Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research PDF

Lesson 2 The Dichotomy of Qualitative and Quantitative Research  Objectives Determine the research process and its specifics; Differentiate qualitative research and quantitative research; and Determine the data used in quantitative and qualitative...

Lesson 2 The Dichotomy of Qualitative and Quantitative Research  Objectives Determine the research process and its specifics; Differentiate qualitative research and quantitative research; and Determine the data used in quantitative and qualitative researches.  Qualitative research is Quantitative research is designed to reveal the designed to test causal participants’ range of relationships between views and perspectives variables, make predictions, (Henson & Soriano, 2016). and generalize results to It emphasizes wider population. It understanding through a emphasizes understanding looking glass which through mathematical scans people’s words, significance that quantifies actions and records. observation. (Evans, 2023)  ASPECTS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH To describe and understand social To test hypothesis, establish causal Purpose phenomena and interactions among relationship, make predictions, and people generalize from findings Sample Size Required Small sample size Larger sample size Sampling Method Purposive sampling Random sampling Relationship with the Less formal Formal Participants Verbal information, images, and Statistical information and numbers Data Needed artifacts (text-based) (number-based) Test, experiment, pretest-posttest, any Interview, observation, document Data Collection Method other method that requires precise analysis measurements Data Analysis Content analysis and coding Statistical analysis Level of Subjectivity Moderate to high Low Generalizability Low generalizability High generalizability Scientific Method Exploratory, bottom-up or inductive Confirmatory, top-down, deductive Research Setting Typically in a natural setting Typically in a controlled setting Typically narrative with description of Reporting context and examples from the Statistical reporting participants’ responses QUALITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PARADIGMS Cresswell (1994)  paradigms A cluster of beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should be studied, how research should be done, and how results should be interpreted (Bryman, 2008).  paradigms Creswell (1994) noted that paradigms advance assumptions about the social world, how science should be conducted, and what constitutes legitimate problems, solutions, and criteria of proofs… Assumption Question Qualitative Quantitative Ontological What is the nature of Constructed by the individuals Reality is objective, out there, reality? involved in the research and singular, apart from the situation researcher, and can be Researchers must report measured objectively by using a faithfully these realities to rely questionnaire or an instrument. on voices and interpretations of informants Epistemological What is the Researcher interacts with that Researcher is independent from relationship of the being researched. Interaction that being researched. researcher to that may be in the form of living or Researchers attempt to control researched? observing informants over a for bias, select a systematic prolonged period of time, or sample, and be objective in actual collaboration. assessing a situation. Axiological What is the role of Value-laden and biased wherein Value-free and unbiased, values? the researcher admits the accomplished through entirely value-laden nature of the study omitting statements about and actively reports their biases, values from a written report, as well as the value nature of using impersonal language, and information gathered from the reporting the facts - arguing field. closely from the evidence gathered in the study. Assumption Question Qualitative Quantitative Rhetorical What is the language Informal Formal of research? evolving decisions Based on set definitions personal voice impersonal voice accepted qualitative words - use of accepted quantitative understanding, discover, words - relationship meaning comparison, within-group Methodological What is the process inductive process deductive process of the research? mutual simultaneous cause and effect shaping of factors static design - categories emerging design - categories isolated before study identified udring research context-free process generalizations leading to context-bound prediction, explanation, and patterns, theories developed understanding for understanding accurate and reliable accurate and reliable through validity and through verification reliability Adopted from Creswell J. (1994) Research Design. New Delhi: Sage Publications, p. 5 RECITATION PRACTICE Part 1 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting (Creswell, 1994). Qualitative research assumptionS Merriam (1988) & Crosswell (1994) Qualitative research assumptionS 1. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products. Qualitative research assumptionS 1. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products. 2. Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning - how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world. Qualitative research assumptionS 1. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products. 2. Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning - how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world. 3. Qualitative researchers is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires or machines. Qualitative research assumptionS 1. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products. 2. Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning - how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world. 3. Qualitative researchers is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires or machines. 4. Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting. Qualitative research assumptionS 1. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products. 2. Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning - how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world. 3. Qualitative researchers is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires or machines. 4. Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting. 5. Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures. Qualitative research assumptionS 1. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products. 2. Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning - how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world. 3. Qualitative researchers is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires or machines. 4. Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting. 5. Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures. 6. The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details. 1. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION  PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION It demands immersion in the natural setting of the research participant/s. 2. OBSERVATION  OBSERVATION It entails the systematic noting or recording of events, behaviors and artifacts (objects) in the social setting chosen for the study. 3. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW  IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW It resembles conversations, but with predetermined response categories. 4. FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW  FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW It involves 7-10, at times 6-8 people, who are unfamiliar with one another and have been selected because they share certain characteristics that are relevant to the research inquiry or problem. 5. CONTENT ANALYSIS  CONTENT ANALYSIS It calls for systematic examination of forms of communication to document patterns objectively - as shown in letters, emails, minutes of meetings, policy statements and a lot more. 6. NARRATOLOGY  NARRATOLOGY Narrative inquiry requires a great deal of sensitivity between participant and researcher. Ideally, a friendly atmosphere pervades during the story telling, retelling and reliving of personal experiences. 7. FILMS, VIDEOS, & PHOTOGRAPHS FILMS, VIDEOS, & PHOTOGRAPHS These provide visual records of events, especially the films and videos which capture the perspective of the filmmaker or videographer.  STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STRENGTHS Qualitative research can offer the best light on or best answers to certain phenomena - social, economic, political or even psychological. Research results are exhaustive; even underlying meanings surface. It offers several avenues to understand phenomena, behavior, human conditions and the like. It can build on, or even develop theories through consistent themes, categories, relationships, interrelationships that are crystallized during the data gathering and data analysis processes. WEAKNESSES Total immersion in the natural setting of the research can be time-consuming and tedious, and resource-draining, as well. There comes a point when the personal-self and the researcher-self are inseparable, so, subjectivity, on the part of the researcher, can happen. To prevent this, Locke et al. (1987) stress that from the beginning of the study, the researcher must identify his/her personal values, assumptions and biases.  KINDS OF QUALITATIVE (QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES) RESEARCH 1. PHENOMENOLOGY  PHENOMENOLOGY phainomenon logos means “that which appears” means “a study” PHENOMENOLOGY is the descriptive study of lived experiences. PHENOMENOLOGY Came from the academic disciplines of Philosophy and Psychology Based on work of Edmund Husserl Later developed by Heidegger PHENOMENOLOGY is the descriptive study of lived experiences. According to Lester (1999), the purpose of phenomenological approach is to illuminate the specific, to identify phenomena through how they are viewed by the participants or actors in a situation.  Phenomenological research focuses more on subjective understanding and biases to look at what the respondents have to say about their experiences, rather than on objective interpretations of what participants say.  FOUR ASPECTS OF LIVED EXPERIENCE BY MANEN (1997) 1. Lived Space (spatiality, and use of space) 2. Lived Body (corporeality and real existence) 3. Lived Time (temporality, a quality of being temporary) 4. Lived Human (relationality in a formative process)  EXAMPLE A Phenomenology on Students’ Outstanding Academic Performances RELATED QUESTIONS “How will you describe your LIVED SPACE achievements in life – especially in “Being the school?” world” “Could you narrate personal stories of achievements in your life?” “What are the contributions of achievements in your personal life?”  EXAMPLE A Phenomenology on Students’ Outstanding Academic Performances RELATED QUESTIONS “Could you narrate your experience LIVED BODY as a child?” Real existence “How did your parents rear you?” “What are some of your struggles while you were growing up?” “What are some of your triumphs during your struggle?”  EXAMPLE A Phenomenology on Students’ Outstanding Academic Performances RELATED QUESTIONS “Can you narrate some of your LIVED TIME achievements across time, before chronology of you enter school?, when you started events; past, primary school?, intermediate present, future school?, and present achievements?”  