines three areas of fields of inquiry where the HES approach is relevant and necessary both as an analytical tool and framework: HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM THREE (3) AREAS/FIELDS OF INQUIRY: 1. Study of human causes of environmental change, not only proximate causes but especially indirect causes or driving forces. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM THREE (3) AREAS/FIELDS OF INQUIRY: 2. A second field of inquiry concerns the effects of environmental change on things people value. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM THREE (3) AREAS/FIELDS OF INQUIRY: 3. The third field is the study of the feedbacks between humanity and the environment.  HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM CONCEPTS OF HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM  Landscape – The visible features of an area of land of countryside or land, often considered in terms of their aesthetical appeal. It is part of the Earth’s surface that can be viewed at one time from one place.  Waterscape – is an aquatic landscape or can be defined as spaces where water is a major element. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM  Thematic Map – Focuses on a specific theme or subject are such as physical phenomena like temperature variation, rainfall distribution, and population density HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM  Mental Map – First-person perspective of an area and how they interact with it. Mental map can be used to plan activities and routes to travel. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM  Spatial Distribution – The arrangement of a phenomenon across Earth’s surface and graphical display of such an arrangement is an important tool in geographical and environmental statistics. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM  Spatial Analysis – A type of geographical analysis which seeks to explain patterns of human behavior and its spatial expression in terms of mathematics, and geometry, that is, locational analysis. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM CONCEPTS OF HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM Two (2) Types of Landscape 1. Natural Landscape – original landscapes that exists before it is acted upon by human culture 2. Cultural Landscape – cultural properties that represent the combined works of nature and of man. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM CONCEPTS OF HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM Two (2) Types of Landscape 1. Natural Landscape – original landscapes that exists before it is acted upon by human culture 2. Cultural Landscape – cultural properties that represent the combined works of nature and of man. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES (ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION AND EFFECTS) Many of the environmental issues today relate to human’s overuse of finite resources four economic development. As species, humans tend to regard the environment as a never-ending source of materials and energy. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES (ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION AND EFFECTS) 1. Deforestation and Habitat Destruction 2. Fossil Fuel Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions 3. Industrialization and Air Pollution 4. Agricultural Practices and Soil Degredation HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES (ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION AND EFFECTS) 5. Water Pollution and Contamination 6. Overfishing and Marine Ecosystem Depletion 7. Waste Generation and Management 8. Urbanization and Habitat Fragmentation 9. Consumerism and Resource Depletion HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES (ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION AND EFFECTS) 5. Water Pollution and Contamination 6. Overfishing and Marine Ecosystem Depletion 7. Waste Generation and Management 8. Urbanization and Habitat Fragmentation 9. Consumerism and Resource Depletion  STRENGTHS  It provides a bigger view of the different environmental issues that we face today.  Highlights the importance of synergy and interconnection of human society and the environment.  Perceived humans not juts as users of environmental resources but also protectors of the environment and other species.  Rest on the idea that humans can individually and collectively solve environmental problems  CRITICISMS  The field of inquiry of human-environment interaction has achieved modes progress only. PSYCHOANALYSIS  PSYCHOANALYSIS Psychoanalytic Theory or the Psychoanalysis is defined as a set of psychological theories and therapeutic techniques that have their origin in the work and theories of Sigmund Freud.  PSYCHOANALYSIS Psychoanalysis places great emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping people’s behaviour and personality.  PSYCHOANALYSIS  Sigmund Freud – Sigmund Freud was a late 19th and early 20th Century Austrian Neurologist, Medical Doctor, Physiologist, Psychologist and Influencial Thinker. He is widely acknowledged as the Father of Modern Psychology and the Primary Developer of the process of Psychoanalysis..  PSYCHOANALYSIS The core of Psychoanalysis is the belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. This theory places great emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping people’s behaviour and personality.  PSYCHOANALYSIS  Sigmund Freud developed a Topographical Model of the Mind, whereby he described the features of the mind’s structure and function.  PSYCHOANALYSIS  Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind; THE PRECONSCIOUS, CONSCIOUS, and UNCONSCIOUS. PSYCHOANALYSIS  PSYCHOANALYSIS  He believed that each of these parts of the mind plays an important role in influencing behavior. Freud delineated the mind in the distinct levels, each with their own roles and functions.  PSYCHOANALYSIS LEVELS OF THE MIND: 1. THE PRECONSCIOUS MIND consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the conscious mind. This is the home of everything we can recall or retrieve from our memory.  PSYCHOANALYSIS LEVELS OF THE MIND: 2. THE CONSCIOUS MIND contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. This also includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily and brought into awareness.  PSYCHOANALYSIS LEVELS OF THE MIND: 3. THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.  