Curriculum Studies: Development, Interpretation, Plan, and Practice PDF

CURRICULUM STUDIES Development, interpretation, plan and practice Second edition Celia Booyse Elize du Plessis Van Schaik PUBLISHERS µ BACK TO CONTENTS Published by Van Schaik Publishers 1059 Francis Baard Stree...

CURRICULUM STUDIES Development, interpretation, plan and practice Second edition Celia Booyse Elize du Plessis Van Schaik PUBLISHERS µ BACK TO CONTENTS Published by Van Schaik Publishers 1059 Francis Baard Street Hatfield, Pretoria All rights reserved Copyright © 2014 Van Schaik Publishers No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act, Act 98 of 1978. Please contact DALRO for information regarding copyright clearance for this publication. Any unauthorised copying could lead to civil liability and/or crimincal sanctions. Tel: 086 12 DALRO (from within South Africa) or +27 (0)11 712 8000 Fax: +27 (0)11 403 9094 Postal address: PO Box 31627, Braamfontein, 2017, South Africa www.dalro.co.za First edition 2008 (Educator as learning programme developer) Second edition 2014 Converted to EBook 2013 Print ISBN 978 0 627 03116 8 WebPDF ISBN 978 0 627 03188 5 Commissioning editor Lydia Reid Production manager Werner von Gruenewaldt Editorial manager Daleen Venter Copy editor Jill Bishop Proofreaders Anneline du Preez & Erika Janse van Rensburg Cover design by Gisela van Garderen Cover image African Pictures Network Typeset in 10.25 on 13 pt Jansen text by Pace-Setting & Graphics Printed and bound by Interpak Books, Pietermaritzburg EBook conversions by Pace Setting and Gesina Retief. Please note that reference to one gender includes reference to the other gender. Every effort has been made to obtain copyright permission for material used in this book. Please contact the publisher with any queries in this regard. Website addresses and links were correct at time of original publication. P R E FA C E Teachers are charged with preparing learners for a globally interdependent, com- plex and interactive world by offering a specific curriculum in a specific context. The educational challenge they face in particular is to foster the development of critical, creative and conceptually receptive minds in learners, while still teaching the required content. It is not only legislation, prescribed policies and the teacher’s knowledge and inte- gration of these that influence curriculum interpretation and implementation. The teacher also needs to understand the influence of different approaches on curricu- lum development, and be able to analyse existing learning programmes and resource material in order to prepare instructional designs with effective teaching, learning and assessment in mind. In this book, the views of Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire serve as a theoretical back- drop to a deeper understanding of the teacher’s role as interpreter of the curriculum, who ensures an enhanced teaching, learning and assessment practice. The following aspects of curriculum studies are covered, with the focus on the teacher as interpreter of the curriculum: The theoretical framing of curriculum development Influences on the teacher’s interpretation of the curriculum Curriculum design and the influence of policy documents on interpretation and implementation Practical guidance in putting curriculum plans into teaching practice This book offers sound, detailed and practical direction, with a “hands-on” ap- proach, to both new and experienced teachers in the General Education and Train- ing (GET) and Further Education and Training (FET) sectors. Celia Booyse and Elize du Plessis October 2013  CO N T E N T S List of abbreviations and acronyms.................................... ix Chapter 1 Theoretical framing of curriculum development 1.1  Introduction................................................. 2 1.2  The concept of “curriculum”: development, interpretation, plan and practice..................................................... 2 1.2.1  What is the difference between “curriculum” and “syllabus”?.... 2 1.2.2  What is curriculum development?.......................... 2 1.2.3  Definitions and aspects of “curriculum”...................... 3 1.3  Curriculum, context and the teacher.............................. 6 1.4  Approaches to curriculum studies................................ 7 1.4.1  Curriculum dimensions – the questions about rationale, purpose, content and skills inclusion in a curriculum................... 7 1.4.2 The objectives (instrumental) approach – Ralph Tyler (1902–1994) 14 1.4.3  The process approach – Lawrence Stenhouse (1926–1982)...... 16 1.4.4  Paolo Freire’s pragmatic approach intertwined with a sociopolitical purpose.................................... 18 1.4.5  Tyler, Stenhouse, Freire and the interpretation and implementation of a curriculum........................... 20 1.4.6  The impact of these approaches in terms of curriculum interpretation.......................................... 23 1.5  Conclusion.................................................. 23 Chapter 2 Influences on the teacher’s interpretation of curriculum 2.1  Introduction................................................. 26 2.2  Contextual evaluation of the whole curriculum for interpretation and instructional design............................................ 26 2.2.1  The impact of context on curriculum........................ 26 2.2.2  The influence of changes in the South African context on curriculum............................................. 27 2.3  The influence of different ways of understanding how learning is taking place on curriculum interpretation and implementation............... 31 2.3.1  Emphasising the setting of objectives........................ 31 2.3.2  Approaching learning as a process.......................... 32 2.4  Teaching strategies and tools to enhance implementation............. 36 vi 2.4.1  Reciprocal teaching..................................... 36 2.4.2  Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI)....................... 37 2.4.3  Scaffolding builds learning bridges.......................... 37 2.4.4 Simulation as discovery learning in action.................... 39  2.4.5  Problem solving as teaching strategy........................ 40 2.4.6  Discussion as a teaching strategy........................... 41 2.4.7  M-learning as a teaching strategy........................... 41 2.5  Conclusion.................................................. 44 Chapter 3 Curriculum design and the influence of policy documents on interpretation and implementation 3.1  Introduction................................................. 46 3.2  Curriculum as policy........................................... 46 3.2.1  The question of centralisation and decentralisation............ 46 3.2.2  Curriculum change and review in South Africa................ 47 3.3  South African policy pertaining to teachers......................... 48 3.3.1  Understanding the National Qualifications Framework and its sub- frameworks............................................ 48 3.3.2  The Higher Education Qualifications Subframework and teacher qualifications........................................... 49 3.3.3  Teacher registration: the role of the South African Council for Educators............................................. 50 3.3.4  The National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa.............................. 50 3.3.5  The Norms and Standards for Educators.................... 51 3.3.6  Policy on Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications.......................................... 53 3.4  Quality monitoring and evaluation............................... 55 3.4.1  The Integrated Quality Management System Policy........... 55 3.4.2  The implications of the Integrated Quality Management System Policy in relation to other policies.......................... 56 3.5  Conclusion.................................................. 63 Chapter 4 Putting the curriculum plan into teaching practice: from the intended to the enacted and assessed 4.1  Introduction................................................. 66 4.2  Towards the implementation of the curriculum..................... 66 4.3  Curriculum implementation in the South African context............. 67 4.3.1  The relationship between whole-school development planning and curriculum interpretation and implementation................ 67 4.3.2  Stages of planning for curriculum interpretation and implementation......................................... 69 4.4  In-service teacher learning: what and how?......................... 73 vii 4.4.1  The teacher, resources and lesson materials................... 73 4.4.2  Exemplary lesson materials and teacher development........... 75 4.5  Towards effective assessment of the intended curriculum.............. 76  4.5.1  Validity, reliability and fairness in assessment................. 77 4.5.2  The assessment of prior knowledge......................... 78 4.5.3  The focus on formative classroom assessment................. 79 4.5.4  Diagnostic assessment – a starting point for further planning.... 80 4.5.5  Assessment for diagnostic and formative purposes............. 80 4.5.6  The link between objectives / outcomes and assessment criteria in assessment practice...................................... 81 4.5.7  Assessment as mediating guidance and motivation............. 81 4.5.8  Assessment to improve self-reflection and reflection on learning.. 82 4.5.9  Assessment to enhance emotion and create conditions that are conducive to learning.................................... 83 4.6  The use of taxonomies in assessment.............................. 83 4.6.1  Bloom’s 1956 taxonomy.................................. 