Curriculum Studies (CUS3701) Study Notes PDF

(i) Table of Contents LEARNING UNIT 1: DEBATES ON CURRICULUM APPROACHES AS AN EVOLVING SOCIAL CONSTRUCT..................................................................................................................... 4 Difference Between Curriculum and Syllabus in Tabular Form............................................................... 5 Importance of Aims, Outcomes, Culture, Context, Purpose, and Their Influence on Curriculum Structure.................................................................................................................................................. 11 Diversity of Values, Traditions, Cultures, Political Regimes, and Educational Structures in Curriculum Studies..................................................................................................................................................... 12 Table 1.1: differences between school knowledge and everyday knowledge...................................... 17 Differences Between Organised Principle and Organising Principle..................................................... 19 Table 1.2 compares approaches to curriculum development and their implications........................... 20 LEARNING UNIT 2: CONTRIBUTION TO THE EVOLVING NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM............................................................................................ 34 Understanding the Importance of Context in the Educational Environment (just additional information)............................................................................................................................................ 36 Figure 2.1: Contextual influences in education...................................................................................... 38 Figure 2.2: contextual influences on education..................................................................................... 47 LEARNING UNIT 3: STRATEGIES FOR ENGAGING WITH THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM AND POLICY........................................................................................................................... 48 3.2.4 The role of the teacher in curriculum change.......................................................................... 55 Figure 3.1: Changes in curriculum design and assessment.................................................................... 58 3.3.1 The characteristics of the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements.................................... 58 3.3.1 Making sense of changes to policy documents........................................................................ 67 LEARNING UNIT 4: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM IN WAYS THAT ARE INFORMED BY CONTEXTUAL REALITIES, THE NATURE OF MULTI-CULTURAL SCHOOLS AND (ii) CLASSROOMS, HISTORICAL LEGACIES AND SOCIAL DIVERSITY, INCLUDING UBUNTU PRINCIPLES.................................................................................................................... 93 4.2 KEY PLAYERS IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND INNOVATION AT SCHOOL LEVEL 94 3.3 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT.......................... 95 4.3.3 Stages of planning for curriculum interpretation and implementation.................................. 98 4.4.1 The teacher, resources and lesson materials......................................................................... 102 4.4.2 Exemplary lesson material and teacher development.......................................................... 104 4.5.1 Emphasising the setting of objectives.................................................................................... 106 4.5.2 Approaching learning as a process......................................................................................... 107 Figure 4.2: Instructional design: Planning teaching............................................................................. 112 4.7.1 The focus on formative classroom assessment...................................................................... 124 MULTILINGUAL GLOSSARY.................................................................................................................... 138 (iii) LEARNING UNIT 1: DEBATES ON CURRICULUM APPROACHES AS AN EVOLVING SOCIAL CONSTRUCT 1.1 THEORETICAL FRAMING OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT`’ INTRODUCTION To optimise the quality of teaching and learning in the classroom, the teacher needs to understand the influence of different approaches on curriculum development, be able to interpret curricula, choose appropriate teaching strategies, and consider policies prescribed by the Department of Basic Education (see Chapter 3). Only then will the teacher be able to interpret the curriculum effectively, and be able to mediate learning optimally. The views of Tyler, Stenhouse, and Freire are used to encourage a deeper understanding of the teacher’s role as interpreter and implementer of the curriculum, and how this role can be influenced by theories about curriculum design. 1.2 THE CONCEPT OF “CURRICULUM”: DESIGN, INTERPRETATION, PLAN AND PRACTICE Grundy (1987), Goodson (1984; 1988) and other educationists view an awareness of the different interpretations of a curriculum as important for developing an understanding of what a curriculum is. Goodman (1998), in particular, says that the struggle over the definition of “curriculum” is a matter of social and political priorities, as well as intellectual discourse; otherwise, the study of schooling will leave unquestioned and unanalysed assumptions that should be at the heart of the intellectual understanding and practical operation of schooling. It is therefore important to distinguish between a curriculum and a syllabus, and to look at the different dimensions of a curriculum. 1.2.1 What is the difference between a “curriculum” and a “syllabus”? Curriculum: A curriculum is a comprehensive framework that outlines the educational goals, objectives, content, learning experiences, and assessment methods for a particular educational program or course. It encompasses the overall structure of what students are expected to learn over a specific period, including the subjects offered, the skills to be developed, and the pedagogical approaches employed. Curricula can vary widely between different educational institutions and levels (e.g., primary, secondary, higher education) and are often influenced by national or regional educational standards. Syllabus: A syllabus is a detailed document that provides specific information about a particular course within the broader curriculum. It typically includes the course title, objectives, topics to be covered, required readings or resources, assignments, grading criteria, and important dates (such as 4 exam schedules). The syllabus serves as a guide for both instructors and students regarding what will be taught in that specific course and how it will be assessed. Difference Between Curriculum and Syllabus in Tabular Form Aspect Curriculum Syllabus A comprehensive guideline of all academic A detailed outline of topics and content for a Definition content covered during a course. specific subject. Encompasses the entire educational program, Focuses on individual subjects within the Scope including multiple subjects. curriculum. Derived from Greek, meaning “title slip” or Origin Derived from Latin, meaning “course.” “label.” Prescriptive and standardized; must be Descriptive and flexible; can vary between Nature followed by all educators. different instructors. Developed by educational authorities or Created by individual teachers based on Creation institutions. their teaching style and preferences. Lasts for the entire duration of the course or Typically covers a single academic term or Duration program. year for a specific subject. Includes instructional methods, assessments, Contains specific topics, assignments, Content Type and overall learning objectives. grading criteria, and deadlines. Availability to Generally not provided directly to students Provided to students at the beginning of the Students unless requested. course to guide their studies. 1.2.2 Defining a curriculum Curriculum development focuses on improvement and innovation in education. During this process, which may take many years – especially where generic curriculum development is concerned – and which extends beyond a specific local context, desires and ideals are incorporated in a cyclic process of design, implementation and evaluation to achieve concrete results in practice. The literature contains a variety of models for curriculum development, in which especially the five core activities shown in Figure 1.1 are distinguished. This definition covers more than the stated aims and subject-specific documentation, which can be referred to as the intended curriculum. The curriculum also involves the consideration of actual classroom practices and experiences – the enacted curriculum, which results from the interpretation and implementation of the curriculum. Having the same curriculum on paper does not mean that all schools/learning institutions experience the same curriculum-in-use or enacted curriculum 5 The older, narrower definition says that when studying a curriculum, we must look at the curriculum plan, i.e. the document that sets out the intention of what, how and why something should be taught. In this definition, a curriculum is a “course of study” or “study programme”, whereas the broader definition is a more inclusive concept that comprises all the opportunities for learning and is viewed in historical perspective in its sociopolitical context. Narrow definitions are likely to foster a conception of curriculum change as a limited and largely technical exercise. In a cyclic process, analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation take place interactively. An example of a broad definition is that of the National Education Policy Initiative (RSA, 1993). Another broad definition is that of the National Education Policy Initiative (RSA, 1993): “Curriculum refers to the teaching and learning activities and experiences which are provided by schools.” The definition includes: the aims and objectives of the