PSYCHOANALYSIS The best-known aspect of Freud’s theory was his view that the mind is composed of the id, ego, and the superego. Each has a different function, but they all relate to each other.  PSYCHOANALYSIS MODEL OF THE PSYCHE: 1. The ID: The instinctual, pleasure seeking part of the mind. 2. The SUPEREGO: The part of the mind that represses the ID's impulses. 3. The EGO: The part of the mind that controls but does not repress the ID's impulses, releasing them in a healthy way.  STRENGTHS  Freudian Theory provides a comprehensive framework to describe human personality.  Freud ‘rehumanised” the distressed, making their suffering more comprehensible to the rest of society.  By developing a method of treatment, Freud encouraged a more optimistic view regarding psychological distress.  CRITICISMS  The psychodynamic approach is very determinist as it says that suffering childhood trauma will lead to abnormal behavior in adulthood, however it ignores the influence of genes, reward, and thinking patterns.  Psychoanalysis depends on the therapist’s subjective interpretation.  Has explanatory power, but lacks scientific validity. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMENOLOGY HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY Hermeneutics is the theory and methodology of interpretation especially the interpretation of biblical texts, wisdom literature, and philosophical texts. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY Hermeneutics is more than interpretive principles or methods used when immediate comprehension fails and includes the art of understanding and communication. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY Hermeneutics is the science and art of Biblical interpretation. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY Friedrich Schleiermacher, also known as the Father of Modern Theology and recently the Father of Modern Hermeneutics, took the theory interpretation onto a whole new level. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY He transformed the traditional Biblical Hermeneutics into a general hermeneutic which incorporated texts of all kinds. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY Phenomenology – is the philosophical study of structures of experience and consciousness. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY Literally, phenomenology is the study of appearances of things, or things as they appear in our experience, or the ways we experience things, thus the meanings things have in our experience. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY TWO MAIN APPROACHES TO PHENOMENOLOGY: 1. Descriptive Phenomenology – lives experiences of a person. 2. Interpretative phenomenology – offer insights into how a given person, in a given context, makes sense of a given phenomenon. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMENOLOGY – is a philosophy of and a method for interpreting human experiences to understand the question of what it is to be human. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY This philosophy was developed by Martin Heidegger as a continuation and divergence from phenomenology, the philosophy developed by his mentor and colleague, Edmund Husserl. HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMONOLOGY This is an inquiry on how the human mind can grasp the true nature of things as experienced in the world. It tells us to remove our preconceived ideas in order to arrive at a pure description of our experiences.  STRENGTHS  It can help boost human rights and solve issues of capitalism in the present time.  Acknowledgement of social and economic inequalities in our society or community.  It provides a way to analyze existing power structures and relationships in society at large and articulate critiques and ways to mitigate factional concerns.  CRITICISMS  Different meanings and interpretations of experiences.  It lacks the application of scientific method.  Subjectivity of the information prompts troubles in building up consistent quality and legitimacy of methodologies and data. MARXISM  MARXISM Marxism is a political, cultural, and economic philosophy which theorize that social conflict exists due to constant power struggles between capitalists and workers.  MARXISM The political and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, later developed by their followers to form the basis for the theory and practice of communism.  MARXISM The political and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, later developed by their followers to form the basis for the theory and practice of communism.  MARXISM Karl Marx wrote the COMMUNIST MANIFESTO that shows the basic struggle between classes and recommends action against the ‘specter’ of capitalism.  MARXISM Friedrich Engels, known as the FATHER OF MARXIST THEORY, together with Karl Marx. He wrote DAS KAPITAL.  MARXISM Marxism focuses on the struggle between capitalists and the working class. Max wrote that the power relationships between capitalists and workers were inherently exploitative and would inevitably create class conflict.  MARXISM He believed that this conflict would ultimately lead to a revolution in which the working class would overthrow the capitalist class and seize control of the economy.  MARXISM Industrial Revolution created two classes in society, which Marx termed as the BOURGEOISIE and the PROLETARIAT.  MARX’S INDUSTRIAL AGE SOCIAL BOURGEOISIE (capitalists, the “haves”, PYRAMID the oppressors” PROLETARIAT (workers, the “have-nots”, the oppressed)  MARXISM The bourgeoisie controls the production while the proletariat who does not have access to such means of production, exchanges labor for wages.  MARXISM  Exploitation – we have to sell our bodies and our work, the owner make the profit.  Alienation – most of us don’t feel our work belongs to us; we may not put ourselves into our work or be allowed to make it our own.  MARXISM  Means of Production – we don’t have control over the company, the factory, the story, the restaurant, etc.  MARXISM Marx argued that the profit from goods should be equally divided among the laborers since they are the ones who work to produce such goods.  MARXISM MARXISM: “It is not people who make society so unequal, it is the system of capitalist production and false consciousness hurts people by hiding the real cause of their problems.”  MARXISM PRODUCTION – production is central to Marxist economics because it is the means by which human living is maintained and sustained.  