84 4.6.2  Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) Revised Bloom’s taxonomy in application............................................. 84 4.6.3  The cognitive domain.................................... 85 4.6.4  The affective domain.................................... 85 4.6.5  The psychomotor domain in different taxonomies............. 86 4.7  Towards effective questioning................................... 88 4.7.1  Using a taxonomy to formulate questions.................... 88 4.7.2  Features of effective questioning........................... 94 4.8  From National Curriculum Statement to Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement............................................. 95 4.8.1  Background to investigating the implementation of the National Curriculum Statement................................... 96 4.8.2  Challenges identified and recommendations made............. 97 4.8.3  Similarities and differences: the National Curriculum Statement and the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement............. 101 4.8.4  Making sense of changes to policy documents................ 105 4.8.5  From learning outcome and assessment standard (National Curriculum Statement) to topic and skill focus (Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement).............................. 110 4.8.6  Monitoring CAPS readiness and progress................... 112 4.9  Conclusion.................................................. 112 Bibliography................................................. 114 Index....................................................... 123 viii LIST OF ABBRE VIATIONS AND ACRONYMS C2005 Curriculum 2005 CAPS Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement CASS Continuous Assessment CGI Cognitively Guided Instruction CHE Council on Higher Education COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions CPTD Continuous Professional Teacher Development CTA Common Tasks of Assessment DSG Development Support Group FAL First Additional Language FET Further Education and Training FP Foundation Phase GET General Education and Training GETC General Education and Training Certificate GFETQSF General and Further Education and Training Qualifications Sub- framework HEQC Higher Education Quality Committee HEQSF Higher Education Qualifications Sub-framework HL Home Language IP Intermediate Phase IQMS Integrated Quality Management System IT Information Technology LoLT Language of Learning and Teaching LTSM Learning and Teaching Support Material MCQ Multiple-Choice Question MRTEQ Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications NAPTOSA National Professional Teachers’ Organisation of South Africa NCS National Curriculum Statement NEEDU National Education Evaluation and Development Unit NEPI National Educational Policy Initiative NPF National Policy Framework NQF National Qualifications Framework NSE Norms and Standards for Educators NUMSA National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa ix OBE Outcomes-Based Education OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OQSF Occupational Qualifications Sub-framework  PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study QC Quality Council RNCS Revised National Curriculum Statement SACE South African Council for Educators SAQA South African Qualifications Authority SDT Staff Development Team SMT Senior Management Team SP Senior Phase TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study x  1 C H AP TE R Theoretical framing of curriculum development Analysis Implementation Evaluation Design Development 1 µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1. 1   I N T R O D U C T I O N There are several factors to be taken into consideration when interpreting a cur- riculum in order for teaching to be effective. The teacher needs to understand the influence of different approaches on curriculum development, be able to interpret existing learning programmes or curricula, look at policies prescribed by the De- partment of Basic Education (see Chapter 3) and be able to design with teaching, learning and assessment in mind. This chapter aims to help teachers recognise what influences their understanding, interpretation (see Chapter 2) and planning. The views of Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire are used to encourage a deeper under- standing of the teacher’s role as interpreter and implementer of the curriculum, and how this role can be influenced by social backgrounds and personal views. 1. 2  T H E CO N C E P T O F “C U R R I C U LU M ”: D E V E LO P M E N T, I N T E R P R E TAT I O N , P L A N A N D P R AC T I C E 1.2.1 What is the difference between “curriculum” and “syllabus”? The concept of “curriculum” has its origins in the Latin currere, “to run”, with fur- ther reference to the running / chariot tracks for a race. According to Thijs and Van den Akker (2009:1), a curriculum can briefly be defined as a “plan for learning”, as used by the American Hilda Taba in 1962. There are related terms in many languag- es, including the classical Dutch term leerplan, the German lehrplan and the Swedish laroplan. This term should not be confused with a subject “syllabus”, because this definition of a “lehrplan” does not necessarily narrow the perspective, but permits all sorts of elaboration for specific curricular levels, contexts and representations. In broader terms, the concept of “curriculum” refers to all the learning that is planned and guided as a body of knowledge in order to achieve certain ends (out- comes) in a teaching-learning process as realised in praxis. The curriculum doc- ument should include the rationale, aim and purpose of the particular course and refer to related subject methodology, teaching methods and guidance regarding as- sessment practices, which are all based on a particular approach. The word “syllabus” in Greek means a concise statement or table of the topics of a discourse or the list of contents of a subject. Such a document has a series of head- ings with some additional notes which set out the areas to be examined. A syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be studied. Those who compile a syllabus tend to follow the traditional textbook approach of giving an order of contents, or a pattern pre- scribed by a logically sequenced approach to the subject. 1.2.2 What is curriculum development? Curriculum development focuses on improvement and innovation in education. 2 During this process, which may take many years – especially where generic curricu- lum development is concerned – and which extends beyond a specific local context, desires and ideals are incorporated in a cyclic process of design, implementation and evaluation to achieve concrete results in practice. The literature contains a variety µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 of models for curriculum development, in which especially the five core activities shown in Figure 1.1 are distinguished. Analysis Implementation Evaluation Design Development Figure 1.1 Core activities in curriculum development Source: Adapted from Thijs & Van den Akker, 2009:15. Also see Van den Akker & Kuiper, 2007:739–748. In a cyclic process, analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation take place interactively. Curriculum development often starts by analysing the ex- isting setting and formulating intentions for the proposed change or innovation. Important activities in this phase include problem analysis, context analysis, needs analysis and analysis of the knowledge base. Based on these activities, first design guidelines are drawn up. The design re- quirements are carefully developed, tested and refined into a relevant and usable product. Evaluation plays an important role in this process, as can be seen from its central position in the model. Evaluation activities cast light on the users’ wishes and the possibilities that exist in their practical context, and reveal the best way to at- tune the product to the practical setting. When the product has sufficient relevance, consistency and practical usability, its impact can be investigated. Whereas the pri- mary emphasis is on generating suggestions for product improvement (formative evaluation), during later phases this emphasis shifts towards evaluating effectiveness (summative evaluation). 1.2.3 Definitions and aspects of “curriculum” The debate around the interpretation of “curriculum” is long-standing. As far back as 1975, Stenhouse observed that the educationist “is confronted by two different views of the curriculum. On the one hand the curriculum is seen as an intention, plan or prescription, an idea of what one would like to happen in schools. On the other hand it is seen as the existing state of affairs in schools, what does in fact hap- pen” (Stenhouse, 1975). When we ask what “curriculum” means, we get different answers according to the views, background and experience of the respondent. At a general level, an ex- 3 planation can be understood in relation to what is included and / or excluded in the description. For example, Eisner (1985) defines a curriculum as a series of planned events that are intended to have educational consequences for one or more learners, µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT whereas Fraser (1993) has a much wider interpretation of curriculum as the inter-re- lated totality of aims, learning content, evaluation procedures and teaching-learning activities, opportunities and experiences that guide and implement didactic activities in a planned and justified manner. The older, narrower definition says that when studying a curriculum, we must look at the curriculum plan, i.e. the document that sets out the intention of what, how and why something should be taught. In this definition, a curriculum is a “course