education system and the specific goals of the school the selection of content to be taught, how it is arranged into subjects and what skills and processes are included ways of teaching and learning, and relationships between teachers and learners forms of assessment and evaluation used. This definition covers more than the stated aims and subject-specific documentation, which can be referred to as the intended curriculum. The curriculum also involves the consideration of actual classroom practices and experiences – the enacted curriculum, which results from the interpretation and implementation of the curriculum. Having the same curriculum on paper does not mean that all schools/learning institutions experience the same curriculum-in-use or enacted curriculum. This is profoundly affected by resources (e.g. laboratories and libraries) and materials that support the learning process (e.g. textbooks). It is also affected by experiences of disruption or continuity, and by the quality and morale of teachers. This means that improving teachers’ knowledge and skills may have an effect on the way they will interpret and implement the intended curriculum. If the definition of “curriculum” includes activities, opportunities and experiences, we can ask whether the following are part of a curriculum: The preference for a subject because of a teacher’s knowledge of the field and choices of teaching strategies The principal locking the gates at 08:00 because she wants to force the children to be punctual The fact that Mathematics lessons are never scheduled for the last period on a Friday, but Life Orientation lessons often are The impact of teachers teaching subjects that they never studied themselves 6 Classes that consist mainly of weak learners and repeaters The above are all examples of the enacted, experienced or lived curriculum, which can explain why the same prescribed curriculum can generate very different results in different schools. In other words, the enacted curriculum is the actual process of teaching and learning, the operational aspect of implementing the curriculum, which is based on how the teachers perceive and interpret the curriculum. This enacted, lived curriculum, or curriculum in action, illustrates the importance of both teacher and context and can be intentional or unintentional, or even hidden. In short, the curriculum can be defined as an organised framework that delineates the content that learners are to learn, the processes through which learners achieve the identified curricular goals, what teachers do to help learners achieve the objectives/ goals, and the context in which teaching and learning occur. The following aspects of the curriculum must therefore be considered: 1. Official, explicit intended curriculum. This is the prescribed curriculum, also described as the blueprint for teaching. It is the plan or intentions of, for instance, the Department of Basic Education. A single plan can be used for different learners, although its contexts can differ greatly. 2. Enacted curriculum as practice. This is the curriculum as it is experienced. It is also referred to as the non-official, implicit curriculum as implemented by a teacher, and is what is actually taught and learnt. Misunderstandings, resource constraints and so on can interfere with the teacher’s abilities to implement a curriculum plan exactly as intended. 3. Covert curriculum. This is teaching that is implicit (not spelt out), but nonetheless deliberate on the part of the teacher or school. It is especially important in early schooling, when consideration for others, order and obedience, teamwork and cooperation are focal points. “Play” in early schooling is a deliberate curriculum strategy to develop important attitudes and skills such as fine motor skills, spatial differentiation and various prenumeracy skills. 4. Hidden curriculum. This is learning that is hidden from the teachers as well as from the learners. It is another form of implicit learning, which the teachers did not intend and are probably not even aware of. We consciously learn many things about the world, or learn to see the world in particular ways, simply by spending a lot of time in the sort of environment that schools and classrooms present to us. 5. Assessed curriculum. This is the knowledge and skills that are measured to determine learner achievement or what objectives or learning outcomes have been attained. Assessment is an important element of a curriculum because it establishes how learners will be measured on performance. 7 1.2.3 What is meant by “curriculum development”? You can never sit back and say: “These are my lesson plans for the next 20 years”. Teaching is a dynamic process and needs to be adapted constantly. Curriculum development focuses on improvement and innovation in education. During this process, which may take many years – especially where generic curriculum development is concerned – and which extends beyond a specific local context, desires and ideals are incorporated in a cyclical process of design, implementation, and evaluation, so as to achieve concrete results in practice. Relevant literature contains a variety of models for curriculum development, in which the five core activities shown in Figure 1.1 are especially distinguished. Curriculum development often starts by analysing the existing setting and formulating intentions for the proposed change or innovation. Important activities in this phase include problem analysis, context analysis, needs analysis and analysis of the knowledge base. Based on these activities, first design guidelines are drawn up. The design requirements are carefully developed, tested and refined into a relevant and usable product. Evaluation plays an important role in this process, as can be seen from its central position in the model. Evaluation activities cast light on the users’ wishes and the possibilities that exist in their practical context, and reveal the best way to attune the product to the practical setting. When the product has sufficient relevance, consistency and practical usability, its impact can be investigated. Whereas the primary emphasis is on generating suggestions for product improvement (formative evaluation), during later phases this emphasis shifts towards evaluating effectiveness (summative evaluation). 8 Figure 1.2 illustrates how aspects like space, time, resources available, community integration, organisational aspects, economic development, political changes and historical background, theories (for instance communication and systems theory), philosophical ideas and developments in technology will influence the approach to and interpretation of a curriculum. It is therefore inevitable that curriculum development is a never-ending process of reflection and change. Ornstein and Hunkins (1998:2) explain how an individual’s view of the curriculum reflects that person’s view of the world, including what the person perceives as reality, the values he or she deems important, and the amount of knowledge he or she possesses. By understanding a teacher’s approach to or view of the curriculum, and the prevailing curriculum approach of the school or school district, it is possible to tell whether the teacher’s professional view conflicts with the formal organisational view. A view of the curriculum is about the understanding of how a curriculum is designed and developed; the role of the learner, teacher and curriculum specialist in planning a curriculum; the goals and objectives of the curriculum; and the content, concepts and skills that need to be assessed. Kelly (1989:4–8) agrees that the view of the curriculum cannot be scientific or philosophical only; this view is too narrow, because the demands of society must also be met. Therefore the understanding of practicalities, innovation and values is also important. By means of contextualisation based on the characteristics of the population, local features and their habits and history, schooling became an easier and more successful process. Paliwal and Subramaniam (2006:25–51) emphasise the 9 diversified mosaic existing in schools and classrooms nowadays. They assume that taking the context and diversity in context into consideration will make difficult content become more understandable and familiar, granting greater meaning in learners’ daily lives. Considering the impact of context makes a more promising response to promoting success possible. 1.2.4 The nature and extent of curriculum design The aims, outcomes, culture, context and purpose of the curriculum influence the structure of the curriculum as a whole. The purpose(s) of a curriculum should be considered, which could for instance and/or for employability. Clear, specific and well-defined aims should be aligned with the purpose and the subject methodology, which in turn should be suited to the interest and capacities of learners at a particular level. It is important for curriculum developers or policy makers also to think about how to organise the knowledge in the curriculum. The organising principle relates to the theory of knowledge but also includes reference to a specific subject methodology, both of which need to be congruent with the selection of content and the cognitive demands required at the particular level. The developers have to decide what learners have to learn (content and skills), in what particular order they have to learn (sequence) and in what space and time. The decision needs to be made that the content and concepts included in the curriculum should be fair and equitable for all the learners from the different socioeconomic groups in the country. The selection of key content and concepts for the subject should be guided by the discipline or knowledge area, but should also take into consideration the purpose of the curriculum. A curriculum needs to relate to national goals, qualification aims and developmental outcomes. Make sure that you understand the importance of the envisaged aims outcomes culture context purpose and their influence on the structure of any curriculum. 10 Importance of Aims, Outcomes, Culture, Context, Purpose, and Their Influence on Curriculum Structure 1. Aims: Aims are broad statements that define the overarching goals of an educational program. They guide educators in developing specific learning objectives and ensure that the curriculum aligns with national educational standards and societal needs. 