Dominant Approaches & Ideas in Social Science 2024 PDF

Dominant Approaches and Ideas in the Social Science  Structural Functionalism Guide Questions What keeps societies together? What causes social dysfunction? How important are the social functions of the social structure to the maintenance and...

Dominant Approaches and Ideas in the Social Science  Structural Functionalism Guide Questions What keeps societies together? What causes social dysfunction? How important are the social functions of the social structure to the maintenance and stability of societies? Key Concepts social structure manifest functions adaptation integration social dysfunction social functions latent functions goal attainment latency  Structural functionalism is "a framework for building a theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability" (Macionis 2007, 15). Such parts of the whole system may vary in terms of functions but they are all related to each other. Interdependent as they are, they all have one goal and that is to maintain or keep the whole system, at least in its present form. It follows therefore that the working of one part would have effects on the other parts.  Structural functionalism was developed by Talcott Parsons in the 1930s under the influence of the works of Max Weber and Emile Durkheim (McMahon 2015). It emphasizes social structure, "any relatively stable pattern of social behavior" and social functions, "the consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole" (Macionis 2007, 15).  Examples of social structure are the family, government, church, school , and economy. Social structure shapes our lives in various contexts such as the family, the workplace, classroom, and community; and all social structure functions to keep society going, at least in its present form (Macionis 2007).  Robert Merton (1910-2003) expanded the concept of social function by arguing that any social structure may have many functions. He distinguished between manifest functions, "the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern" and latent functions, the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern." (Macionis 2007, 15).  In his classification of social functions into manifest or latent, Merton recognized that the effects or outcomes of social structure are not all necessanly good and not necessarily good for everyone. He coined the term "social dysfunction." A social dysfunction is "any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society" (Macionis 2007, 16).  Social functions refer to results or effects for the operation of the society in general. For instance, education has a number of significant purposes in a society, such as socialization and learning. The family can be treated as having essential functions for society such as providing sexual, reproductive, economic, and educational needs for its members. Media provides the social function of mirroring the concerns of the audience. Religion contributes to the well-being of society by teaching morality thus providing social stability and order. Social functions may be intended or unintended consequences, thus they can be classified into manifest and latent functions.  Manifest and Latent Functions. American sociologist Robert Merton emphasized the importance of manifest and latent functions in structural-functionalism for a better understanding of society. In his Social Theory and Social Structure (1968), he used the example of a rain dance, whose manifest function is to produce rain, while the latent or unintended function of the rain dance is to provide a regular opportunity for the members of a group to meet and share a common activity. According to him, manifest functions are those that are intentional or known, referring to functions which people suppose and anticipate to be fulfilled by the institutions. Meanwhile, latent functions are the unexpected effects of institutions.  Merton believes that sociologists should look out for latent functions for an increasing understanding of society, and not rely solely on the manifest functions or the reasons given by individuals for their actions or existence of institutions. For example, the manifest function of religion is to provide meaning and purpose for a society by offering the comforting sense that we come from and will go back to a higher being. It also promotes social unity by binding people through codes, morals, and customs. It is also useful in propagating social control. The latent functions of religion would be contributing entertaining facilities and courtship prospects to its youth members. Another example would be the manifest and latent functions of education. For example, one of the manifest functions of education is to transmit cultural norms and values to future generations and one of the latent functions was to keep the youth off the streets. In the example of the media, manifest functions are to inform and educate the public. A latent function of the media is to provide entertainment. For healthcare, manifest functions are that people are able to prevent disease and/or treat disease. A latent function is that people live longer.  What causes social dysfunction? The lack of consensus among peoples in a given polity or society about what is helpful or harmful to society is a key feature of every society or polity. Differences in backgrounds or status, for instance, may lead to differences in recognition and appreciation of what is functional or not to particular individuals or groups of peoples. In a capitalist order, for example, high profits for factory owners can be seen as dysfunctional for factory workers as they receive low wages (Macionis 2007, 16). The structural-functional approach built on the following premises: 1. Within every social structure or system--politics, family, organizations each member of the system has a specific function. 2. Those functions can be small or substantial, are dynamic in nature (i.e., they can change), and work toward the same purpose: to keep the system operational within its environment. 3. Change is evident within any society or system; however, for the system to survive, it must adapt to that change in order to maintain its equilibrium (McMahon 2015). To maintain the equilibrium of the system, Parsons identified four imperatives for societies to survive, which he called the AGIL model, the acronym stands for the first letter of each of these four imperatives. These are; Adaptation: acquiring and mobilizing sufficient resources so that the system can survive. Goal Attainment: setting and implementing goals Integration: maintaining solidarity or coordination among the subunits of the system Latency: creating, preserving, and transmitting the system's distinctive culture and values (McMahon 2015 Emphasis added). Structural functionalism was under sustained criticisms in the late 1960s such that by the 1970s, it has lost its credibility (McMahon 2015). A generalized criticism of structural functionalism was aimed at the theory's lack of explanation for social conflict or social change in addition to its "bias of political conservatism" (Smelser 1990 in McMahon 2015). In more specific terms, structural functionalism was criticized for being unable to explain phenomena such as social change, disagreement with social and political aims, and the influential underpinnings of the wealthy. Moreover, structural functionalism's qualitative methodology, its emphasis on the general rather than the specific, and its non inclusion of psychology in the discussion of human behavior came also under attack from social scientists (McMahon 2015).  Critics argue that structural functionalism's focus on social stability and social order ignore inequalities of social class, race, and gender which cause tension and conflict in the society (Macionis 2017). Feminists, in particular, are critical of structural functionalism due to the theory's gender-blindness to the historical contributions of women (McMahon 2015). Others find the focus on stability and order at the expense of conflict of structural functionalism as somewhat conservative (Macionis 2017) and less likely to produce cumulative and generalizable knowledge.  In response to these criticisms, some social scientists revert to structural functionalism as it offers a valid explanation of consensus, which supports the concept of social order (McMahon 2015). Others made a critical response. They developed the social-conflict approach (Macionis 2017). In the social sciences, Marxism is an example of this social-conflict approach in the Social Sciences.