of study” or “study programme”, whereas the broader definition is a more inclusive concept that comprises all the opportunities for learning and is viewed in historical perspective in its sociopolitical context. Narrow definitions are likely to foster a conception of curriculum change as a limited and largely technical exercise. Grundy (1987), Goodson (1984; 1989) and other educationists argue that an awareness of the different interpretations is important in developing our under- standing of what a curriculum is. Goodman (1998) in particular says that the strug- gle over the definition of “curriculum” is a matter of social and political priorities, as well as intellectual discourse; otherwise the study of schooling will leave unques- tioned and unanalysed assumptions that should be at the heart of the intellectual understanding and practical operation of schooling. Another broad definition is that of the National Education Policy Initiative (RSA, 1993): “Curriculum refers to the teaching and learning activities and experiences which are provided by schools.” The definition includes the aims and objectives of the education system and the specific goals of the school the selection of content to be taught, how it is arranged into subjects and what skills and processes are included ways of teaching and learning, and relationships between teachers and learners forms of assessment and evaluation used. This definition covers more than the stated aims and subject-specific documenta- tion, which can be referred to as the intended curriculum. The curriculum also involves the consideration of actual classroom practices and experiences – the en- acted curriculum, which results from the interpretation and implementation of the curriculum. Having the same curriculum on paper does not mean that all schools / learning institutions experience the same curriculum-in-use or enacted curriculum. This is profoundly affected by resources (e.g. laboratories and libraries) and materi- als that support the learning process (e.g. textbooks). It is also affected by experienc- es of disruption or continuity, and by the quality and morale of teachers. This means that improving teachers’ knowledge and skills may have an effect on the way they will interpret and implement the intended curriculum. 4 If the definition of “curriculum” includes activities, opportunities and experienc- es, we can ask whether the following are part of a curriculum: The preference for a subject because of a teacher’s knowledge of the field and choices of teaching strategies µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 The principal locking the gates at 08:00 because she wants to force the children to be punctual The fact that Mathematics lessons are never scheduled for the last period on a Friday, but Life Orientation lessons often are The impact of teachers teaching subjects that they never studied themselves Classes that consist mainly of weak learners and repeaters The above are all examples of the enacted, experienced or lived curriculum, which can explain why the same prescribed curriculum can generate very different results in different schools. In other words, the enacted curriculum is the actual process of teaching and learning, the operational aspect of implementing the cur- riculum, which is based on how the teachers perceive and interpret the curriculum. This enacted, lived curriculum, or curriculum in action, illustrates the importance of both teacher and context and can be intentional or unintentional, or even hidden. In short, the curriculum can be defined as an organised framework that delineates the content that learners are to learn, the processes through which learners achieve the identified curricular goals, what teachers do to help learners achieve the objec- tives / goals, and the context in which teaching and learning occur. The following aspects of the curriculum must therefore be considered: 1. Official, explicit intended curriculum. This is the prescribed curriculum, also described as the blueprint for teaching. It is the plan or intentions of, for in- stance, the Department of Basic Education. A single plan can be used for differ- ent learners, although its contexts can differ greatly. 2. Enacted curriculum as practice. This is the curriculum as it is experienced. It is also referred to as the non-official, implicit curriculum as implemented by a teacher, and is what is actually taught and learnt. Misunderstandings, resource constraints and so on can interfere with the teacher’s abilities to implement a curriculum plan exactly as intended. 3. Covert curriculum. This is teaching that is implicit (not spelt out), but none- theless deliberate on the part of the teacher or school. It is especially important in early schooling, when consideration for others, order and obedience, team- work and cooperation are focal points. “Play” in early schooling is a deliberate curriculum strategy to develop important attitudes and skills such as fine motor skills, spatial differentiation and various prenumeracy skills. 4. Hidden curriculum. This is learning that is hidden from the teachers as well as from the learners. It is another form of implicit learning, which the teachers did not intend and are probably not even aware of. We consciously learn many things about the world, or learn to see the world in particular ways, simply by spending a lot of time in the sort of environment that schools and classrooms present to us. 5. Assessed curriculum. This is the knowledge and skills that are measured to 5 determine learner achievement or what objectives or learning outcomes have been attained. Assessment is an important element of a curriculum because it establishes how learners will be measured on performance. µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1. 3  C U R R I C U LU M , CO N T E X T A N D T H E T E AC H E R The ideas of Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) about a broader definition of “curricu- lum” agree with the views of Grundy (1987), Kraak (1998) and Killen (2007), who acknowledge both intended and unintended learning, and who view a curriculum as a social construct. This means that a particular society’s culture will influence the development of a particular sort of curriculum, just as that curriculum will, in its turn, contribute to shaping and forming that society and its culture. Education is a dialogic process, formative and transformative (Freire, 1976). Necessarily, this pro- cess involves contact, transmitting and acquiring knowledge and developing skills, habits and values. This mutual influence of education and context is ongoing, so that we should not think of curricula and social structures as entirely separate. Kitchens (2009:255) states that by situating education in the space of local communities, and by connecting the curriculum to the everyday life of learners, situated pedagogy allows these learners to be involved in a conversation that creates new understand- ings of the world and their place in it. Also, Wei (2009:271), when referring to the enactment of the curriculum, explains that it “should meet the needs of all the learn- ers and be oriented to the learners’ development; embody the nature of science; be focused on scientific inquiry; and even reflect the advance of modern science and technology”. Figure 1.2 illustrates how aspects like space, time, resources available, community integration, organisational aspects, economic development, political changes and historical background, theories (for instance communication and systems theory), philosophical ideas and developments in technology will influence the approach to and interpretation of a curriculum. It is therefore inevitable that curriculum devel- opment is a never-ending process of reflection and change. Contexts Theories, philosophies and views, organisational aspects, economic development, political changes, historical background, particular space and time, community integration Learners: Knowledge construct own knowledge Intended, official curriculum is selected and organised Enacted, experienced, lived curriculum Teacher 6 Mediates between curriculum and learners – works between official and lived curriculum Figure 1.2 A curriculum involves a network of relationships in a context Source: Adapted from Steinberg (2006) µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 Ornstein and Hunkins (1998:2) explain how an individual’s view of the curricu- lum reflects that person’s view of the world, including what the person perceives as reality, the values he or she deems important, and the amount of knowledge he or she possesses. By understanding a teacher’s approach to or view of the curriculum, and the prevailing curriculum approach of the school or school district, it is possible to tell whether the teacher’s professional view conflicts with the formal organisation- al view. A view of the curriculum is about the understanding of how a curriculum is designed and developed; the role of the learner, teacher and curriculum specialist in planning a curriculum; the goals and objectives of the curriculum; and the content, concepts and skills that need to be assessed. Kelly (1989:4–8) agrees that the view of the curriculum cannot be scientific or philosophical only; this view is too narrow, because the demands of society must also be met. Therefore the understanding of practicalities, innovation and values is also important. By means of contextualisation based on the characteristics of the popula- tion, local features and their habits and history, schooling became an easier and more successful process. Paliwal and Subramaniam (2006:25–51) emphasise the diversi- fied mosaic existing in schools and classrooms nowadays. They assume that taking the context and diversity in context into consideration will make difficult content become more understandable and familiar, granting greater meaning in learners’ daily lives. Considering the impact of context makes a more promising response to promoting success possible. 