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Dominant Approaches and Ideas world leaders or even the way that in Social Sciences Part 2 important matters are dealt with. - Voter behavior shifts significantly Rational Choice Theory...

Dominant Approaches and Ideas world leaders or even the way that in Social Sciences Part 2 important matters are dealt with. - Voter behavior shifts significantly Rational Choice Theory thanks to rational theory, which is - Rational choice theory states that ingrained in human nature, the individuals use rational most significant of which occurs calculations to make rational when there are times of economic choices and achieve outcomes that trouble. are aligned with their own - It is useful in creating effective personal objectives. public policy, and enables the - These results are also associated government to develop solutions with maximizing an individual's quickly and efficiently. self-interest. - Using rational choice theory is Application of RCT (International expected to result in outcomes that Relations) provide people with the greatest - Rational choice theory has become benefit and satisfaction, given the one of the major approaches in the limited options they have available. study of international relations. - Rational choice theory is based on - Its proponents typically assume the assumption of involvement that states are the key actors in from rational actors. world politics and that they seek - Rational actors are the individuals goals such as power, security, or in an economy who make rational wealth. choices based on calculations and - Such motivation for power and the information that is available to security can therefore be seen as them. pre-emptive to initiatives that - Rational choice theory assumes focus on the pursuit of maximizing that individuals, or rational actors, satisfaction even infringing upon try to actively maximize their another states' interests. advantage in any situation and, therefore, consistently try to Relevance of Rational Choice theory minimize their losses. - Rational choice theory can be helpful in understanding Application of RCT (Politics) individual and collective behaviors. - The relationship between the It helps to pinpoint why people, rational choice theory and politics groups and society as a whole takes many forms, whether that be move toward certain choices, in voter behavior, the actions of based on specific costs and rewards.  - In the field of political science lives and intentions, and with the rational choice theory has been making and enforcing of rules used to help predict human governing cooperative human decision making and model for the behavior. future; therefore it is useful in creating effective public policy, and Characteristics of an Institution enables the government to develop solutions quickly and efficiently An institution could be described as: - Any club, facility, organization or Institutionalism activity that has more than one - Institutionalism is a general member that actively participates approach to governance and social in the club, facility, organization or science. It concentrates on activity institutions and studies them using a. It is organized within a inductive, historical, and defined set of formal and comparative methods. informal beliefs, values, - Social science, no matter how one roles, expectations and defines it, has from its inception behaviors put great emphasis on the study of b. It may be highly structured institutions. within these - The concept of an institution can formal/informal beliefs, be stretched to include informal values, roles, expectations organizations. and behaviors and shares a - Although informal organizations set of objectives may lack written rules, they exhibit patterns of behavior that exhibit Relevance of Institutions loose norms. - Research shows that these institutions can be a major source Institutions of growth; effective institutions aid - Institutions are a part of the social investment in physical and human construction of a community, and capital, in research and define the way we interact with development, and in technology. each other within society. - Institutions also have an important - They are determined by the redistributive role to play in the cultures and values of that society, economy – they make sure that and provide order and stability resources are properly allocated, within society and ensure that the poor or those - Institutions are identified with a with fewer economic resources are social purpose and permanence, protected. transcending individual human  - They also encourage trust by providing policing and justice Feminist Theory systems which adhere to a - Feminist theory is the extension of common set of laws. feminism into theoretical, fictional, - The reverse is also true. or philosophical discourse. It aims - Failed or ineffective institutions to understand the nature of gender undermine trust, raise the cost of inequality. doing business and increase the - It examines women's and men's cost of government borrowing, social roles, experiences, interests, limiting the ability of the chores, and feminist politics in a government to spend. variety of fields, such as - If a government does not carefully anthropology and sociology, manage its expenditure, rising communication, media studies, borrowing costs can quickly lead psychoanalysis, political theory, to a debt spiral from which home economics, literature, recovery is difficult, and