NCMB-311 Prelims Week 1-5 PDF

NCMB-311 – PRELIMS Nurses roles in nursing research Consumers of research WEEK 1 – Overview of Nursing Research for Evidence-Based Nursing Practice - Reads research repo...

NCMB-311 – PRELIMS Nurses roles in nursing research Consumers of research WEEK 1 – Overview of Nursing Research for Evidence-Based Nursing Practice - Reads research reports or research summaries to keep up to date on findings Pre-modernity (Traditionalism) that might affect their practice. - Early societies are marked with longevity, - EBP depends on well informed nursing stability and continuity. (ex. Tradition) research consumers. - The world, social realities, are given; the Producers of research world has a basic order and this order is the way things ought to be. - Design and conduct research. Modernity (Modernism) Sources of knowledge for nursing practice - Modernity is more concerned with Tradition – certain “truths” are accepted transforming rather than preserving itself. as given, and such “knowledge” is so - “Has always been associated with much a part of a common heritage that progress” (Wagner, 2012). few seek verification. - Innovation and change rather than Experts – people with specialized tradition and continuity. expertise. Pre-modernity to Modernity Clinical Experience – prior knowledge and skills of the health worker. - Doing research is one way we become Trial and Error – alternatives are tried modern beings. successively until a solution to a problem - Research has helped humanity be free is found. from the state of naivete or ignorance. Disciplined Research - Among the - Research contributes to the development sources of knowledge in nursing of the lives of the people. research, the best source is still the Research disciplined research. The questions that are formulated in a - Is a systematic inquiry that uses research is from the “paradigm”. disciplined methods to answer questions or solve problems. - The ultimate goal of research is to develop and expand knowledge. Nursing Research - A systematic inquiry designed to generate trustworthy evidence about issues of importance to the nursing profession. - Research findings from rigorous studies provides strong evidence for informing nurses’ decisions and actions – Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) PRELIMS | JK Overview of paradigms and methods for nursing Purposes of Nursing Research research – Positivist Research for varying levels of explanation - Ontology: reality exists (realism); there Identification “What is this is a real world driven by real natural phenomena?” What is causes and subsequent effects its name?” (QUAL) (determinism). Description “How prevalent is the - Positivists value objectivity and phenomenon” (QUAN) attempt to hold personal beliefs and “What are the biases in check to avoid contaminating dimensions or the phenomena under study. characteristics of the - The positivists scientific approach phenomenon?” involves using orderly, disciplined (QUAL) procedures with tight controls of the Exploration “What factors are research situations to test hunches about related to the the phenomena being studied. phenomenon?” - Fails to capture full breadth and depth of (QUAN) the human experience. “What is the full nature Overview of paradigms and methods for nursing of the phenomenon” research – Constructivist (QUAL) Constructivism is about the Prediction or “If phenomenon X construction of reality and knowledge. Control occurs, will Ontology: there are many forces that phenomenon Y could shape the existence of reality and follow?” (QUAN) knowledge (relativism). “Can the phenomenon Subjective interactions are important to be prevented” (QUAN) be able to capture the voices and Explanation “What is the underlying interpretation of those under study. cause of the Rely on flexible, evolving procedures. phenomenon?” May fail to provide generalizable (QUAN) research. “What does the phenomenon mean?” The paradigms are complementary (QUAL) In terms of: ✓ Ultimate goal ✓ External evidence ✓ Human cooperation ✓ Ethical constraints ✓ Fallibility of disciplined research PRELIMS | JK Purposes of Nursing Research Research purposes linked to EBP Therapy or To learn the benefits Intervention of specific actions, treatments, products or processes for improving or preventing health problems. Diagnosis and Concern with rigorous Assessment development and testing of formal instruments. Prognosis Aims to understand the outcomes or consequences EBP vs. Research Utilization associated with a EBP is a broader concept than RU disease or a health because it integrates research findings problem. with other factors. Etiology Focuses on finding Research Utilization the emphasis is on what causes harm or translating new knowledge into real- health problems world applications. Description Aims to describe Sources of Best Research Evidence health related Primary Studies phenomena. Research article that is an author’s Meaning and Focuses on original research. Processes understanding the Almost always published in a peer- meanings of the reviewed journal. health-related Report on the details, methods, and phenomena and results of a research study. experiences. Systematic Review Rely on primary studies. Evidence-Based Nursing Practice