EXAMPLE A Phenomenology on Students’ Outstanding Academic Performances RELATED QUESTIONS “How do you relate with others in your LIVED HUMAN achievements?” RELATIONS “What are some reasons on your achievements which are prompted by Being with other people?” others Why do you need to interact with other people to achieve something?” FOUR ASPECTS OF LIVED EXPERIENCE BY MANEN (1997) 1. Lived Space (spatiality, and use of space) 2. Lived Body (corporeality and real existence) 3. Lived Time (temporality, a quality of being temporary) 4. Lived Human (relationality in a formative process) These aspects of lived experiences let the researchers access the lived experience of human beings and develop a deeper understanding of the nature and meaning of everyday experience. (Plazas et al., 2016)  FOUR TECHNIQUES IN PHENOMENOLOGY (Manen, 1990) 1. Bracketing 2. Intuiting 3. Analyzing 4. Describing  BRACKETING It is the process of identifying but refraining from any preconceived biases, beliefs and opinions that the researcher may have about the phenomenon and the participants. TECHNIQUES IN PHENOMENOLOGY (Manen, 1990)  INTUITING It is the process of creatively digging about the data until such an understanding emerges based on meaning attributed by people who experience it. This requires immersion in the community. TECHNIQUES IN PHENOMENOLOGY (Manen, 1990)  ANALYSING It is the process of coding and categorizing, and making sense of the essential meanings of the phenomena TECHNIQUES IN PHENOMENOLOGY (Manen, 1990)  DESCRIBING It is the process of understanding and full definition of phenomenon. This is communication the result of the study in written and verbal form. TECHNIQUES IN PHENOMENOLOGY (Manen, 1990) 2. ETHNOGRAPHY  ETHNOGRAPHY ethnos graphy means “a company, a people means “field of study” a nation”  ETHNOGRAPHY is the study of culture and group of people in a community.  ETHNOGRAPHY Originates in the discipline of anthropology The concept of culture is of central importance  CHARACTERISTICS OF ETHNOGRAPHY (Caufield, 2020) It involves full immersion in the community. Time-consuming compared to the other types It involves active observation Focuses more on understanding the culture of a certain community Most of the time, researchers make used of multiple qualitative data EXAMPLE FOR ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY 3. CASE STUDY  CASE STUDY In simple terms, case study is a detailed and intensive study of a single “case” or phenomena. It is used in various fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science and social work.  CASE STUDY Case can be any single problem, single phenomenon, and single group or entity existing in a specific place and time.  EXAMPLES OF CASE Anna O’s case – a woman who is experiencing symptoms of a conditions that was then known as hysteria Phineas Gage Case – experienced a terrible accident which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull The involvement of child slave labor in the production of cocoa of Cadbury’s supply chain  CASE STUDY CHARACTERISTICS Case studies are not considered as a representative. It cannot be used to generalize a larger population. The boundaries of the case need to be defined – meaning it should be specific. Multiple sources of data and multiple data collection methods are likely to be used.  CASE STUDY VS PHENOMENOLOGY Case Study Phenomenology It is a detailed investigation of a It is a study designed to understand single case, situation or the subjective, lived experiences phenomena. and perspectives of participants. Data collection includes Interview is the main method of observation, field notes and data collection. questionnaires. It focuses on a SINGLE incident or Focus on various individuals and individual, or a group. their experiences. 4. HISTORICAL APPROACH  HISTORICAL RESEARCH A research approach which seeks to systematically recapture the happenings, people and society of the past that have influenced and shaped the present (Berg & Lure, 2012)  HISTORICAL RESEARCH DATA SOURCES Primary Sources Secondary Sources Eyewitness accounts of events Textbooks Oral or written testimony Encyclopedia Public records, minutes of Films meetings, letters, journals, News Papers drawings 5. GROUNDED THEORY  GROUNDED THEORY Grounded Theory is a research method concerned with the generation of theory. (Mitchell & Noble, 2016)  GROUNDED THEORY IS NOT PROVE OR HYPOTHESIS COLLECT AND DISPROVE ANALYZE DATA HYPOTHESIS GROUNDED THEORY IS COLLECT AND DERIVE ANALYZE DATA THEORY  GROUNDED THEORY IS NOT DATA DATA DERIVE COLLECTION ANALYSIS THEORY Part 2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH  Quantitative is an inquiry into a social or human problem, based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers , and analyzed with statistical procedures, in order to determine whether the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true (Cresswell, 1994)  CHARACTERISTICS of quantitative research The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability. Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.  CHARACTERISTICS of quantitative research All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms. Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data. QUAntitATIVE RESEARCH METHODS 1. Experiment 1. Experiment A research approach which seeks to systematically recapture the happenings, people and society of the past that have influenced and shaped the present (Berg & Lure, 2012) 1. Experiment A research approach which seeks to systematically recapture the happenings, people and society of the past that have influenced and shaped the present (Berg & Lure, 2012) To test whether an intervention can reduce procrastination in college students, you give equal-sized groups either a procrastination intervention or a comparable task. You compare self-ratings of procrastination behaviors between the groups after the intervention. 2. sURVEY 2. survey Ask questions of a group of people in-person, over-the-phone or online.  2. survey Ask questions of a group of people in-person, over-the-phone or online. You distribute questionnaires with rating scales to first-year international college students to investigate their experiences of culture shock. 3. (Systematic) observation 3. (Systematic) observation Identify a behavior or occurrence of interest and monitor it in its natural setting. 