2. Outcomes: Outcomes specify the skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values that students should demonstrate upon completing a course or program. They serve as benchmarks for assessment and evaluation, helping to measure the effectiveness of the curriculum and ensuring accountability among stakeholders. 3. Culture: Culture includes the beliefs, values, practices, and social norms of a community. Recognizing cultural influences is essential for creating an inclusive curriculum that respects diversity and promotes equity among learners. A culturally responsive curriculum enhances engagement by integrating various perspectives. 4. Context: Context refers to the specific circumstances surrounding education at any given time or place, including social, economic, political, and historical factors. Understanding context is critical for designing relevant curricula that address real-world issues faced by learners in their communities. 5. Purpose: The purpose outlines the intended impact of a curriculum on students’ lives beyond academic achievement—such as personal growth or career readiness. A clear purpose unifies various elements of the educational program under a common goal and motivates both educators and learners. 6. Influence on Curriculum Structure: The interplay between aims, outcomes, culture, context, and purpose shapes how a curriculum is structured. These elements inform decisions about content selection, pedagogical approaches, assessment methods, and resource allocation to ensure that curricula are aligned with national standards while being responsive to local needs. 1.2.5 Considerations in curricular design for a diverse context – a situational analysis In curriculum design, the diversity in values, traditions, cultures, political regimes and educational structures are aspects to be considered. This means that a situational or context analysis of the environment should be done to determine enabling and limiting factors that might influence the implementation of a curriculum. Skills to consider that would prepare learners more holistically and might assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum include the following: 1. Sense-making: determine deeper meaning 11 2. Social intelligence: ability to connect to others in a deep and direct way, to sense and stimulate reactions and desired interactions 3. Novel and adaptive thinking: proficiency at thinking and coming up with solutions and responses beyond that which is rote or rule-based 4. Cross-cultural competency 5. Computational thinking: ability to translate vast amounts of data into abstract concepts and to understand data-based reasoning 6. New media literacy: ability to critically assess and develop content that uses new media forms, and to leverage these media for persuasive communication 7. Trans disciplinarity: literacy in and ability to understand concepts across multiple disciplines 8. Design mindset: ability to represent and develop tasks and work processes for desired outcomes 9. Cognitive load management: ability to discriminate and filter information for importance, and to understand how to maximise cognitive functioning using a variety of tools and techniques 10. Virtual collaboration: ability to work productively, drive engagement, and demonstrate presence as a member of a virtual team (Davies, Fidler & Corbis, 2011) While it is important to consider the context in curriculum design, it is also of crucial importance to see the context within a broader developmental framework. In the first paragraph, some of the reasons for doing a situational or context analysis are provided. Diversity of Values, Traditions, Cultures, Political Regimes, and Educational Structures in Curriculum Studies 1. Introduction to Curriculum Studies Curriculum studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines the development, implementation, and evaluation of educational curricula. It encompasses a wide range of values, traditions, cultures, political regimes, and educational structures that influence how education is delivered across different contexts. Understanding this diversity is crucial for educators and policymakers to create inclusive and effective educational systems. 2. Diversity of Values Values in education often reflect the beliefs and priorities of a society. These can include: Individualism vs. Collectivism: In some cultures, individual achievement is prioritized (e.g., the United States), while others emphasize community and collective success (e.g., many Asian cultures). Equity vs. Excellence: Some educational systems focus on providing equal opportunities for all students (equity), while others may prioritize high standards and excellence for a select group. 12 Religious Values: In countries like Saudi Arabia or Iran, religious values heavily influence curriculum content and teaching methods. 3. Traditions in Education Educational traditions vary widely across cultures: Formal vs. Informal Education: Western societies often emphasize formal education through structured schooling systems, whereas many indigenous cultures value informal learning through storytelling and community practices. Pedagogical Approaches: Different regions adopt various pedagogical approaches based on their historical context. For instance, constructivist approaches are prevalent in progressive education movements in Europe and North America. 4. Cultural Influences Culture plays a significant role in shaping curriculum: Language: The language of instruction can affect access to education; bilingual education programs are essential in multicultural societies. Cultural Relevance: Curricula that incorporate local histories, languages, and customs tend to be more engaging for students from diverse backgrounds. Globalization: The spread of global culture influences local curricula by introducing new ideas but can also lead to cultural homogenization. 5. Political Regimes Political contexts significantly impact educational policies: Democratic vs. Authoritarian Regimes: Democratic countries typically promote inclusive curricula that reflect diverse perspectives, while authoritarian regimes may enforce a singular narrative or ideology. Policy Frameworks: National policies regarding education can dictate curricular content; for example, countries with strong centralized control over education (like China) may have standardized curricula that reflect government ideologies. 6. Educational Structures The structure of educational systems varies globally: Public vs. Private Education: Access to quality education can differ greatly between public institutions funded by the government and private schools that may offer specialized curricula. Higher Education Systems: Variations exist between countries regarding the structure of higher education—some have more vocational training paths while others emphasize academic research. 13 Inclusive Education Models: Different nations adopt varying models for including students with disabilities within mainstream classrooms or provide separate institutions. 1.3 APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM STUDIES 1.3.1 Curriculum dimensions This is about the WHY, WHAT and HOW questions when planning a curriculum. In the literature on curriculum development, three main sources for selecting and prioritising aims and content are mentioned: Knowledge: academic and cultural heritage for learning and future development Social preparation: issues relevant for inclusion from the perspective of societal trends and needs Personal development: elements of importance for learning and development with regard to the personal and educational needs and interests of the learners themselves The questions asked when developing a curriculum require a closer look. 1. Why this curriculum? Rationale and clear purpose The rationale of a curriculum presents the socio-political view of the learning to be undertaken: it explains the necessity for the learning proposed. The rationale also explains the view that is to be taken of the teaching-learning process and hence of the learner; for example, is the learner an active cocreator and participant in the classroom and beyond, or is he or she trained to be biddable, respectful, and unquestioning? The purpose provides an explanation in general terms of what the curriculum intends to help the learner to achieve. The purpose statement places the focus more on the discipline and its requirements. 2. What will be included in the curriculum? Knowledge and skills The knowledge and skills to be acquired in the curriculum are chosen and included for different reasons, and will have to be aligned with the rationale and the purpose of the curriculum. For instance, knowledge can be organised into subjects; the different subjects are taught independently of one another, and only appear together when listed on the final certificate. Selection of key content and concepts for the subject should be guided by the discipline or knowledge area, but should also take into consideration the purpose of the curriculum. The content included and the skills required by the curriculum determine the teaching strategies and methodologies to be followed. Particular examples and activities linked to the specified content and skills will guide the 14 teacher/educator/facilitator on how to deal with the particular content. The skills linked with the content should be expressed in the outcomes; that is, they cannot simply be identified by a phrase such as “case studies”. The phraseology must be something like “analyse the case study in terms of …” or “present a case study in which you indicate how …”. Content and skills specification must therefore be clear, specific, and appropriate acknowledge prior content that forms the stepping stones towards new content. Knowledge is taught in a logical order, in a step-by-step progression, with learners moving up the learning ladder. In this instance, the curriculum intends that learners acquire specific content and skills that are indicated as important, and aims to ensure that learners acquire this knowledge correctly. Knowledge and skills might also be chosen to enable learners to be