Meta-analysis integrates from primary - The process of shared decision-making quantitative studies. between practitioner, patient and other Meta-synthesis reviews primary significant to them based on research qualitative studies to amplify and evidence, the patient’s experiences and interpret further the qualitative data. preferences, clinical expertise or knowhow, and other available sources of information. PRELIMS | JK Multiple hierarchies of evidence In nursing, best evidence refers to research findings that are methodologically appropriate, rigorous and clinically relevant for answering persistent questions. Questions not only about the efficacy, safety, and cost-effectiveness of nursing interventions but also about the reliability of nursing assessment tests, causes and consequences of health problems, and the meaning and nature of patient’s experiences. PRELIMS | JK  NCMB-311 – PRELIMS Concepts, Construct and Theories WEEK 2 – Key Concepts and Steps of the Phenomena or Concept Nursing Research Process An abstract of human attributes. Key terms in QUANTITATIVE and Ex. Pain, Fatigue, Obesity QUALITATIVE Research. Construct Concept Quantitative Qualitative An abstraction about the human Term Term condition deliberate invented or Person Subject study Study constructed. contributing participant participant Ex. Self-care by D. Orem; Social Justice; information informant, key Beauty informant Person Researcher Researcher Theory undertaking investigator investigator the study An explanation or some aspects of reality. That which Concepts Phenomena is beingConstructs Concepts Variables investigatedVariables Is a quality of a person, group, or Information Data Data situation that varies or takes on different gathered (numerical (narrative values. values) descriptions) Connections Relationships Patterns of Ex. Weight, anxiety, nausea between (cause and association Research is needed because people and concepts effect, condition vary. associative) QUAN – seeks to understand how or why Logical Deductive Inductive conditions vary. reasoning reasoning reasoning QUAN – seeks to learn how differences processes in one variable related to differences in another. Setting Independent Variable – Presumed cause Types of place where the information is Dependent Variable (outcome) – Presumed gathered. effect Ex. Clinics, Homes, Community. Smoking (Independent) → Lung cancer Site (Dependent) Conceptual and Operational The broad location for the research could be an entire community or an institution. Conceptual Ex. A hospital in Antipolo City; An Igorot The theoretical meaning of a concept. neighborhood in Zambales. Ex. Caring PRELIMS | JK Operational - To articulate researchable research questions. Specifies what the researchers must do - Research questions related to clinical to measure the concept and collect issues of nurses; how this study could be needed information. used in clinical practice. Ex. Operationalization of the construct of - Methodological issues – how can this caring via the Care Scale. questions best be studied to provide high Data and Relationship quality evidences. - Ethical issues – can these questions be Quantitative Information in numeric addressed in ethical manner. Data form Qualitative Data Information in narrative Reviewing the related literature descriptions - Quantitative research is conducted Relationship Connection between from a previous knowledge. phenomena - Qualitative research strives to Ex: understand what is already known about Cause and a topic by undertaking a literature review. effect - Thorough literature review provides a relationship foundation based on a new evidence. (causative) (conducted before data are collected) Associative - Clinical problems it is necessary to relationship learn the status quo of current (functional) procedures and to review existing guidelines. Major Steps in a Quantitative Study Step 3: Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork Phase 1: Conceptual Phase - It deals with clinical questions and study. - You need to perform your clinical Step 1: Formulating and delimiting the problem. fieldwork to conceptualize your study to Example issues in selecting research problems: identify the clinical problem. - Substantive issues - What kind of new Step 4: Defining the framework and developing evidence is needed? conceptual definitions - Theoretical issues - Is there a - Theory offers explanation for the conceptual context for understanding this particular aspects of the reality. problem? - If the research is conducted in the context We need to articulate a research problem based of theoretical framework, the findings on literature. has more significance and utility. - Theoretical framework and Step 2: Reviewing the related literature. Conceptual definition are important to Literature Review define and to support the findings of the study. - Basis for identifying research questions and other parts of thesis proposal. PRELIMS | JK Step 5: Formulating hypotheses Step 10: Specifying Methods to Measure Research Variables - It states the researcher’s prediction about the relationship of study variables. - Must develop or borrow methods to - The research questions identify the study measure their research variables. (self- concepts and ask how might