1. 4 A P P R O AC H E S TO C U R R I C U LU M S T U D I E S 1.4.1 Curriculum dimensions – the questions about rationale, purpose, content and skills inclusion in a curriculum Whether we are talking about a narrow or broader definition of curriculum, differ- ent curricula are based on a particular understanding of why a curriculum should be developed, what knowledge and applied knowledge (skills) to include in the curriculum and how teaching should take place, i.e. what should be in a curriculum and how it should be implemented. The approach to the curriculum and its theoretical framing will differ according to the rationale (core intention) of the curriculum. Whatever the approach of curriculum developers, the purpose, goal and intended result must be clarified by asking the following questions: 1. Why this curriculum? rationale and clear purpose 2. What will be included in the curriculum? knowledge and skills 3. How will the knowledge and skills be organised? 7 logical sequence progression of content and conceptual development teaching / learning methods µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 4. How will success be measured? assessment and its effects reality of practice The more complex society becomes, the greater the pressure on education to do justice to a variety of social interests. Therefore, in order to avoid overloading a curriculum, it is important to prioritise and to make bold choices based on clear arguments. In the literature on curriculum development, three main sources for selection and prioritising aims and content are mentioned: Knowledge: academic and cultural heritage for learning and future development Social preparation: issues relevant for inclusion from the perspective of societal trends and needs Personal development: elements of importance to learning and development from the personal and educational needs and interests of learners themselves The questions asked when developing a curriculum require a closer look. 1. Why this curriculum? rationale and clear purpose The rationale of a curriculum presents the sociopolitical view of the learning to be undertaken: it explains the necessity for the learning proposed. The rationale also explains the view taken of the teaching-learning process and hence of the learner: for example, is the learner an active co-creator and participant in the classroom and beyond, or is he or she trained to be biddable, respectful and unquestioning? The purpose provides an explanation in general terms of what the curriculum intends to help the learner achieve. The purpose statement places the focus more on the discipline and its requirements. 2. What will be included in the curriculum? knowledge and skills The knowledge and skills in the curriculum might be chosen and included for dif- ferent reasons and will have to be aligned with the rationale and the purpose of the curriculum. For instance, knowledge can be organised into subjects and the different subjects are taught independently of each other and only come together when listed on the final certificate. Selection of key content and concepts for the subject should be guided by the discipline or knowledge area, but also take into consideration the purpose of the curriculum. The content required and the skills expressed in the curriculum determine the teaching strategies and methodologies to be followed. 8 Particular examples and activities linked to the specified content and skills will guide the teacher / educator / facilitator on how to deal with the particular content. The skills linked with the content should be expressed in the outcomes; that is, they can- µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 not simply be identified by a phrase such as “case studies”. The phraseology must be something like “analyse the case study present in terms of …” or “present a case study in which you indicate how …”. Content and skills specification must therefore be clear, specific and appropriate acknowledge prior content that forms the stepping stones to new content. The knowledge is taught in order, in a step-by-step progression, with learners mov- ing up the learning ladder. In this instance, the curriculum aims that learners acquire specific content and skills indicated as important, and aims to ensure that learners acquire this knowledge correctly. In this curriculum, the performance of learners is important. Knowledge and skills might also be chosen to enable learners to be active, crea- tive and regulate their own learning. In this instance learner competency will be im- portant. In such a curriculum the teacher is viewed as the one to guide learners along their individual paths towards a set of outcomes. Learners need to become compe- tent in using knowledge for life. In this curriculum the subjects have weak bound- aries, meaning that the knowledge is organised across subjects, by using themes or by combining different disciplines into an integrated area of knowledge (e.g. social sciences); the curriculum is made relevant to learners by integrating everyday life into the subject knowledge. Different types of knowledge are mixed together and integrated. Knowledge is spread across subjects and is fitted into themes, so it does not follow a particular order or progression. To interpret and implement a curriculum with competence as a focal point, teach- ers need to work together and agree on the main idea that will focus the integration, and to assess whether they have a broad range of knowledge and skills that enables them to integrate concepts across the different subjects. As this is not easy to do, it involves additional teacher education; this was a core need in working with, for instance, curricula based on outcomes-based education (OBE) such as Curriculum 2005 (C2005) and the National Curriculum Statement (NCS). Two questions then come to mind: what kind of knowledge can be included in a curriculum, and what role should abstract knowledge and everyday knowledge play in a curriculum? Taylor (1999) and others argue that there is a qualitative difference between the ways of thinking in everyday / contextual knowledge and the ways of thinking in abstract / school knowledge. Everyday contexts can be an important bridge to un- derstanding abstract, school learning, but they must be chosen with care because much confusion can arise when everyday contexts are used to illustrate abstract knowledge. Abstract-structured knowledge, also called “school knowledge”, gener- alises, puts ideas together into concepts and becomes increasingly abstract – it makes 9 statements that claim to be true for many different contexts. Table 1.1 summarises the differences between these two concepts. µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Table 1.1 Differences between school knowledge and everyday knowledge Everyday knowledge (also Abstract-structured knowledge known as general knowledge) How  Randomly – from conversa-  In a structured way – schooling extends acquired? tions overheard, from the TV or everyday experience. radio, from watching parents, from punishment or praise. How structured?  Unsystematic – it is picked up  Systematic – grouped into particular in bits and pieces. subject disciplines like Mathematics, Science and Geography, which develop their own language. How  Orally – it is difficult to remem-  Written, which gives it more continuity communicated? ber and repeat. over time.  Taught systematically, with simpler concepts or tasks coming first and more complex concepts or tasks building on them later. Based on …?  Based on opinion – it is  Based on evidence – it comes from a personal and local. The type long tradition of research and debate of everyday knowledge that about what counts as important knowl- is acquired depends on family edge. School knowledge depends on a and community context and national curriculum that is the same for culture. all children. Application and  Practical and concrete – it  Requires generalising and thinking results? belongs to and talks about a conceptually. particular context.  Networked, i.e. it fits into a web of concepts.  Requires learning language (discourse) that is specific to different subjects and ways of thinking. 