active and creative, and to regulate their own learning. In this instance, learner competence will be important. In such a curriculum, the teacher is viewed as the one who guides learners along their individual paths towards a set of outcomes. Learners need to become competent in using knowledge for life. In this type of curriculum, the subjects have weak boundaries, meaning that knowledge is organised across subjects, by using themes or by combining different disciplines into an integrated area of knowledge (e.g. social sciences). The curriculum is made relevant to learners by incorporating aspects of everyday life with the subject knowledge. Different types of knowledge are mixed together and integrated. Knowledge is spread across subjects and is fitted into themes, so it does not follow a particular order or progression. In the literature on curriculum development, three main sources for selecting and prioritising aims and content are mentioned: knowledge social preparation personal development Two questions come to mind: what kind of knowledge can be included in a curriculum, and what role should abstract knowledge and everyday knowledge play in a curriculum? Taylor (1999) and others argue that there is a qualitative difference between thinking in terms of everyday/contextual knowledge and thinking in terms of abstract/school knowledge. Everyday contexts can be an important bridge to understanding abstract school learning, but they must be chosen with care, because much confusion can arise when everyday contexts are used to illustrate abstract knowledge. 15 Abstract-structured knowledge, also called “school knowledge”, generalises, puts ideas together into concepts, and becomes increasingly less concrete – it makes statements that claim to be true for many different contexts. Table 1.1 summarises the differences between these two concepts. It is important to decide what your priorities are when you develop a curriculum (plan) as well as when you teach a curriculum (practice). 1. Why this curriculum? - Rationale and clear purpose The rationale of a curriculum presents the socio-political view of the learning to be undertaken: it explains the necessity for the learning proposed. The rationale also explains the view that is to be taken of the teaching-learning process and hence of the learner; for example, is the learner an active cocreator and participant in the classroom and beyond, or is he or she trained to be biddable, respectful, and unquestioning? The purpose provides an explanation in general terms of what the curriculum intends to help the learner to achieve. The purpose statement places the focus more on the discipline and its requirements. 2. What will be included in the curriculum? - Knowledge and skills The knowledge and skills to be acquired in the curriculum are chosen and included for different reasons, and will have to be aligned with the rationale and the purpose of the curriculum. For instance, knowledge can be organised into subjects; the different subjects are taught independently of one another, and only appear together when listed on the final certificate. Selection of key content and concepts for the subject should be guided by the discipline or knowledge area, but should also take into consideration the purpose of the curriculum. The content included and the skills required by the curriculum determine the teaching strategies and methodologies to be followed. Particular examples and activities linked to the specified content and skills will guide the teacher/educator/facilitator on how to deal with the particular content. The skills linked with the content should be expressed in the outcomes; that is, they cannot simply be identified by a phrase such as “case studies”. The phraseology must be something like “analyse the case study in terms of …” or “present a case study in which you indicate how …”. Content and skills specification must therefore be clear, specific, and appropriate acknowledge prior content that forms the stepping stones towards new content. 16 Knowledge is taught in a logical order, in a step-by-step progression, with learners moving up the learning ladder. In this instance, the curriculum intends that learners acquire specific content and skills that are indicated as important, and aims to ensure that learners acquire this knowledge correctly. Knowledge and skills might also be chosen to enable learners to be active and creative, and to regulate their own learning. In this instance, learner competence will be important. In such a curriculum, the teacher is viewed as the one who guides learners along their individual paths towards a set of outcomes. Learners need to become competent in using knowledge for life. In this type of curriculum, the subjects have weak boundaries, meaning that knowledge is organised across subjects, by using themes or by combining different disciplines into an integrated area of knowledge (e.g. social sciences). The curriculum is made relevant to learners by incorporating aspects of everyday life with the subject knowledge. Different types of knowledge are mixed together and integrated. Knowledge is spread across subjects and is fitted into themes, so it does not follow a particular order or progression. Table 1.1: differences between school knowledge and everyday knowledge Everyday knowledge (also known as general Abstract-structured knowledge knowledge) How acquired? Randomly – from conversa2ons In a structured way – schooling extends overheard, from the TV or radio, from everyday experience. watching parents, from punishment or praise. How structured? Unsystema2c – it is picked up in bits Systema2c – grouped into par2cular and pieces. subject disciplines like Mathema2cs, Science and Geography, which develop their own language. How communicated? Orally – it is diﬃcult to remember and WriJen, which gives it more con2nuity repeat. over 2me. Taught systema2cally, with simpler concepts or tasks coming ﬁrst and more complex concepts or tasks building on them later. Based on …? Based on opinion – it is personal and Based on evidence – it comes from a long local. The type of everyday tradi2on of research and debate about knowledge that is acquired depends what counts as important knowledge. on family and community context School knowledge depends on a na2onal and culture. curriculum that is the same for all children. Application and results? Practical and concrete – it belongs to Requires generalising and thinking and talks about a particular context. conceptually. Networked, i.e. it fits into a web of concepts. Requires learning language (discourse) that is specific to different subjects and ways of thinking. 17 3. How will the knowledge and skills be organised? Logical sequence Progression of content and conceptual development Teaching/learning methods The way in which knowledge in a curriculum is organised is called an “organising principle”. To “organise” is to put things together into an orderly, functional, structured whole and to arrange them in a coherent form. The importance of what the learners have to learn, in what particular order, and in what space and time, must be established. How knowledge is organised, and in what sequence, is central to framing learning. For example, knowledge should be relevant to the labour market, applicable in civil society, and mindful of learners’ and teachers’ cultural backgrounds. In curricular terms, the way in which the knowledge (content) is organised is called an “organising principle”. An organising principle is the basic method of arranging content so that key ideas can be located. Organising the knowledge (content) to be included in the curriculum according to an organising principle helps to simplify a particularly complicated domain and make it easier for the users to grasp. A guideline document is intended to assist the teacher in preparing the learner for site-based assessment as well as the examination. It should be viewed as a resource that indicates how the content in a particular subject should be unpacked for assessment. It also indicates the content knowledge that could be assessed. For instance, a guideline document should provide clarity on how specific outcomes and /or assessment criteria are weighted. The possible teaching and learning support materials relevant to the outcome(s) being assessed should also be highlighted. The guideline document should not aim to be prescriptive, but rather to provide structured guidance for teaching and assessment. The document helps to create a uniform framework for examinations and formative (continuous/internal/site-based) assessments in order to minimise significant differences in approaches to examinations. It needs to be remembered that no assessment or examination can possibly cover all the skills and content that the learners will learn: assessment must, however, cover a representative portion of what learners will have to learn. 18 Differences Between Organised Principle and Organising Principle Aspect Organised Principle Organising Principle Refers to the established structures and frameworks Refers to the processes and methods used to arrange and Definition that guide the curriculum content. implement the curriculum. Emphasizes the end results of curriculum design, Emphasizes the dynamic processes involved in Focus such as knowledge and skills acquired. developing and delivering the curriculum. More static; it represents a fixed set of guidelines or More dynamic; it involves ongoing adjustments and Nature standards for curriculum content. adaptations in response to various factors. Specific learning outcomes, competencies, or Teaching strategies, assessment methods, and Examples standards that need to be achieved. instructional approaches used in teaching. Role in Curriculum Provides a framework within which educational goals Guides educators on how to effectively implement those Design are defined. goals in practice. Often predetermined by educational authorities or Requires flexibility and responsiveness from educators Implementation institutions. based on student needs and context. 