where education, and philosophy everyone suffers, but the poor the most. Relevance of Feminism - One of the main reasons feminism Feminist Theory is something young people should be getting involved in is that it Feminism empowers people. There is a - Feminism is a range of common misconception that only socio-political movements and women can be feminists and that ideologies that aim to define and feminism only benefits women. establish the political, economic, - In reality, feminism strives for personal, and social equality of the equality of the sexes, not sexes. superiority for women. And one of - Feminism incorporates the the main aims of feminism is to position that societies prioritize take the gender roles that have the male point of view, and that been around for many years and women are treated unjustly within deconstruct these to allow people those societies. to live free and empowered lives, - Efforts to change that include without being tied down to fighting against gender stereotypes ‘traditional’ restrictions. and establishing educational, - This in turn will benefit both men professional, and interpersonal and women. opportunities and outcomes for women that are equal to those for Hermeneutic Phenomenology men.  - Hermeneutic Phenomenology is a - Phenomenology is a phenomenological approach phenomenological approach focused on interpreting to focused on interpreting to generate a sense of an individual's generate a sense of an individual's subjective lived experience. subjective lived experience. - The meaning-making is - This approach leads to the undertaken through a hermeneutic description and interpretation of circle in which horizons of the essence of lived experiences, understanding between the recognizes the meaning and researcher and participants are importance in pedagogy, fused together to provide a psychology and sociology broader understanding of a according to the experience specific phenomenon under collected. investigation. - The aim is to understand the complexity of the lived experiences Approach of Hermeneutic Phenomenology Human Environment Systems - This approach leads to the - Human-environment systems description and interpretation of (HES) are defined as the the essence of lived experiences, interaction of human systems with recognizes the meaning and corresponding environmental or importance in pedagogy, technological systems. psychology and sociology - The HES approach conceptualizes according to the experience a mutualism between human and collected. environmental systems. - This method constitutes rigorous - The human and the environmental and consisted processes of the system are conceived as two ethical dimensions of the daily different systems that exist in experience, which are difficult to essential dependencies and be accessed by other usual reciprocal endorsement. research methods which tries to explain the nature of the things, The Relationship between Humans and the essence and the veracity of the the environment phenomena. - From the environmental research - The aim is to understand the perspective, human activities affect complexity of the lived experiences the environment and impact the environmental equilibrium and how these impacts can be Relevance Hermeneutic mitigated - There are different ways for the essential dependencies and relationship of what is denoted as reciprocal endorsement. Human and Environmental b. Examples include: Systems to be conceptualized. I. How Man-made 1. The GAIA-approach environments alter 2. The HES approach the natural environment 1. The GAIA-approach II. How Human a. The GAIA-approach views communities create the earth as a single environments for organism, in which the other animals individual elements coexist in a symbiotic relationship. Influence of Technology to Humans Internal homeostatic and the Environment control mechanisms, - The industrial revolution has involving positive and brought about new technologies negative feedback, maintain with immense power. an appropriate level of - This was the transition to new stability. manufacturing processes in b. Examples include Europe and the United States, in I. How each animal the period from about 1760 to contributes to the 1840. cycle of nature - This has been succeeded by II. How environments continued industrialisation and become homes to further technological new breeds of advancements in developed animals countries around the world, and III. How extinction the impact of this technology on affects the the environment has included the environment and its misuse and damage of our natural systems earth 2. The HES Approach a. The HES approach These technologies have damaged our conceptualizes a mutualism world in two main ways; pollution and the between human and depletion of natural resources. environmental systems. The 1. Air and water pollution human and the a. Air pollution occurs when environmental system are harmful or excessive conceived as two different quantities of gasses such as systems that exist in carbon dioxide, carbon  monoxide, sulfur dioxide, Relevance on the Relationship between nitric oxide and methane Humans and the Environment are introduced into the - There is always a symbiosis earth’s atmosphere. between humans and their b. The main sources all relate environment, but the degree of to technologies which awareness of mutual emerged following the interdependence varies with the industrial revolution such culture. as the burning of fossil - All humans