3. How will the knowledge and skills be organised? logical sequence progression of content and conceptual development teaching / learning methods To “organise” is to put things together into an orderly, functional, structured whole and to arrange them in a coherent form. The importance of what the learners have to learn, in what particular order, and in what space and time must be established. How the knowledge is organised, and in what sequence, is central to framing learn- ing; for example, the knowledge should be relevant to the labour market, appro- 10 priate to apply in civil society and be respectful of learners’ and teachers’ cultural backgrounds. In curriculum terms, the way in which the knowledge (content) is organised is called an “organising principle”. An organising principle is the basic method of ar- µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 ranging content so that key ideas can be located. Organising the knowledge (con- tent) selected to be included in the curriculum according to an organising principle helps to simplify a particularly complicated domain and make it easier for the users to grasp. The overarching approach in a curriculum provides an indication of – and the motivation for – the particular principle or set of principles according to which the curriculum is organised; for example, whether it is organised around outcomes, ob- jectives, unit standards, etc. This organising principle shapes the emphasis in the curriculum: all elements of the curriculum draw their classification and value from the way the curriculum is organised. It is important to notice that two organising principles relate to curriculum devel- opment in general. The first is related to the theory of knowledge espoused in the curriculum as seen in the outcomes, assessment standards, subject and / or teaching methodology, etc., which may, for example, presuppose an approach in which the participatory learner is seen as central to the learning process or one where the learner is simply regarded as the recipient of the required information. The second organising principle is associated with the discipline or subject it- self. It refers to the idea(s) forming the basis of the selection, sequencing, pacing, level and assessment of knowledge in a curriculum. The organising principle of the subject should allow for appropriate sequencing of different skills and content areas – over the course of the year and across grades / years of study. The internal prin- ciples of the subject’s discipline(s) and theoretical framework(s) direct the logical progression of content and skill development. To ensure coherence in the curricu- lum, sensitive choices regarding the choice of topics / content / elements and their ordered connectedness to the organising principle should be made. The coherence within the curriculum must mirror the coherence of the discipline. In addition to choosing the most relevant knowledge (content) and skills to be included in the curriculum, the sequencing of content also needs consideration in order to design a consistent and coherent curriculum. Suggestions about how much time could reasonably be allocated to the various parts of the curriculum help teachers / examiners to pace the teaching. The relative importance allocated to the content will also impact on pacing. It is furthermore important to know that the organising principle relates to the theory of knowledge, but also includes reference to a specific subject methodolo- gy, both of which must be congruent with the selection of content and the cognitive demands required at the particular level. 4. How will success be measured? assessment and its effects reality of practice Assessment guidance in the curriculum should have certain characteristics. It should 11 be clear, explicit and comprehensive, especially with respect to the kinds of tasks and the evaluation criteria to be used for internal assessment identify the number – and nature – of tasks specified for internal assessment µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT clearly specify the kinds of tasks and the evaluation criteria to be used for external assessment identify the number – and nature – of tasks specified for external assessment. A guideline document is intended to assist the teacher in preparing the learner for site-based assessment as well as the examination. It should be understood as resource material that indicates how the content in a particular subject should be unpacked for assessment. It also indicates the content knowledge that could be assessed. For instance, a guideline document should provide clarity on how specific outcomes and /or assessment criteria are weighted. The possible teaching and learning support materials relevant to the outcome(s) being assessed should also be highlighted. The document should not aim to be prescriptive, but rather to provide struc- tured guidance for teaching and assessment. The document helps to create a uni- form framework for examinations and formative (continuous / internal / site-based) assessments in order to minimise significantly different approaches to examinations. It needs to be remembered that no assessment or examination can possibly cover all the skills and content that the learners will learn: assessment must, however, cover a representative portion of what learners will have to learn. Table 1.2 compares approaches to curriculum development and their implica- tions. Table 1.2 Various approaches to curriculum development and implications for teachers and learners APPROACH Spokes- Assump- Curriculum implications Approach focus persons tions for teachers and learners  Relies on technical and scientific From Bobbitt,  Knowable  Behaviourism has allowed for principles. Charters to components research that investigates the  Paradigms, models and step-by-step Tyler, Taba, that can be depths of the mind. BEHAVIOURAL strategies are used. Gagné selected and  Teachers must perceive learn- organised. ers as cognitive functioning Blueprint or document. individuals within a social  Logical-positivist, conceptual-empir- context. icist, experientialist, rational-scientif- ic, technocratic; thus also technical and scientific. Knowledge, content. John Dewey,  Curriculum  Curriculum development is a Henry Mor- devel- systematic process directed ACADEMIC  Theoretical, simplistic, unsophisti- cated. rison & Boyd opment by academic rationality and Bode, Bruner involves theoretical logic. Traditional, intellectual. resolution, is It is a fixed approach.  Rooted in philosophical and intel- rational. lectual works. Í µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 Postmodern view. Dewey,  Curriculum  Stress on teachers and their  Emotional, social, physical and Kilpatrick, develop- cooperative curriculum Stenhouse, ment is a decisions. EXPERIENTIAL spiritual. Apple, Pinar dynamic  Self-directed, unstructured  Involves the whole person; the process centre is social activities. and personalised instruction fraught programmes that are “self- Subjective, personal. with much paced”.  Process, humanistic, child-centred. uncertainty. Interpersonal relations.  Prepares learners for functions in life. Tyler, Gagné,  Major steps  Needs assessment is the  Learning comprises a change in Londoner, can be iden- point of commencement. Hunkins, tified and TECHNOLOGICAL behaviour.  Management principles will Kaufman, managed. help the application and Demonstrable. Pratt  Objectivity, control of this approach. Managerial, based on systems. logic.  Objectives should be  Scientific, product-oriented, analyti- formulated in the form of cal, empirical. behaviour or performance  Links with academic model, but objectives. with differences.  Creative problem solving, pragmat- Walker, Allan,  Curriculum  The same curriculum ic, cooperative curriculum. Glatthorn, develop- elements of the academic, Freire ment is experience-based and tech- NATURALISTIC  Teachers make their ideas and values known. subjective, nological approaches can personal, be used. In addition, there is aesthetic ongoing give and take within and transac- specific interest groups and tional. viewpoints; negotiation and curriculum consensus.  Non-scientific, creative problem Eisner, Judd,  Curriculum  Informal and hidden curric- solving. Francis, Park- develop- ulum is also important, not Outcomes (bottom-up). er, Maslow, ment is only the formal and planned Rogers subjective, curriculum.  Core subjects, like art and music. HUMANISTIC personal,  Permission for more teacher Demands of society. emphasises input in curriculum decisions.  Progressive philosophy and self-suffi- child-centred movement. ciency.  Group projects, based on student’s natural development and curiosity. Freedom to learn.  Rooted in two educational Spady,  Curriculum  Curriculum 2005 and NCS as approaches, namely compe- Kramer is results-ori- vehicles for implementing an tence-based and mastery learning. ented, OBE approach.  Combination of experiential, natu- learner-cen-  Teachers become reflective ralistic and humanistic approaches. tred and ac- practitioners with seven roles tivity-based OBE to fulfil. education.  Learners are active and take responsibility for learning.  Assessment is continuous, based on a variety of tech- niques. Source: Du Plessis, Conley & Du Plessis (2007:41–42) µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Further discussion in this chapter focuses on three approaches to the selection of knowledge, choice of teaching methodology, attitude to learners and strategies for assessment: an objectives (instrumental) approach (Tyler), a process approach (Sten- house) and a pragmatic, sociopolitical purpose approach (Freire). 