4. How will success be measured? Reality of practice Although the most common assessment purposes are to grade and sort, to promote, select, or merely evaluate, assessment should rather be shaped as a process and opportunity for both teacher any learner. The learner should be challenged to demonstrate what he/she has learnt, preferably in a way that indicates his/her capacity to use that knowledge in a related, but novel context. Assessment should also provide for the systematic collection of information about what the learner has learnt (and has not yet learnt). How to use the information for improving learners’ learning should be central to the curriculum. Assessment guidance should be part of the planned curriculum. This provides structured guidance for teaching and assessment. A guideline document not only helps the teacher to plan assessment, but also indicates how content should be unpacked for assessment. Structured guidance for teaching and assessment helps to create a uniform framework for all assessment. Assessment guidance in the curriculum should have certain characteristics. It should: be clear, explicit and comprehensive, especially with respect to the kinds of tasks and the evaluation criteria to be used for internal assessment identify the number – and nature – of tasks specified for internal assessment clearly specify the kinds of tasks and the evaluation criteria to be used for external assessment identify the number – and nature – of tasks specified for external assessment. 19 A guideline document is intended to assist the teacher in preparing the learner for site-based assessment as well as the examination. It should be viewed as a resource that indicates how the content in a particular subject should be unpacked for assessment. It also indicates the content knowledge that could be assessed. For instance, a guideline document should provide clarity on how specific outcomes and /or assessment criteria are weighted. The possible teaching and learning support materials relevant to the outcome(s) being assessed should also be highlighted. The guideline document should not aim to be prescriptive, but rather to provide structured guidance for teaching and assessment. The document helps to create a uniform framework for examinations and formative (continuous/internal/site-based) assessments in order to minimise significant differences in approaches to examinations. It needs to be remembered that no assessment or examination can possibly cover all the skills and content that the learners will learn: assessment must, however, cover a representative portion of what learners will have to learn. Table 1.2 compares a few approaches to curriculum development. An approach is the theoretical grounding for assumptions regarding curriculum development. Each author writes from a particular point of view. When you read a book on curriculum development, you will be able to classify the content according to the approach the author believes in. Table 1.2 compares approaches to curriculum development and their implications. APPROACH Spokes- Assumptions Curriculum implications for Approachfocus persons teachers and learners Relies on technical and scientific From Bobbitt, Knowable components Behaviourism has allowed principles. Charters to Tyler, that can be selected and for research that Taba, Gagné organised. investigates the depths of BEHAVIOURAL Paradigms, models and step-by-step strategies are used. the mind. Blueprint or document. Teachers must perceive learners as cognitive Logical-positivist, conceptual-empircist, functioning individuals experientialist, rational-scientific, within a social context. technocratic; thus also technical and scientific. Knowledge, content. John Dewey, Curriculum Curriculum development is Henry Morrison & development involves a systematic process ACADEMIC Theoretical, simplistic, unsophisticated. Boyd Bode, Bruner resolution, is rational. directed by academic rationality and theoretical Traditional, intellectual. logic. Rooted in philosophical and It is a fixed approach. intellectual works. Postmodern view. Dewey, Kilpatrick, Curriculum Stress on teachers and Emotional, social, physical and Stenhouse, development is a their cooperative EXPERIENTIAL spiritual. Apple, Pinar dynamic process curriculum decisions. fraught with much Self-directed, unstructured Involves the whole person; the uncertainty. centre is social activities. and personalised instruction programmes Subjective, personal. that are “self- paced”. Process, humanistic, child-centred. Interpersonal relations. 20 Prepares learners for functions in life. Tyler, Gagné, Major steps can be Needs assessment is the Learning comprises a change in Londoner, identified and point of Hunkins, managed. commencement. TECHNOLOGICAL behaviour. Kaufman, Pratt Objectivity, logic. Management principles Demonstrable. will help the application Managerial, based on systems. and control of this Scientific, product-oriented, analytical, approach. empirical. Objectives should be Links with academic model, but formulated in the form of with differences. behaviour or performance objectives. Creative problem solving, pragmatic, Walker, Allan, Curriculum The same curriculum cooperative curriculum. Glatthorn, Freire development is elements of the academic, NATURALISTIC Teachers make their ideas and subjective, personal, experience-based and values known. aesthetic and technological approaches transactional. can be used. In addition, there is ongoing give and take within specific interest groups and viewpoints; negotiation and curriculum Non-scientific, creative problem Eisner, Judd, Curriculum Informal and hidden consensus. solving. Francis, Park- er, development is curriculum is also Outcomes (bottom-up). Maslow, Rogers subjective, personal, important, not only the emphasises self- formal and planned HUMANISTIC Core subjects, like art and music. sufficiency. curriculum. Demands of society. Permission for more teacher Progressive philosophy and input in curriculum child-centred movement. decisions. Group projects, based on student’s natural development and curiosity. Freedom to learn. Rooted in two educational Spady, Curriculum is results- Curriculum 2005 and NCS approaches, namely competence- Kramer oriented, learner- as vehicles for based and mastery learning. centred and activity- implementing an OBE Combination of experiential, based education. approach. naturalistic and humanistic Teachers become reflective OBE approaches. practitioners with seven roles to fulfil. Learners are active and take responsibility for learning. Assessment is continuous, based on a variety of techniques. 1.3.2 The objectives (instrumental/product) approach – Ralph Tyler (1902–1994) In Ralph Tyler’s approach, the trichotomy of knowledge, social preparation, and personal development is clearly articulated. Tyler believed that the needs of the subject discipline, the society, and the learners together should determine the educational objectives. In his view, a good curriculum strikes the right balance between these three perspectives. Tyler’s views about curriculum development are known by some as the “instrumental approach”. The instrumental approach emphasises the importance of a systematic design process. Based on thorough analysis, clear and measurable objectives for the development process are formulated. These objectives provide the reference points for the design process (planning by objectives). 21 Tyler assumed learning to be the ultimate purpose of schooling, and therefore a curriculum should be designed in such a manner that effective learning can take place. He held the linear technical production perspective that educational decisions should be made objectively, primarily by experts with specialised knowledge. He based educational decision making on determining the ends before deciding on the means. Tyler’s curriculum involved planning, implementation and evaluation aspects (see Figure 1.3). Tyler (as cited by Posner, 1998) suggests that the following be considered in curriculum planning: Decide what educational purposes the school should seek to attain. Purposes or “objectives” should be derived from systematic studies of the learners and contemporary society, and from expert advice and analyses by subject specialists. Determine what educational experiences can be provided that are most likely to attain the indicated purposes. Experiences should be consistent with the set objectives. Educational experiences are justified by the objectives that they serve. Find ways to organise the educational experiences effectively. Experiences should build on one another and enable learners to understand the relationships that link their learning activities. To create such a cumulative effect, attention should be given to the sequence of experiences within a subject field, for instance Mathematics, and to the integration of knowledge across fields. There are certain concepts, skills, and values that are sufficiently complex to require repeated study at increasing levels of sophistication. The application of these concepts can be broad and pervasive enough to enable learners to relate one field with another. Determine whether the educational purposes are being attained. Behavioural evidence should be the criterion for assessing whether the objectives of the curriculum have been attained. Objective evaluation instruments such as tests, questionnaires and work samples can be used. Evaluation (assessment) is necessary to find out whether learning experiences actually produce the intended results (Tyler, 1982:164–174). Tyler’s view was that the teacher must specify the educational purpose by listing the behavioural objectives; select content and teaching activities that fit the objectives; let teachers implement this prescription; and end with assessing whether the learners have met the objectives. Figure 1.3 shows that this means-end reasoning process should be a logical thinking and planning process, where the evaluation serves not only as the primary justification for the objectives (means), but also as the starting point when planning. This means that there is a clearly definable cause that results in an effect. Tyler would always ask: “How can one decide on educational means by referring to the educational ends?” 22 The strength of Tyler’s approach lies in its simplicity: the complex design process is reduced to just a handful of questions. Tyler also emphasises the importance of a rational and goal-directed approach. By