3. (Systematic) observation Identify a behavior or occurrence of interest and monitor it in its natural setting. To study college classroom participation, you sit in on classes to observe them, counting and recording the prevalence of active and passive behaviors by students from different backgrounds. 4. Secondary research 4. Secondary research Collect data that has been gathered for other purposes e.g., national surveys or historical records. 4. Secondary research Collect data that has been gathered for other purposes e.g., national surveys or historical records. To assess whether attitudes towards climate change have changed since the 1980s, you collect relevant questionnaire data from widely available longitudinal studies.  STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF QUAntITATIVE RESEARCH STRENGTHS It can be replicated or repeated in other contexts. It provides findings that are generalizable to a large population. It can establish causality more conclusively. It can make predictions based on numerical, quantifiable data. Data analysis using statistical software is faster. Data gathering techniques are typically less demanding compared with those in qualitative research. It has a low degree of subjectivity. Its validity and reliability can be measured WEAKNESSES It cannot adequately provide in-depth information necessary for describing and explaining a complex phenomenon. It lacks the ability to provide a comprehensive textual description of human experiences. Numerical data may be insufficient in analyzing intangible factors, such as gender roles, socio-economic status, and social norms of a given population. WEAKNESSES It has less flexibility in terms of study design. Responses of participants are strictly limited to what has been asked. These responses may not be extensive in some cases. Self-reported data may not be very accurate as respondents may have the tendency to underestimate or overestimate their skills and behavior during self-assessment tasks. types of QUAnTitATIVE RESEARCH 1. DESCRIPTIVE research  1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Designed to give "answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how which are linked with a research problem."  1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Variables are measured as they occur. Experimental manipulation is not used. 1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Data Collection Technique: a. Questionnaire b. Observation  1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Assessing Nurses’ Attitudes Toward Death and Caring for Dying Patients in a Comprehensive Cancer Center (Lange, M. et al., 2008) 2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH  2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Correlational Research aims to determine the nature of the relationship between variables without looking into the cause. 2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Variables are measured as they occur. Experimental manipulation is not used. 2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Data Collection Technique: a. Questionnaire b. Tests c. Observation  2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH The Relationship Between Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction in the Telecommunications Industry: Evidence from Nigeria (Ojo, O., 2010) 3. EX POST FACTO research 3. EX POST FACTO research to infer the causes of a phenomenon which has already occurred 3. EX POST FACTO research Experimental manipulation is not used. Groups exposed to the presumed cause are compared with those who are not exposed to it. 3. EX POST FACTO research Data Collection Technique: a. Questionnaire 3. EX POST FACTO research Comparison of Personal, Social, and Academic Variables Related to University Drop-out Rate and Persistence (Bernardo, A., et ak., 2016) 4. QUASI-experimental research 4. QUASI-experimental research to establish cause-and-effect relationships 4. QUASI-experimental research Experimental manipulation may have limited use. Intact (i.e., established) groups are used; each intact group is not randomly assigned to the treatment or control groups 4. QUASI-experimental research Data Collection Technique: a. Tests 4. QUASI-experimental research The Impact of Smoking Bans on Smoking and Consumer Behavior: Quasi-experimental Evidence from Switzerland (Boes, S., et al., 2014) 5. experimental research  5. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH A type of quantitative research that authorizes researchers to "control the situation” which allows them to answer the question: What causes something to occur?'  5. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Experimental manipulation is used. Intact groups are not used; individual subjects are randomly assigned to the treatment or control groups. The random assignment of individual subjects provides more conclusiveness as to the causal relationship between the variables. 5. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Data Collection Technique: a. Tests  5. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Effects of Mobile Technology Use on Walking (Perlmutter, S., et al., 2014)  importance of quantitative research in different fields  in social inquiry to better understand the behavior and social interactions among individuals  in arts to investigate methods or approaches that enhances one’s creativity  in ict to examine the trends and tendencies in the use of information technology  in science to determine the effectiveness of a newly developed medicine, treatment or approach in addressing health problems.  in sports to understand the relationship between one’s health and athletic performance  in BUSINESS to assess approaches that will help companies in their decision-making practices  writing task: In a yellow sheet of paper, explain how quantitative research can be useful in the following fields of study. Substantiate your explanation with examples. a. Arts and Designs b. Social Sciences c. Engineering d. Natural and Physical Sciences e. ABM