1.4.2 The objectives (instrumental) approach – Ralph Tyler (1902–1994) In Ralph Tyler’s approach, the trichotomy of knowledge, social preparation and per- sonal development is clearly articulated. Tyler believed that the needs of the subject discipline, society and the learners should together determine the educational ob- jectives. In his view, a good curriculum strikes the right balance between these three perspectives. Tyler’s views about curriculum development are known by some as the “instru- mental approach”. The instrumental approach emphasises the importance of a sys- tematic design process. Based on thorough analysis, clear and measurable objectives for the development process are formulated. These objectives provide the reference points for the design process (planning by objectives). Tyler assumed learning to be the ultimate purpose of schooling and therefore a curriculum should be designed in such a manner that effective learning can take place. He held the linear technical production perspective that educational decisions should be made objectively, primarily by experts with specialised knowledge. He based educational decision making on determining the ends before deciding on the means. Tyler’s curriculum involved planning, implementation and evaluation aspects (see Figure 1.3). Tyler (Posner in Beyer & Apple, 1998) suggests that the following be considered in curriculum planning: Decide what educational purposes the school should seek to attain. Pur- poses or “objectives” should be derived from systematic studies of the learners and contemporary life in society, and from expert advice and analyses by subject specialists. Determine what educational experiences can be provided that are most likely to attain the indicated purposes. Experiences should be consistent with the set objectives. Educational experiences are justified by the objectives that they serve. Find ways to organise the educational experiences effectively. Experienc- es should build on one another and enable learners to understand the relation- ships among their learning activities. To create such a cumulative effect, attention should be given to the sequence of experiences within a subject field, for instance Mathematics, and to integration of knowledge across fields. There are certain 14 concepts, skills and values that are sufficiently complex to require repeated study in increasing degrees of sophistication. The application of these concepts can be broad and pervasive enough to enable students to relate one field with another. µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 Determine whether the educational purposes are being attained. Behav- ioural evidence should be the criterion for assessing whether the objectives of the curriculum have been attained. Objective evaluation instruments like tests, ques- tionnaires and work samples can be used. Evaluation (assessment) is necessary to find out whether learning experiences actually produce the intended results (Tyler, 1982:164–174). Tyler’s ideas on teaching are that the teacher must specify the educational purpose by listing the behavioural objectives; select content and teaching activities that fit the objectives; let teachers implement this prescription; and end with assessing whether the learners have met the objectives. Figure 1.3 shows that this means-end reason- ing process should be a logical thinking and planning process where the evaluation serves not only as the primary justification for the objectives (means), but also as the starting point in planning. This means that there is a clearly definable cause that results in an effect. Tyler would always ask: “How can one decide on educational means by referring to the educational ends?” The strength of Tyler’s approach lies in its simplicity: the complex design process is reduced to just a handful of questions. The Tyler rationale also emphasises the importance of a rational and goal-directed approach. By systematically answering the four main questions based on factual arguments, the validity and internal con- sistency of a curricular product can be enhanced. However, critics also point to a few disadvantages of this objectives (instrumental) approach. The strong emphasis on the attainment of predetermined objectives leaves little flexibility to adjust to the often-changing needs of users and growing insights of designers. Also, the technical approach focuses on factual, empirical data, while education is also concerned with personal views and opinions; in addition, sociopolitical aspects play a prominent part in many curricular issues. Decide on objectives Planning in Evaluate whether the objectives Choose an instructional objectives are attained (instrumental) method approach Create organised educational experiences: learner activities 15 Figure 1.3 The means-end rationality in Tylerian planning µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT According to Tyler, decisions on the instructional method and content should be reserved for people with technical expertise. He argued that only technical experts would not allow their own values to cloud the objectivity of their work. Even the de- cisions about the purpose of the learning should be based on specialised knowledge developed from studies of learners and their societies regarding what they should learn, or on subject-matter expertise. Table 1.3 Summary of Tyler’s ideas Ralph Tyler (1949) Principles for selecting Must contribute to the achievement of the objective; effective- contents ness and efficiency of teaching Principles for making Sort the objectives in linear order; should be logically ordered decisions about sequencing the contents Who makes the decisions Informed people or schools plan how to deliver the learning about curriculum? experiences. Technical expertise is important. Four questions: 1. What are the educational purposes? 2. What are the educational experiences? 3. How are the educational experiences organised? 4. How can it be determined whether the educational purposes are attained? Principles to guide teaching Follow four steps: of the curriculum Aims and objectives Content to be taught Organisation and teaching method Assessment and evaluation Directions to examination are provided. The focus is on teaching strategies to achieve objectives that are meaningful to the learner / logical systematic framework. Focus of assessment Objective evaluation instruments; formal assessment of wheth- er objectives are achieved; skills and information; grading and marking and testing Most valuable aspect of the Teachers guide learners to achieve objectives; structures and approach promotes learning 1.4.3 The process approach – Lawrence Stenhouse (1926–1982) Stenhouse was a British educational thinker who sought to promote an active role for teachers in educational research and curriculum development. He believed that 16 curriculum development was quite a “messy process”, as teachers ought to research while they teach, evaluate as they research, and may change course in the process of teaching. Stenhouse therefore argued that curriculum proposals should be descrip- tive rather than prescriptive, and should be subject to ongoing change. Curriculum µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 proposals should also be related to what happens as courses develop and should call for adaptations in the light of what happens in practice (Stenhouse, 1975). Though Stenhouse viewed the classic objectives approach to curriculum research and planning as a useful one within limits, he expressed reservations about advo- cating it as a universally valid and obligatory model for curriculum designers. He gave the following as limitations: firstly, the objectives approach has a tendency to reduce content to an instrumental role. This appears to have serious shortcomings in certain subject areas, such as the arts, and it fails to take advantage of the sup- port offered by structured content – the disciplines. Secondly, Stenhouse was of the opinion that the objectives model drastically and significantly oversimplifies the educational situation. He believed that many of the problems of education stemmed not so much from its content as from the terms and conditions under which learners were required to access it. Consequently he pioneered an approach to curriculum development and reform that stressed the quality of the educational process and the values that defined it. He argued that a plan changes in the process of imple- mentation, and that teachers are professionals whose decision to change a plan in response to the needs of their learners should be respected. Stenhouse referred to the complexity of the multivariate situation in which curriculum research and plan- ning must operate. A curriculum should provide areas of knowledge and guidelines for teaching, but should be written like a suggestion and not like a prescription. Teachers should research as they teach, evaluate that research and change course in the process of teaching if necessary. Curriculum proposals should be descriptive rather than pre- scriptive and subject to ongoing change. They should be adapted in response to what happens in practice as courses develop (Stenhouse, 1975:84–97). As indicated above, Stenhouse viewed curriculum as a process that cannot be predetermined and that changes with the context and people involved. His ideas are learner-centred and based on progressive education that creates opportunities for children to develop a process of questioning, to find information themselves, and to apply their own answers to new situations. He valued having learners participate in classroom activities, express their own views and reflect on their own experiences (Stenhouse, 1975:85–97). Stenhouse also valued the development of individuality through a creative and critical engagement with culture. He was an early advocate of inclusive education and was committed to making available to all learners an education that was chal- lenging and empowering. His idea of “the teacher as researcher” lay at the heart of the process approach to curriculum as the means by which a worthwhile educational process could be progressively realised by teachers in concrete forms of action with- in their classrooms and schools. Table 1.4 summarises Stenhouse’s approach. Elliot and Norris (2012) summarise Stenhouse’s unique contribution to the field of curriculum as his distinctive conceptualisation of the relationship between the teacher, the learner and the subject matter. They concur with other researchers that 17 Stenhouse acquired an acute appreciation of the ways in which teaching enhances or inhibits, develops or displaces the potential for autonomous thinking of learners. In their view, Stenhouse changed the relationship between curriculum theory, edu- µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT cational research and teachers; placing teachers right at the heart of the curriculum development process and the teacher as researcher at the heart of developing teach- ing professionalism. Table 1.4 Summary of Stenhouse’s ideas Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) Principles for selecting contents Intrinsic value is not only a means to an end; focus on princi- ples of procedure. Selecting content is a process. The choice of content should enable teachers and learners to gain expected knowledge. Principles for making decisions Proposals should be recommendations, not prescriptions. about sequencing the contents Focus on how learners learn and attempt to enrich learning. Who makes the decisions All should be involved in teaching-learning process; teachers about curriculum? do research while they develop and teach. Principles to guide teaching of Rough guidelines to try out; activities to involve the learners; the curriculum give learners a chance to apply, share in planning, have active roles, examine and evaluate. Focus of assessment Focus on knowledge, understanding and judgement. The teacher ought to be a critic, not a marker; assessment should be about improving learners’ capacity to work; teaching of self-assessment is viewed as important. Most valuable aspect of the The learner must have a sense of grasping the subject’s deep approach structures. The value of teacher development to refine their criteria for judgement (professional development) is acknowl- edged. 