systematically answering the four main questions based on factual arguments, the validity and internal consistency of a curricular product can be enhanced. However, critics also point to a few disadvantages of this objectives (instrumental) approach. The strong emphasis on the attainment of predetermined objectives leaves little flexibility to adjust to the often-changing needs of users and the growing insights of designers. Furthermore, Tyler’s approach focuses on technical, empirical data, whereas education is also concerned with personal views and opinions; in addition, socio-political aspects play a prominent role in many curricular issues. Tyler presented the concept that curriculum should be dynamic and offered the innovative idea that teachers and administrators should spend as much time evaluating their plans as they do assessing their learners. Decide on objectives Planning in Evaluate whether the objectives Choose an instructional objectives are attained method approach Create organised educational experiences: learner activities Figure 1.3: The means-end rationality in Tylerian planning According to Tyler, decisions regarding the instructional method and content should be reserved for people with technical expertise. He argued that only technical experts would not allow their own values to cloud the objectivity of their work. Even decisions about the purpose of learning should be based on specialised knowledge, developed from studies of learners and their societies regarding what they should learn, or on subject-matter expertise. 23 Table 1.3: Summary of Tyler’s ideas Ralph Tyler (1949) Principles for selec2ng contents Must contribute to the achievement of the objec2ve; eﬀec2ve- ness and eﬃciency of teaching Principles for making decisions about sequencing Sort the objec2ves in linear order; should be logically ordered the contents Who makes the decisions about curriculum? Informed people or schools plan how to deliver the learning experiences. Technical exper2se is important. Four ques2ons: 1. What are the educa2onal purposes? 2. What are the educa2onal experiences? 3. How are the educa2onal experiences organised? 4. How can it be determined whether the educa2onal purposes are aJained? Principles to guide teaching of the curriculum Follow four steps: Aims and objec2ves Content to be taught Organisa2on and teaching method Assessment and evalua2on Direc2ons to examina2on are provided. The focus is on teaching strategies to achieve objec2ves that are meaningful to the learner / logical systema2c framework. Focus of assessment Objec2ve evalua2on instruments; formal assessment of wheth- er objec2ves are achieved; skills and informa2on; grading and marking and tes2ng Most valuable aspect of the approach Teachers guide learners to achieve objec2ves; structures and promotes learning 1.3.3 The process approach – Lawrence Stenhouse (1926–1982) sought to promote an active role for teachers in educational research and curriculum development. He believed that curriculum development was quite a “messy process”, as teachers ought to research while they teach, evaluate as they research, and may change course in the process of teaching. Stenhouse therefore argued that curriculum proposals should be descriptive rather than prescriptive, and should be subject to ongoing change. Curriculum proposals should also be related to what happens as courses develop, and should call for adaptations in the light of what happens in practice (Stenhouse, 1975). Though Stenhouse viewed the classic objectives approach to curriculum research and planning as a useful one within limits, he expressed reservations about advocating it as a universally valid and obligatory model for curriculum designers. He cited the following limitations: Firstly, the objectives approach has a tendency to reduce content to an instrumental role. This appears to have serious shortcomings in certain subject areas, such as the arts, and it fails to take advantage of the support offered by structured content – the disciplines. 24 Secondly, Stenhouse was of the opinion that the objectives model drastically and significantly oversimplifies the educational situation. He believed that many of the problems of education stemmed not so much from its content as from the terms and conditions under which learners were required to access it. Consequently, he pioneered an approach to curriculum development and reform that stressed the quality of the educational process and the values that defined it. He argued that a plan changes in the process of implementation, and that teachers are professionals whose decision to change a plan in response to the needs of their learners should be respected. Stenhouse referred to the complexity of the multivariate situation in which curriculum research and planning must operate. A curriculum should provide areas of knowledge and guidelines for teaching, but should be written like a suggestion and not like a prescription. Teachers should research as they teach, evaluate that research and change course in the process of teaching if necessary. Curriculum proposals should be descriptive rather than pre scriptive and subject to ongoing change. They should be adapted in response to what happens in practice as courses develop (Stenhouse, 1975:84–97). As indicated above, Stenhouse viewed curriculum as a process that cannot be predetermined and that changes with the context and people involved. His ideas are learner-centred and based on progressive education that creates opportunities for children to develop a process of questioning, to find information themselves, and to apply their own answers to new situations. He valued having learners participate in classroom activities, express their own views and reflect on their own experiences (Stenhouse, 1975:85–97). Stenhouse also valued the development of individuality through a creative and critical engagement with culture. He was an early advocate of inclusive education and was committed to making available to all learners an education that was challenging and empowering. His idea of “the teacher as researcher” lay at the heart of the process approach to curriculum as the means by which a worthwhile educational process could be progressively realised. Table 1.4: Stenhouse’s approach Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) Principles for selec2ng contents Intrinsic value is not only a means to an end; focus on principles of procedure. Selec2ng content is a process. The choice of content should enable teachers and learners to gain expected knowledge. Principles for making decisions Proposals should be recommenda2ons, not prescrip2ons. Focus on about sequencing the contents how learners learn and aJempt to enrich learning. Who makes the decisions about All should be involved in teaching-learning process; teachers do curriculum? research while they develop and teach. 25 Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) Principles to guide teaching of the Rough guidelines to try out; ac2vi2es to involve the learners; give curriculum learners a chance to apply, share in planning, have ac2ve roles, examine and evaluate. Focus of assessment Focus on knowledge, understanding and judgement. The teacher ought to be a cri2c, not a marker; assessment should be about improving learners’ capacity to work; teaching of self-assessment is viewed as important. Most valuable aspect of the The learner must have a sense of grasping the subject’s deep approach structures. The value of teacher development to reﬁne their criteria for judgement (professional development) is acknowl- edged. ? 1.3.4 Paolo Freire (1921–1997) and the pragmatic approach intertwined The future isn’t something hidden in a corner. The future is something we build in the present. – Paolo Freire Working with out-of-school learners, Paolo Freire (1921–1997) added a polilcal / power-relalonship perspeclve to the study of curriculum by arguing that one must recognise that a curriculum is never value-neutral, and so look carefully at the hid- den aspect of curriculum, since learning has the power to oppress or liberate the learners (Gerhardt, 1993:453). Freire wanted to move away from context- free objeclves, compellve and external evalualon, dualislc models that separate teacher and learner, meaning and context learning and environment and models of linear progress through value- neutral informalon transmission. Freire’s focus on people’s understanding of and interaclon with the world has been of great signiﬁcance to those teachers who have tradilonally worked with “those who do not have a voice” and who are oppressed. The idea of building a pedagogy of the oppressed or, more posilvely, a pedagogy of hope, and how this work may be carried forward, has been the aspect of his work with the most signiﬁcant impact. An important element of Freire’s thinking was his concern with conscienlsalon – or the developing of consciousness that is understood to have the power to transform reality (Taylor, 1993:52). What we teach and the way in which we teach either deepens learners’ feelings of powerlessness or assists them to address the reasons for their lack of power. According to Freire, a curriculum either empowers or it domeslcates; it is always polilcal. So as teachers, we cannot ignore the polilcal queslons. Paolo Freire promulgated educalonal ideas and methods to ensure liberagon through educagon. Freire’s criteria for developing, for instance, a language cur- riculum are that it should be context- sensilve, ought to have phonelc value and whenever possible should begin with simple, applicable and appropriate words that serve a purpose in the process of understanding. 