MARXISM CLASS CONFLICT – Class conflict or class struggle arises from the oppression of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie.  MARXISM REVOLUTIONARY CONSCIOUSNESS – Marx advocated for a revolutionary consciousness to fight back against the capitalist oppressors.  MARXISM COMMUNIST SOCIETY – a communist society is characterized by a classless society having common ownership of property and resources (means of production). Private property and profit-based economy are replaced by public ownership and control.  MARXISM MARXISM: A REVIEW 1. Alienation from the act of working 2. Alienation from the product of work 3. Alienation from other workers 4. Alienation from human potential  MARXISM MARXISM is a social science approach encourages researchers to engage IN ACTION- ORIENTED RESEARCH by analyzing how a powerful group marginalizes another and how this can be solved by making the oppressed group realize their sad predicament and how they can be emancipated by challenging and eventually abolishing the status quo.  STRENGTHS  It can help boost human rights and solve issues of capitalism in the present time.  Acknowledgement of social and economic inequalities in our society or community.  It provides a way to analyze existing power structures and relationships in society at large and articulate critiques and ways to mitigate factional concerns.  CRITICISMS  It relies on coherent set of identity among groups.  Overly simplistic in the idea of society being split into two social classes.  Marxism overlooks alternative ideas that might shape behavior with a focus on class conflict. Oher issues affecting behavior like gender, race, and individuals are not given attention. FEMINIST THEORY  FEMINIST THEORY PATRIARCHY  The father or the oldest male heads a society or government.  The mother is subordinate to the decisions of the father.  Men are seen as more powerful than women.  FEMINIST THEORY PATRIARCHY The father or the oldest male heads a society or government; the mother is subordinate to the decisions of the father. Moreover, men are seen as more powerful than women.  FEMINIST THEORY GENDER IDEOLOGY A social belief that supports gender inequality. It is a social division that establishes perceived roles for men and women, and relegating them to specific roles.  FEMINIST THEORY GENDER IDEOLOGY “Women being more delicate, emotional, and nurturing compared to men who are more aggressive, assertive, and dominant.”  FEMINIST THEORY GENDER INEQUALITY It is the actualization or realization of gender ideology. The perceived role of women subordinating to men reflects hiring procedures and requirements.  FEMINIST THEORY FEMINIST THEORY is a multifaceted intellectual and political movement that seeks to understand and address the unequal power dynamics and discrimination that women and other marginalized groups face in society.  FEMINIST THEORY It is not a single, monolithic theory but a collection of diverse perspectives, each offering unique insights into the social, political, and economic structures that perpetuate gender inequality.  FEMINIST THEORY It encompasses a range of approaches that analyze, critique, and challenge patriarchal systems and gender-based oppression. It seeks to highlight how societal norms and structure perpetuate gender inequalities and advocates for the empowerment and liberation of women and other marginalized groups.  FEMINIST THEORY It encompasses a range of approaches that analyze, critique, and challenge patriarchal systems and gender-based oppression. It seeks to highlight how societal norms and structure perpetuate gender inequalities and advocates for the empowerment and liberation of women and other marginalized groups.  FEMINIST THEORY FIRST WAVE FEMINISM (Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries) Focused primarily on women’s suffrage and legal rights, addressing issues like voting and property rights.  FEMINIST THEORY SECOND WAVE FEMINISM (1960s – 1980s) Expanded the focus to broader social and cultural issues, including reproductive rights, workplace discrimination, and sexuality.  FEMINIST THEORY THIRD WAVE FEMINISM (1990s – Present Time) Emphasizes intersectionality, recognizing that gender intersects with other identities like race, sexuality, and class, leading to unique forms of oppression and privilege.  FEMINIST THEORY FOURTH WAVE FEMINISM (Emerging in the 21st Century) Utilizes technology and social media to promote gender equality and address issues such as online harassment and gender-based violence.  FEMINIST THEORY MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT was seen by many as a founder of feminism due to her 1972 book entitled “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.  FEMINIST THEORY Feminist Theory has been advanced by numerous scholars and activists, including Betty Friedan, Bell Hooks, Audre Lorde, Judith Butler, and many others. Each has contributed unique perspectives to the feminist discourse.  FEMINIST THEORY FEMINIST THEORY KEY PRINCIPLES: 1. Gender as a Social Construct – Feminists argue that gender is not biologically determined but socially constructed.  FEMINIST THEORY FEMINIST THEORY KEY PRINCIPLES: 2. Intersectionality – Recognizing the interplay of multiple identities in shaping experiences of oppression. 3. Critique of Patriarchy – Identifying and challenging male dominance in various social structures.  FEMINIST THEORY FEMINIST THEORY KEY PRINCIPLES: 4. Agency and Empowerment – Advocating for women’s autonomy and self-determination. 5. Inclusivity – Acknowledging the diverse experiences of women and ensuring that feminism is inclusive of all genders and identities.  FEMINIST THEORY FEMINIST THEORY ASSUMES THAT:  Gender inequality is a pervasive social issue.  Patriarchal systems reinforce gender hierarchies.  Social change is possible through collective action.  STRENGTHS  It has played a pivotal role in raising awareness about gender inequality and advocating for social change.  It continues to evolve, adapt, and intersect with other social justice movements, making it a powerful force for challenging and dismantling oppressive structures in society.  CRITICISMS  Diversity of Perspectives leads to disagreements and tensions  Balancing the recognition of multiple intersecting identities can be complex and challenging.  Not everyone accepts feminist theory, and resistance to feminist ideas can hinder progress. THANK YOU FOR LISTENING! 1 Corinthians 16:14