1.4.4 Paolo Freire’s pragmatic approach intertwined with a sociopolitical purpose The future isn’t something hidden in a corner. The future is something we build in the present. – Paolo Freire Working with out-of-school learners, Paolo Freire (1921–1997) added a political / power-relationship perspective to the study of curriculum by arguing that one must recognise that a curriculum is never value-neutral, and so look carefully at the hid- den aspect of curriculum, since learning has the power to oppress or liberate the learners (Gerhardt, 1993:453). Freire wanted to move away from context-free ob- jectives, competitive and external evaluation, dualistic models that separate teacher and learner, meaning and context learning and environment and models of linear progress through value-neutral information transmission. 18 Freire’s focus on people’s understanding of and interaction with the world has been of great significance to those teachers who have traditionally worked with “those who do not have a voice” and who are oppressed. The idea of building a pedagogy of the oppressed or, more positively, a pedagogy of hope, and how this work may be µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 carried forward, has been the aspect of his work with the most significant impact. An important element of Freire’s thinking was his concern with conscientisation – or the developing of consciousness that is understood to have the power to transform reality (Taylor, 1993:52). What we teach and the way in which we teach either deep- ens learners’ feelings of powerlessness or assists them to address the reasons for their lack of power. According to Freire, a curriculum either empowers or it domesticates; it is always political. So as teachers, we cannot ignore the political questions. Paolo Freire promulgated educational ideas and methods to ensure liberation through education. Freire’s criteria for developing, for instance, a language cur- riculum are that it should be context-sensitive, ought to have phonetic value and whenever possible should begin with simple, applicable and appropriate words that serve a purpose in the process of understanding. Freire emphasised dialogue (communication) as important for all concerned in education. For him, dialogue was not just about deepening understanding, but was part of making a difference in the world. Dialogue in itself is a cooperative activity and can be seen as enhancing the community and building social capital (http:// www.infed.org/thinkers/et-freir.htm). Freire’s thinking focused attention on what the rationale, the purpose and the aims of a curriculum should include (see Table 1.5). As mentioned earlier, in general the purpose(s) of a curriculum may be single or manifold, and could include preparation for further or higher learning and /or preparation for participation in civil society and / or for employability. Freire’s think- ing was that the purpose of curriculum should be to liberate learners, to free their potential, and to provide opportunities to find and express their own agency (http:// www.infed.org/thinkers/et-freir.htm). Freire’s emphasis brought new awareness of what the curriculum is intended to help the learner achieve. These achievements are frequently expressed as objectives, outcomes or abilities that a learner can demon- strate. Besides the focus on the rationale of a curriculum, Freire valued the inclusion of well-defined aims in the curriculum. These aims need to serve as further direction to what is intended to be achieved through the implementation of the curriculum. In general, well-defined aims clarify clear the relationship of the current curricu- lum to other levels of the education system and should therefore be suited to the likely context(s) of the target group in which the subject will be taught and learned; clear and specific; understandable and useful to those using curriculum documents; aligned with the purpose and the subject methodology, which in turn should be suited to the interests and capacities of learners at this level; and based on and linked to a particular theoretical framework. 19 It is important to keep in mind that the intended aims, purpose and outcomes, cul- ture and context influence the structure of the curriculum as a whole. Freire’s thinking is summarised in Table 1.5. µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Table 1.5 Summary of Freire’s ideas Paolo Freire (1970) Principles for selecting con- Guided by values and questions of power. The selection of tents content comes from the life experiences of learners, i.e. the content is based on the needs and interests of the learners. Principles for making decisions Experimental – key themes from learners’ lives about sequencing the contents Who makes the decisions Must be dialogic – curriculum development to take place as a about curriculum? discussion with learners Steps: 1. Teachers help people to develop generative themes that represent their view of reality. 2. Professional teachers and volunteers are involved in refining curriculum content and expectations. Principles to guide teaching of Interactive and critical reflection; setting up an extended the curriculum dialogue with learners Problem-posing methods that require dialogue in which teacher and learner are “critical co-investigators” Teachers to develop a “critical consciousness” Focus of assessment Focus on the reflections of the participants; whether empow- erment or change in consumption took place Most valuable aspect of the To be able to read the world, not only the word; political em- approach powerment; “emancipatory” approach with critical reflection valued In summary, the following aspects of Paolo Freire’s work have a particular signif- icance for our discussion. Freire emphasised dialogue as a working relationship between teacher and learn- er, a cooperative activity that involves mutual respect. For Freire, dialogue pre- supposes trust, mutual respect and commitment, and that through the process of dialogue thoughts will change and new knowledge will be created. He viewed dialogue as a way of knowing and part of making a difference in the world (Freire & Macedo, 1995:379). Freire’s insistence on situating educational activity in the lived experience of par- ticipants has opened up a series of possibilities for the way informal teachers can approach practice. His concern with looking for words that can generate new ways of naming and acting in the world when working with people around litera- cies is a good example of this. 20 1.4.5 Tyler, Stenhouse, Freire and the interpretation and implementa- tion of a curriculum South Africa embarked on a radical transformation of education and training be- tween 1989 and 1994, and subsequently on reviews of the curriculum. One of the µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 most challenging aspects of the initial transformation has been the adoption of an OBE approach that underpins the introduction of C2005. C2005 has tried to cap- ture aspects of all three of the approaches discussed above, but just as there was tension between the three different approaches of Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire, so there was tension between different aspects of policy (see Chapter 3). Tyler used the narrow definition of “curriculum”, while Stenhouse argued for a broader definition and Freire just assumed a broader definition. But that was only their starting point. The main focus of their debate was on what should go into a curriculum and how it should be approached (see Table 1.6). For this reason, these different approaches become useful tools for sharpening our understanding and interpretation of C2005, both its revisions and the amended NCS, referred to as the Curriculum and Assess- ment Policy Statement (CAPS). The CAPS is discussed in more detail in chapters 3 and 4. Table 1.6 Approaches to curriculum planning according to Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire: a summary Ralph Tyler Lawrence Stenhouse Paolo Freire  Sees curriculum as a prod-  Sees curriculum as a process  Thinks about the purpose of a uct (objectives / instru- with objectives not set at curriculum – it must serve to mental approach) the start, but changing in liberate learners to make links  Has a linear focus on the the teaching process and understand language, end product; cannot Focuses on descriptiveness experiences and their daily branch off in the middle  Knowledge must be spec- struggle. ulative.  