26 Freire emphasised dialogue (communicalon) as important for all concerned in educalon. For him, dialogue was not just about deepening understanding, but was part of making a diﬀerence in the world. Dialogue in itself is a cooperalve aclvity and can be seen as enhancing the community and building social capital (hop:// www.infed.org/thinkers/et-freir.htm). Freire’s thinking focused aoenlon on what the ralonale, the purpose and the aims of a curriculum should include (see Table 1.5). Freire’s emphasis brought new awareness of what the curriculum is intended to help the learner achieve. These achievements are frequently expressed as objeclves, outcomes or abililes that a learner can demon- strate. Besides the focus on the ralonale of a curriculum, Freire valued the inclusion of well-deﬁned aims in the curriculum. These aims need to serve as further direclon to what is intended to be achieved through the implementalon of the curriculum. In general, well-deﬁned aims clarify clear the relalonship of the current curricu- lum to other levels of the educalon system and should therefore be: suited to the likely context(s) of the target group in which the subject will be taught and learned; clear and speciﬁc; understandable and useful to those using curriculum documents; aligned with the purpose and the subject methodology, which in turn should be suited to the interests and capaciles of learners at this level; and based on and linked to a parlcular theorelcal framework. It is important to keep in mind that the intended aims, purpose and outcomes, cul- ture and context inﬂuence the structure of the curriculum as a whole. Table 1.5: Summary of Friere’s ideas Paolo Freire (1970) Principles for selecting con- tents Guided by values and questions of power. The selection of content comes from the life experiences of learners, i.e. the content is based on the needs and interests of the learners. Principles for making decisions about Experimental – key themes from learners’ lives sequencing the contents Who makes the decisions about Must be dialogic – curriculum development to take place as a discussion curriculum? with learners Steps: 1. Teachers help people to develop generative themes that represent their view of reality. 2. Professional teachers and volunteers are involved in refining curriculum content and expectations. Principles to guide teaching of the Interactive and critical reflection; setting up an extended dialogue curriculum with learners Problem-posing methods that require dialogue in which teacher and learner are “critical co-investigators” Teachers to develop a “critical consciousness” 27 Focus of assessment Focus on the reflections of the participants; whether empow- erment or change in consumption took place Most valuable aspect of the approach To be able to read the world, not only the word; political em- powerment; “emancipatory” approach with critical reflection valued In summary, the following aspects of Paolo Freire’s work have a particular signif- icance for our discussion. Freire emphasised dialogue as a working relationship between teacher and learn- er, a cooperative activity that involves mutual respect. For Freire, dialogue pre- supposes trust, mutual respect and commitment, and that through the process of dialogue thoughts will change and new knowledge will be created. He viewed dialogue as a way of knowing and part of making a difference in the world (Freire& Macedo, 1995:379). Freire’s insistence on situating educational activity in the lived experience of participants has opened up a series of possibilities for the way informal teachers can approach practice. His concern with looking for words that can generate new ways of naming and acting in the world when working with people around literacies is a good example of this. 1.3.5 Tyler, Stenhouse, Freire and the interpretation and implementation of a curriculum South Africa embarked on a radical transformation of education and training between 1989 and 1994, and subsequently on reviews of the curriculum. One of the most challenging aspects of the initial transformation has been the adoption of an OBE approach that underpins the introduction of C2005. C2005 has tried to capture aspects of all three of the approaches discussed above, but just as there was tension between the three different approaches of Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire, so there was tension between different aspects of policy (see Chapter 3). Tyler used the narrow definition of “curriculum”, while Stenhouse argued for a broader definition and Freire just assumed a broader definition. But that was only their starting point. The main focus of their debate was on what should go into a curriculum and how it should be approached (see Table 1.6). For this reason, these different approaches become useful tools for sharpening our understanding and interpretation of C2005, both its revisions and the amended NCS, referred to as the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS). The CAPS is discussed in more detail in chapters 3 and 4. 28 Table 1.6: Approaches to curriculum planning according to Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire: a summary Ralph Tyler Lawrence Stenhouse Paolo Freire Sees curriculum as a product Sees curriculum as a process with Thinks about the purpose of a (objectives / instrumental objectives not set at the start, but curriculum – it must serve to liberate approach) changing in the teaching process Has a linear focus on the end Focuses on descriptiveness learners to make links and understand product; cannot branch off in the Knowledge must be speculative. language, experiences and their daily middle struggle. Objectives, content, methods and Guidelines and professional Intellectual, social and political sequence questions development are important. liberation – how learners feel about Learners should know what to do with content. knowledge and whether experiences Understanding and criteria are can be used in everyday life central to the process. Educational purposes, experiences Carries out research while teaching, The way in which we teach may etc. are important. evaluates while researching, changes change learners – it is always political (empowers or domesticates the the process of reaching goals. learners). Negotiates understanding with learners. Do research to find the best content Tests, adapts and evaluates the Learners should be able to reflect on to include in curriculum / evaluate process to see if it is enlightening. the value of learning. Learners should “change” in the content. learning process. The following universal principles in approaches to curriculum, but also to teaching and learning, are to be found in the views of Tyler, Stenhouse and Freire, as shown in Table 1.6 (see below): Experiential learning Clarity of focus Expanding opportunities Defining outcomes, aims or objectives Importance of knowledge, skills and values Evidence of achievement Individual learning What and whether we learn is more important than when we learned it Tyler wanted structure in the teaching and learning situation and argued that there should be clarity of focus in what you want to teach, how you want to teach and how you want to assess. Therefore, the first step in effective teaching is to define objectives (outcomes), keeping in mind that these objectives should be context-bound. The teacher should ask four basic questions: 29 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to achieve? (By “purpose” Tyler was referring to behavioural objectives (developed by gathering information from three sources: the subject matter, the learners and the society).) 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to achieve these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being achieved? Tyler argued that individual learning would ensure that each learner achieved the set objectives (outcomes). We can interpret this to mean that educational experiences should be derived from objectives, based on the results of an analysis of the situation (learner, subject, society), and that objectives should be filtered through a philosophical / psychological screen before being finalised. It is important to develop citizens who are able to solve problems and can engage in democratic processes. The principles mentioned above have their roots in the competency-based education movement and mastery learning. They are based upon the premise that we can help learners to create definite and reliable evidence of achievement. This model focuses on the need to create favourable learning conditions as regards time, teaching strategies and learning success. A more detailed look at competency-based learning reveals that Stenhouse’s ideas of a teaching- learning process prepare learners for success in fulfilling various life roles. It is important to test, adapt and evaluate the process to see whether it is an enlightening one, and in that manner expand opportunities for application. Stenhouse stressed the importance of doing research while teaching and of following the route of “design down, deliver up” – a developmental process where the teacher can change the teaching-learning environment according to context and learners’ needs. The learner should change in the teaching-learning process to internalise information and form opinions of his or her own. Mastery learning promotes the idea that all learners can achieve the desired teaching outcomes if given favourable learning conditions such as flexibility, sufficient time and alternative ways of learning. Freire focused on these aspects; he wanted teachers and curriculum developers to make sure that educational experiences could be used in real life. Experiential learning was of utmost importance: learners should be able to reflect on the value of learning. What is also considered here is the perception of what the ideal learner in a particular field should look like, be like, act like and think like. Freire felt it was important to identify specific knowledge in order to attain a skill which could be applied in practice as the connection between reflection and action. 30 Remember this when you plan lessons! 1.3.6 The impact of these approaches in terms of curriculum interpretation If we translate the approaches described above into teaching and learning principles, methodology, the use of learning materials and assessment, then teaching implies providing the learner with learning experiences; and guiding, supporting and mediating the learning content by facilitating understanding. Learning implies the development of not only the learner’s knowledge, but also his or her understanding of concepts, skills, activities, and values. All these should then be based on interaction between teacher, learner, context, and content. Learning is relevant to the real-life situations and experiences of the learner; therefore cross-curricular integration of knowledge and skills might prepare learners for reality and the world of work. Some examples of methodology and teaching strategies are discussed in more detail in Chapter 2, but in short, they imply that teaching involves critical thinking and reasoning, reflection and action. Learners must take responsibility for their learning by being actively involved in the teaching-learning process. This also means that the teacher should use a variety of approaches and learning material to accommodate different learning styles. Assessment is viewed as an integral part of teaching and learning, is continuous, and is based on a wide variety of techniques apart from testing. Feedback in connection with assessment is valued as part of learning. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FOR FUN J: Impact of Tyler, Stenhouse, and Freire Approaches on Teaching and Learning Introduction to Curriculum Theories Curriculum studies encompass various approaches that shape teaching and learning processes. Among these, the frameworks established by Ralph Tyler, Lawrence Stenhouse, and Paulo Freire are significant in understanding how curriculum design influences educational outcomes. 31 Ralph Tyler’s Approach Ralph Tyler is known for his seminal work in curriculum development, particularly through his model articulated in “Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.” His approach emphasizes four fundamental questions: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? Tyler’s model promotes a systematic process where objectives guide the selection of content and methods. This approach impacts teaching by ensuring that educators have clear goals, which leads to structured lesson planning and assessment strategies. By focusing on measurable outcomes, Tyler’s framework encourages accountability in education. Lawrence Stenhouse’s Approach Lawrence Stenhouse expanded upon traditional curriculum theories by advocating for a more flexible and reflective approach to teaching. In his work “An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development,” he emphasized the importance of teachers as curriculum developers rather than mere implementers of pre-defined curricula. Stenhouse proposed that curricula should be seen as a means for teachers to engage with their students critically. He introduced concepts such as “curriculum as a process” and highlighted the significance of inquiry-based learning. This perspective encourages educators to adapt their teaching methods based on student needs and interests, fostering a more dynamic classroom environment. The impact of Stenhouse’s approach is profound; it empowers teachers to innovate within their classrooms while promoting critical thinking among students. This flexibility allows for personalized learning experiences that can better address diverse learner profiles. Paulo Freire’s Approach Paulo Freire’s pedagogical philosophy is rooted in critical pedagogy, emphasizing dialogue, reflection, and social justice within education. In his influential book “Pedagogy of the Oppressed,” Freire critiques traditional banking models of education—where knowledge is deposited into passive students—and advocates for a problem-posing model that encourages active participation. Freire’s approach impacts teaching by fostering an environment where learners are co-creators of knowledge rather than passive recipients. His emphasis on dialogue promotes critical consciousness, enabling students to analyze their realities critically and engage with societal issues meaningfully. 32 This transformative aspect of Freire’s philosophy encourages educators to create inclusive classrooms where diverse voices are heard, ultimately leading to empowered learners who can challenge injustices in their communities. Conclusion: Synthesis of Approaches The combined insights from Tyler, Stenhouse, and Freire provide a comprehensive framework for understanding contemporary curriculum development: Tyler’s systematic approach ensures clarity in educational objectives. Stenhouse’s reflective practice empowers teachers to adapt curricula based on student engagement. Freire’s critical pedagogy fosters an inclusive environment that promotes social justice. Together, these approaches highlight the importance of intentionality in curriculum design while recognizing the dynamic nature of teaching and learning processes. 33 LEARNING UNIT 2: CONTRIBUTION TO THE EVOLVING NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM OVERVIEW OF LEARNING UNIT 2: INFLUENCES ON THE TEACHER’S INTERPRETATION OF A CURRICULUM) in your prescribed book 2.1 INTRODUCTION The way we interpret the world around us is determined partly by our beliefs, values and norms, but mostly by contextual influences. The teacher’s interpretation and implementation of a curriculum is also influenced by the context and his or her understanding of how learners learn. Choices regarding planning, the inclusion of particular instructional strategies and practical application are embedded in knowledge and the understanding of the educational situation. 2.2 VALUES GUIDING THE IMPLEMENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE CURRICULUM The implementation and interpretation of the curriculum in the context of South Africa, particularly regarding the legacy of the Apartheid system and the principles of democracy, are deeply intertwined with various values that shape educational practices. These values can be categorized into several key areas: 1. Equity and Social Justice: The Apartheid system was characterized by systemic inequality and discrimination based on race. In contrast, a democratic curriculum aims to promote equity and social justice by ensuring that all learners have equal access to quality education regardless of their background. This involves recognizing historical injustices and actively working to redress them through inclusive teaching practices. 2. Human Rights: A democratic framework emphasizes the importance of human rights as fundamental to education. This includes fostering an environment where learners’ rights are respected, promoting freedom of expression, and encouraging critical thinking about societal issues. The curriculum should reflect these values by integrating human rights education across subjects. 3. Cultural Diversity: South Africa is a nation rich in cultural diversity, which must be acknowledged and celebrated within the curriculum. The values guiding curriculum development should include respect for different cultures, languages, and traditions. This approach not only enriches the learning experience but also promotes social cohesion in a post-Apartheid society. 34 4. Democratic Participation: Education plays a crucial role in preparing learners for active participation in a democratic society. The curriculum should encourage civic engagement, critical inquiry, and an understanding of democratic processes. This involves teaching students about their rights and responsibilities as citizens while fostering skills necessary for informed participation in public life. 5. Sustainability: In light of global challenges such as climate change, sustainability has become an essential value guiding education today. The curriculum should incorporate environmental education that empowers learners to understand their impact on the world and encourages responsible stewardship of natural resources. 6. Critical Pedagogy: Influenced by thinkers like Paulo Freire, critical pedagogy advocates for an educational approach that encourages students to question dominant narratives and engage critically with their learning environments. This value is particularly relevant in South Africa’s context as it seeks to dismantle lingering colonial ideologies rooted in the Apartheid era. 7. Collaboration and Community Engagement: Effective curriculum implementation requires collaboration among educators, communities, parents, and learners themselves. Building partnerships fosters a sense of ownership over educational processes and outcomes while ensuring that diverse perspectives are included in shaping the curriculum. In summary, the values guiding the implementation and interpretation of the curriculum in South Africa must address historical injustices stemming from Apartheid while embracing democratic principles that promote equity, human rights, cultural diversity, sustainability, critical engagement, collaboration, and community involvement. 2.3 THE IMPACT OF CONTEXT ON CURRICULUM INTERPRETATION AND IMPLEMENTATION Context can be described as the circumstances, background, environment, framework, setting, or situation surrounding an event or occurrence. In terms of the educational environment, the view of the child, the choice of teaching strategies, reflection on roles, and the broader socio-economic and sociopolitical environment might influence the teaching and learning context and the way in which the teacher might interpret the curriculum. 35 Understanding the Importance of Context in the Educational Environment (just additional information) 1. Definition of Context in Education Context in education encompasses various factors such as cultural, social, political, economic, and historical elements that influence teaching and learning. Recognizing context is essential for educators to effectively address the diverse needs of learners. 2. Relevance of Contextual Factors educational contexts are dynamic and shaped by local and global changes. Socio-economic conditions and cultural backgrounds significantly impact student engagement and learning preferences, necessitating tailored educational approaches. 3. Curriculum Development Context plays a critical role in curriculum design. A curriculum that reflects local realities enhances relevance and meaning for students. Booyse argues for incorporating local knowledge alongside national standards in curriculum development. 4. Pedagogical Approaches Understanding students’ backgrounds allows educators to employ effective teaching methods that resonate with learners, improving engagement. Culturally relevant examples can foster deeper understanding. 5. Assessment Practices Context matters in assessment as traditional methods may not accurately reflect diverse student abilities. Booyse advocates for

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