require the benefits of fuels, factories, power the land, waters and air for stations, mass agriculture survival, making this a commensal and vehicles. symbiosis at best, but often 2. Depletion of natural resources becoming a parasitic symbiosis. a. Resource depletion is - The relationship between Humans another negative impact of and the environment has been technology on the explored and contributes to the environment. “Physical Health,” “Mental Health,” b. It refers to the consumption and “Social Health.” of humans of a resource faster than it - It aims to identify areas of can be replenished and convergence as well as gaps and these resources can be limitations. either renewable or non-renewable. c. There are several types of resource depletion, with the most severe being aquifer depletion, deforestation, mining for fossil fuels and minerals, contamination of resources, soil erosion and overconsumption of resources. d. These mainly occur as a result of agriculture, mining, water usage and consumption of fossil fuels, all of which have been enabled by advancements The Indigenization of Social in technology. Sciences  the ills of the country and its The Philippines and its Social Thinkers people. - Prior to independence dating back - Intelligence and Enlightenment to to the Spanish era, The Filipino him was key to removing the traits people have been involved in of inferiority, fanaticism, docility revolutions and social movements and hopelessness. that try to uphold ideals of - To do this Rizal formed La Liga Nationalism and Filipino social Filipina which was a social identity. organization that was meant to - Some movements involve mostly build and form ideas of trying to uphold Filipino values to enlightenment among its the same status as the Spanish, members. As well as writing books others clamor for enlightenment such as Noli me Tangere and El and awareness of one's own value Filibusterismo as a Filipino and others support - Belief wise Rizal believed in revolution and independence from Agnostic Deism which viewed that Spain. God created the universe with its laws, never to interfere with it Jose Rizal (1861-1896) again. - José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda was a Filipino Republic Act No. 1425 (Rizal Law) nationalist, writer and polymath - The Rizal Law, officially designated during the tail end of the Spanish as Republic Act No. 1425, is a colonial period of the Philippines. Philippine law that mandates all He is considered as the national educational institutions in the hero (pambansang bayani) of the Philippines to offer courses about Philippines. José Rizal. - An ophthalmologist by profession, - The Rizal Law, in any case, was Rizal became a writer and a key emphatically restricted by the member of the Filipino Catholic Church in the Philippines, Propaganda Movement, which much appreciated to the advocated political reforms for the anti-clerical subjects that were colony under Spain. pertinent in Rizal's books Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. Rizal’s Social Beliefs and Ideals Andres Bonifacio (1863-1897) - Rizal was a social reformist, he - Andres Bonifacio was a Filipino believed that Intelligence freemason and revolutionary particularly Education and leader. He is often called "The Enlightenment were key to solve Father of the Philippine  Revolution", and considered one of - He is popularly known in the national heroes of the Philippine history textbooks as the Philippines. Brains of the Katipunan while - He was one of the founders and some contend he should be later the Kataas-taasang Pangulo rightfully recognized as the "Brains of the Katipunan a movement of the Revolution" which sought the independence of the Philippines from Spanish Jacinto’s Social Beliefs and Ideals colonial rule and started the - Emilio Jacinto was considered the Tagalog Revolution. “Brain of the Katipunan” he did advocate complete independence Bonifacio’s Social Beliefs and Ideals from Spain via revolution but - Bonifacio advocated complete Jacinto was a strong advocate of independence from Spain. Which reason and freedom of ideals as was why he formed the Katipunan opposed to the freedom of doing. Revolutionary Movement which - As in a colonial system where Free has roots from the Freemason will and free thinking were movement. suppressed where intellectual - Bonifacio published his ideals of fanaticism rules where one is revolution in a newspaper called subjected to the rule of tyranny, it “Kalayaan”, unlike Rizal who is where liberty, particularly idealized the principles of intellectual liberty, must be enlightenment, Bonifacio advocated and promoted. advocated a revolution of conflict - To Jacinto, Freedom must be against Spain as the way to give attained to remove slavery among freedom for his fellow filipinos. Filipinos and embrace liberty although through a bloody and Emilio Jacinto (1863-1897) costly revolution. - Emilio Jacinto was a Filipino general during the Philippine Manuel L. Quezon (1878-1944) Revolution. He was one of the - Manuel L. Quezon was a Filipino highest-ranking officers in the statesman, soldier and politician Philippine Revolution and was one who served as president of the of the highest-ranking officers of Commonwealth of the Philippines the Katipunan. from 1935 to 1944. - He was elected Secretary of State - He was the first Filipino to head a for the Haring Bayang Katagalugan, government of the entire a revolutionary government Philippines and during his established during the outbreak of presidency, Quezon tackled the hostilities.  