Objectives, content,  Guidelines and professional  Intellectual, social and politi- methods and sequence development are important. cal liberation – how learners questions  Learners should know what feel about knowledge and to do with content. whether experiences can be  Understanding and criteria used in everyday life are central to the process.  Educational purposes,  Carries out research while  The way in which we teach experiences etc. are im- teaching, evaluates while may change learners – it is portant. researching, changes the always political (empowers or process of reaching goals. domesticates the learners).  Negotiates understanding with learners.  Do research to find the  Tests, adapts and evaluates  Learners should be able to best content to include the process to see if it is reflect on the value of in curriculum / evaluate enlightening. learning. content.  Learners should “change” in the learning process. 21 The following universal principles in approaches to curriculum, but also to teach- ing and learning, are to be found in the views of Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire, as shown in Table 1.6: µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Experiential learning Clarity of focus Expanding opportunities Defining outcomes, aims or objectives Importance of knowledge, skills and values Evidence of achievement Individual learning What and whether we learn is more important than when we learned it Tyler wanted structure in the teaching and learning situation and argued that there should be clarity of focus in what you want to teach, how you want to teach and how you want to assess. Therefore, the first step in effective teaching is to define objec- tives (outcomes), keeping in mind that these objectives should be context-bound. The teacher should ask four basic questions: 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to achieve? (By “purpose” Ty- ler was referring to behavioural objectives (developed by gathering information from three sources: the subject matter, the learners and the society).) 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to achieve these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being achieved? Tyler argued that individual learning would ensure that each learner achieved the set objectives (outcomes). We can interpret this to mean that educational experi- ences should be derived from objectives, based on the results of an analysis of the situation (learner, subject, society), and that objectives should be filtered through a philosophical / psychological screen before being finalised. It is important to devel- op citizens who are able to solve problems and can engage in democratic processes. The principles mentioned above have their roots in the competency-based edu- cation movement and mastery learning. They are based upon the premise that we can help learners to create definite and reliable evidence of achievement. This model focuses on the need to create favourable learning conditions as regards time, teach- ing strategies and learning success. A more detailed look at competency-based learning reveals that Stenhouse’s ideas of a teaching-learning process prepare learners for success in fulfilling various life roles. It is important to test, adapt and evaluate the process to see whether it is an enlightening one, and in that manner expand opportunities for application. Sten- house stressed the importance of doing research while teaching and of following the 22 route of “design down, deliver up” – a developmental process where the teacher can change the teaching-learning environment according to context and learners’ needs. The learner should change in the teaching-learning process to internalise informa- tion and form opinions of his or her own. µ BACK TO CONTENTS  THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1 Mastery learning promotes the idea that all learners can achieve the desired teaching outcomes if given favourable learning conditions such as flexibility, suffi- cient time and alternative ways of learning. Freire focused on these aspects; he want- ed teachers and curriculum developers to make sure that educational experiences could be used in real life. Experiential learning was of utmost importance: learners should be able to reflect on the value of learning. What is also considered here is the perception of what the ideal learner in a particular field should look like, be like, act like and think like. Freire felt it was important to identify specific knowledge in order to attain a skill which could be applied in practice as the connection between reflection and action. 1.4.6 The impact of these approaches in terms of curriculum interpretation If we translate the approaches described above into teaching and learning principles, methodology, the use of learning materials and assessment, then teaching implies providing the learner with learning experiences and guiding, supporting and medi- ating the learning content by facilitating understanding. Learning implies the development of not only the learner’s knowledge, but also his or her understanding of concepts, skills, activities and values. All these should then be based on interaction between teacher, learner, context and content. Learn- ing is relevant to the real-life situations and experiences of the learner; therefore cross-curricular integration of knowledge and skills might prepare learners for real- ity and the world of work. Some examples of methodology and teaching strategies are discussed in more de- tail in Chapter 2, but in short they imply that teaching involves critical thinking and reasoning, reflection and action. Learners must take responsibility for their learning by being actively involved in the teaching-learning process. This also means that the teacher should use a variety of approaches and learning material in the learning process to accommodate different learning styles. Assessment is viewed as an integral part of teaching and learning, is continu- ous and is based on a wide variety of techniques apart from testing. Feedback in assessment is valued as part of learning. Assessment is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4. 1. 5  CO N C LU S I O N An understanding of the theoretical background of a curriculum is essential for its interpretation and subsequent implementation, which includes planning for teach- ing and structured ways to enable learning to take place. The views of Tyler, Sten- house and Freire elucidate the interpretation and implementation of the curriculum. Although the focus in this chapter was on the instrumental (objectives) approach, 23 the process approach and a pragmatic (purpose) approach, a holistic perspective is essential to encourage the emergence of compassion, optimal learning environ- ments, just relationships and ecological sustainability, which are echoed in the post- µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THEORE TICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT modern philosophy of curriculum development. The chapters to follow provide the background to the importance of context: context of meaning and the understanding of rootedness in a particularity of place and context. This means that understanding context, policies, the place of knowledge and applied knowledge influences how the curriculum is interpreted and implemented. 24 µ BACK TO CONTENTS  2 C H AP TE R Influences on the teacher’s interpretation of curriculum A paradigm Contextual evaluation shift to a new of whole curriculum understanding of for interpretation and planning and instructional design teaching Instructional strategies and their Influences on implementation: a the teacher’s prerequisite for planning and interpretation designing Understanding The influence of the The influence of contexts on views regarding interpretation and planning knowledge Social, Educational Economy Political community system, infrastructure and policies 25 µ BACK TO CONTENTS CHAPTER 2 I N F L U E N C E S O N T H E T E A C H E R ’ S I N T E R P R E TAT I O N O F C U R R I C U L U M 2. 1   I N T R O D U C T I O N The way we interpret the world around us is determined partly by our beliefs, values and norms, but mostly by contextual influences. The teacher’s interpretation and implementation of a curriculum is also influenced by the context and his or her un- derstanding of how learners learn. Choices regarding planning, the inclusion of par- ticular instructional strategies and practical application are embedded in knowledge and the understanding of the educational situation. Influences that affect teaching and learning range from the political, social and economic culture to the norms and knowledge structures of teachers. This chapter aims to help teachers understand these contextual influences, because this is a prerequisite to being able to effectively design teaching that enables learning to take place. 2. 2  CO N T E X T UA L E VA LUAT I O N O F T H E W H O L E C U R R I C U LU M F O R I N T E R P R E TAT I O N A N D INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 2.2.1 The impact of context on curriculum Lev Vygotsky, an educationist who argued for a constructionist perspective in ed- ucation, lived during the Russian Revolution, a time of great change in his culture and society. He believed that the lifelong process of development is dependent on social interaction, and that social learning actually leads to cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1978). Traditionally, schools have not promoted environments in which learners play an active role in their own education as well as that of their peers. Vy- gotsky’s theory, however, requires teachers and learners to play non-traditional roles as they collaborate with each other, because both are influenced by the contexts in which they live, teach and learn. Instead of