problem of landless peasants in Philippine Republic, a puppet state the countryside. during World War II, from 1943 to - His other major decisions include 1945. the reorganization of the islands' - Since the administration of military defense, approval of a President Diosdado Macapagal recommendation for government (1961–1965), Laurel has been reorganization, the promotion of officially recognized by later settlement and development in administrations as a former Mindanao, dealing with the foreign president of the Philippines. stranglehold on Philippine trade - Laurel and his family was also the and commerce, proposals for land founder of the Lyceum of the reform, and opposing graft and Philippines University which was corruption within the government. established in Intramuros to provide quality education for Quezon’s Social Beliefs and Ideals Filipinos - Quezon was the first Filipino to head a government of the entire Laurel’s Social Beliefs and Ideals Philippines, as a politician he - Laurel was a Filipino politician and advocated for political pragmatism judge, who served as the president and political operation as a of the Japanese-occupied Second method for promoting Philippine Republic, a puppet state independence. during World War II, from 1943 to - He believed in Social Darwinism 1945. which promoted that Governments - But Laurel was also a Politically are a product as a result of political astute intellectual, he advocated struggles for survival. the Filipinos cannot be forever in - He advocated for a “Partyless” solitude internationally, and that System of Democracy as he social differences exist and must believed political parties influence be addressed. politics and the people. - Good governance and the - Advocated for the democratization establishment of Human rights of education for all Filipinos and according to him is founded on the national language and justice for people’s obligations to the state all. and good governance is established through righteousness Jose P. Laurel (1891-1959) and foreign relations through - Jose P. Laurel was a Filipino reciprocity between nations. politician and judge, who served as the president of the Isabelo De los Reyes (1864-1938) Japanese-occupied Second  - Isabelo De los Reyes was a wages and better working prominent Filipino politician, conditions for his fellow Filipinos writer, and labor activist in the - De los Reyes wrote on diverse 19th and 20th centuries. He was topics in history, folklore, language, the original founder of the Iglesia politics, and religion. Filipina Independiente, an independent Philippine national Sikolohiyang Pilipino (Philippine church. Psychology) - He is now known as the "Father of - Filipino psychology, or Philippine Folklore", the "Father of Sikolohiyang Pilipino, in Filipino, is the Philippine Labor defined as the psychology rooted Movement",and the "Father of on the experience, ideas, and Filipino Socialism". cultural orientation of the - He founded the first labor union in Filipinos. the country. He also was active in - It was formalized in 1975 by the seeking independence from the Pambansang Samahan sa United States. After serving in the Sikolohiyang Pilipino (National Philippine Senate in the 1920s, he Association for Filipino settled into private life and Psychology) under the leadership religious writing. De los Reyes of Virgilio Enriquez, who is wrote on diverse topics in history, regarded by many as the father of folklore, language, politics, and Filipino Psychology. religion. Main Ideas of Philippine Psychology De los Reyes’ Social Beliefs and Ideals - Filipino Psychology is described as - De los Reyes founded the first largely postcolonial and as a labor union in the country. He also liberation psychology. There are was active in seeking even some who have even argued independence from the United that it is a local variant of Critical States. After serving in the Psychology since it serves as an Philippine Senate in the 1920s, he emancipatory social science since settled into private life and it aims to decolonize academic religious writing. neocolonialism. - De los Reyes advocated the labor - It is divided into multiple values conditions for his Filipinos, he according to Virgilio Enriquez formed the Union Obrera 1. Kapwa Democrática Filipina which 2. Pivotal interpersonal value created labor strikes against 3. Linking socio-personal American companies in the value Philippines in order to attain fair  4. Accommodative surface in favor of values conformity with 5. Confrontative surface demands of those values who are in charge. 6. Societal Values - Pakikisama: being united with the Kapwa group - Kapwa is the core construct of Filipino Psychology. Kapwa has - Kapwa is the core construct of two categories, Ibang Tao and Filipino Psychology. Kapwa has Hindi Ibang Tao. two categories, Ibang Tao and Ibang Tao ("outsider") Hindi Ibang Tao. There are five interaction Hindi Ibang Tao levels under this category: ("one-of-us") There are - Pakikitungo: civility three interaction levels – right behavior under this category: meant right - Pakikipagpalagaya demeanor towards ng-loob: it is the act authorities (Parents, of mutual trust Elders, etc.). - Pakikisangkot: act - Pakikisalamuha: of joining others act of mixing – This - Pakikipagkaisa: is a social value that being one with is primarily others communitarian. It espouses the ability Main Ideas of Philippine Psychology to adapt. - Pakikilahok: act of Pivotal interpersonal value joining – This - Pakiramdam: Shared inner translates to perceptions. Filipinos use participation of the damdam, or the inner entire community to perception of others' help a person. emotions, as a basic tool to - Pakikibagay: guide their dealings with conformity – This other people runs into conflict Linking socio-personal value with individuality - Kagandahang-Loob: which many Shared humanity. This Filipinos in fact refers to being able to help willingly throw away other people in dire need  due to a perception of being indication of together as a part of one an acceptance Filipino humanity. of the nature Accommodative surface values of things, - Hiya: Loosely translated as including the 'shyness' by most Western inherent psychologists, Hiya is limitations of actually 'sense of propriety'. one's self. - Utang na loob: Norm of b. Lakas ng loob: This reciprocity. Filipinos are attitude is expected by their neighbors characterized by to return favors—whether being courageous in these were asked for or the midst of not—when it is needed or problems and wanted. uncertainties. - Pakikisama and c. Pakikibaka: Pakikipagkapwa: Smooth Literally in English, Interpersonal Relationship, it means concurrent or SIR, as coined by Lynch clashes. It refers to (1961 and 1973). This the ability of the attitude is primarily guided Filipino to undertake by conformity with the revolutions and majority. uprisings against a Confrontative surface values common enemy. - Bahala na: it is translated Societal Values as "determination in the a. Karangalan: Loosely face of uncertainty" and is translated to dignity, this used as an expression, actually refers to what almost universally, in other people see in a Filipino culture. person and how they use a. "bahala na" would that information to make a be a confrontational stand or judge about attitude as It implies his/her worth. a risk-taking view in - Puri: the external the face of the aspect of dignity. proverbial cloud of May refer to how uncertainty, and the other people judge a possibility of failure. person of his/her - It is also worth. This compels about an a common Filipino  to conform to social to which the new history is its norms, regardless merger and meeting with the idea how obsolete they of historical history within the are. spirit of patriotic action and - Dangal: the internal equality of Filipino values. aspect of dignity. - The sum includes a general view of May refer to how a the interconnection of person judges his characteristics, values, knowledge, own worth. wisdom, desire, customs, behavior b. Katarungan: Loosely and experience of a general translated to justice, this culture—generally wrapped in, actually refers to equity in and expressed through a language. giving rewards to a person. - Salazar adds, there will only be an c. Kalayaan: Freedom and equal perspective when society mobility. Ironically, this may and the country's culture use clash with the less concepts and attitudes that important value of everyone knows what it means to pakikisama or pakikibagay be a country. (conformity). - As for the Filipino language and its historical connection, Salazar said Pantayong Pananaw it was not a simple indicator, a - Pantayong Pananaw is a concept spokesman and liaison of history. and taken by historian Dr. Zeus A. He said it was also effective as a Salazar who is discussing an storage or source of history independent discourse of Filipinos because of its culture and in the national language for history experience. and social science. - It is through the national language - Salazar said history is a narrative that there is a sense of history as of the past that makes sense for an open and open-air approach to the story of a human or generation. interpretation, significance, - The new history is its merger and meaning. meeting with the idea of historical - It is possible to see the Filipino history within the spirit of language as a power of freedom of patriotic action and equality of the country and the Filipino people Filipino values. of history Key ideas of Pantayong Pananaw Relevance of Pantayong - Salazar said history is a narrative - Pamanaw Pantayong pananaw’s of the past that makes sense for approach begins with the need to the story of a human or generation sustain a talastasang bayan  (national discourse) by social science perspective that distinguishing among different offers a viable alternative to historiographies and how they (Western) positivist social science. relate to the formation of national/cultural identity. The first, the pangkayo perspective (‘from-you-for-us’ perspective), refers to the judgments made by external agents upon one’s culture; the pangkayo perspective mainly refers to colonial historiography that judged Filipinos’ beliefs and customs using purely external cultural standards. - Pantayong pananaw’s approach begins with the need to sustain a talastasang bayan (national discourse) by distinguishing among different historiographies and how they relate to the formation of national/cultural identity. Opposite to this is the pangkami perspective (‘from-us-to-you’ perspective), which was initially espoused by a generation of intellectuals who were educated in Spain and then responded to the accusations of colonial historiography regarding aspects of Filipino cultural heritage. - Pantayong pananaw is currently the most theoretically elaborate articulation of an indigenized