the report, interviews, surveys) concepts might be related. Step 11: Specifying Methods to Safeguard - The hypothesis is the predicted answer Human/Animal Rights. to the research questions. - Important if there is involvement of Phase 2: Design and Planning Phase animals in the research. Step 6: Selecting a Research Design Step 12: Reviewing and Finalizing the - Overall plan for obtaining answers to the Research Plan research questions. - Researchers must ensure the plan will - The researcher should select specific flow smoothly. design and identify strategies to minimize - Ex. May evaluate the readability of study bias. reading materials to assess with low - It indicates how often data will be reading skills can comprehend them. collected - It indicates what types of comparisons For Nursing Research 2 will be made and where the studies will Phase 3: Empirical Phase be made (site or setting) Step 13: Collecting Data Step 7: Developing Protocols for the Step 14: Preparing Data for Analysis Intervention Phase: 4 Analytic Phase - For experimental study that may harm Step 15: Analyzing Data the patient. Step 16: Interpreting Results - Steps and measures must be clear. Phase 5: Dissemination Phase Step 17: Communicating the Findings Step 8: Identifying the Population Step 18: Utilizing the Findings in Practice - Identify the study population Activities in a Qualitative Research - Population must share same characteristics Conceptualizing and Planning a Qualitative - Ex. Patients that are undergoing Study: chemotherapy in Rizal. Identifying the research problem Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan - Begins with a broad topic area, focusing - A sample adequacy is assessed by its on an aspect of a topic that is poorly size and representativeness. understood. - It specifies how the sample will be - Often proceed with a fairly broad selected. questions which be narrowed and clarified on a basis of self-reflection and discussion. - The research questions can be on the outset of the study, but as the PRELIMS | JK  researchers performs the study, the - The discussions and observations often questions become clearer. boost the structured allowing for the expression of beliefs, feelings and Doing a literature review behaviors. - Qualitative researchers do not all agree - Discussions and observation are loosely about the value of doing the upfront structured. literature review. - Analysis, interpretation and data - Phenomena must be explicated based collection are ongoing. on participants viewpoints, rather than - Process of data analysis involves prior knowledge. clustering together related types of - Researcher must do preliminary narrative information into a coherent literature review to get a general scheme. grounding. - The data obtained and the selected participants become increasingly Selecting and gaining entrée into research purposeful. sites - Concept development and verification - Researchers must find an appropriate shape the sampling process. research site. - Qualitative researchers sampling - Researchers must engage in decisions are guided by the data → data participatory fieldwork to find a suitable saturation. (no final number for study and information for the study. participants) - A site may be well suited for the study. - Data saturation determines if the number of participants that we have encountered Developing an overall approach is enough to further support the - Researchers do not collect data before phenomena of the study. finalizing their research design. - Researchers themselves are main data - Qualitative researchers used an collection instrument and must take steps emergent design that materializes during to demonstrate the trustworthiness of the the course of data collection. data. Addressing ethical issues Disseminating Qualitative Findings: - Develop plans in addressing ethical - A summary of prior research is usually issues. offered in qualitative reports as a means - Qualitative research has more intimate of providing context for the study. nature. - Qualitative reports are filled with rich - It must articulate clearly the ethical verbatim passages directly from concerns to conduct the study. participants. Conducting a Qualitative Study: - The task of sampling, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation typically take place iteratively. - Qualitative researchers begin by taking with a few people who have experienced the phenomena of the study. PRELIMS | JK  NCMB-311 – PRELIMS Kenneth Burke’s “Unending Conversation” metaphor WEEK 3 – “Argument” in Thesis and Thesis Proposal Writing “Imagine that you enter a party. You came late. When you arrive, others have long preceded Theses and Essays are NOT the same. you, and they are engaged in a heated Both makes a point or a stand, on certain issues discussion, a discussion too heated for them to – argument. pause and tell you exactly what it is about…You listen for a while, until you decide that you have Definition of Thesis caught the tenor of the argument; then you put - A long essay or dissertation involving in your oar. Someone answer: you answer him: personal research, written by a candidate another comes to your defense: another aligns for a university degree. himself against you…The hour grows late, you - A statement that is put forward as a must depart. And you do depart, with the premise to be maintained or proved. discussion still vigorously in progress.” Arguments are developed and are based Graft and Birkenstein’s argument of ‘I say’ / on research. ‘They say’ Thesis advances a particular point of view about an issue. “The single most important template that we Thesis aims to make a point by making focus on in this book is the ‘they say’ and I say’ an argument. formula…If there is anyone important point that we hope you will take away from this book, it is Definition of Argument not the importance not only of expressing - A coherent series of reasons, statements your ideas “I say” but of presenting those or facts intended to support or establish ideas as a response to some other person or a point of view. group “They say”. - A reason given for or against a matter How do we make an argument? (Graft and under discussion. Birkenstein) - A form of rhetorical expression intended to convince or persuade. 1. Evaluate or critique the work of an earlier - Arguments are based of the author’s scholar or a certain widely held opinion. assumption and found them incorrect or inapplicable to present human condition. How do we make an argument? (Kenneth 2. Point out that a scholar’s work is correct, Burke) but it could use some qualifications. - Research or thesis writing is like coming 3. You know a great deal about a particular late to a never-ending conversation at topic but almost nothing about some a party. other closely related topic. - Thesis proposal defense, writing structure can easily remedied, but a lack of argument is something that cannot easily be solved. PRELIMS | JK How do we make an argument? Ex. “In thesis proposal, we aim to show that…” - First, to articulate your preliminary - Past tense: when referring to the argument, you must look for the “They literature Say” part. Ex. “Graft and Birkenstein argued that…or - In thesis proposal, literature review helps demonstrated that…” develop the preliminary argument. - Main parts of the thesis proposal: Methods: Introduction - Future tense: to propose what you plan Literature review to perform Methodology or methods Ex. “We will conduct a survey to or we will recruit Literature review should consist of the following sample because” paragraphs that articulate the: Results, Discussion, and Conclusion may - “They Say”: What has been already vary depending on the research design. found and argued in the previous studies. - “I Say” Your own point of view about what QUANTITATIVE you think is missing or lacking in the Results → Discussion + Conclusion literature that requires you to conduct a study. QUALITATIVE Conceptual or theoretical framework: Results + Discussion → Conclusion - “They Say”: How previous studies about Results, Discussion and Conclusion should your topic was conceptualized? further demonstrate your final argument. - “I Say”: How you propose to think about - It is from the literature review that we your think? identify the research argument. Methods: - From the research argument, we derive the other parts of your thesis or your - “They Say”: What others have done? thesis proposal. - “I Say”: What will you do to advance your preliminary argument? Finding and Reviewing Research Evidence in Literature Review Introduction: Purposes of Research Literature Reviews - Should provide a brief literature review that highlights your research gap and Primary purpose: to summarize evidence on a main argument. topic. - Should also provide a preview of the - Communicates the states of evidence to framework and methods you will use to others. demonstrate your argument. - Lays foundation for new studies. For thesis proposal and final thesis - Helps researchers interpret their findings. Introduction: Varying opinions about conduct of literature review in qualitative. - Present tense: the voice of the researcher introducing the thesis - Grounded theory: collect data → proposal literature review PRELIMS | JK  - Phenomenology (some) and You can also use Google Scholar and ethnography: literature review → collect PubMed. data Example Topic: “The Implementation of Types of Information to seek for a Research Electronic Medical Records in Rural Health Review Units” In a research review, the data are findings from Keywords: prior studies. Implementation = Use, Utilization, Primary sources → descriptions of studies Adoption written by the researchers who conducted the Electronic Medical Record = HER, EMR study. Rural Health Unit = Community Health Secondary sources → description of studies Center, RHU prepared by someone else. Boolean Operators (All Caps): “AND”, “OR”, “NOT” Literature review is considered a secondary source. Search Term 1: (implementation OR use OR utilization OR adoption) AND (electronic Conducting a Literature Review medical record OR EMR OR electronic health Adhere to some of the principles in conducting record OR HER) AND (rural health unit OR qualitative study. community health center OR RHU) ✓ A flexible approach to “data collection” Search Term 2: implementation AND electronic and thinking creatively about ideas for medical record AND rural health unit new sources of information. Screening and Gathering References ✓ Pursing leads until “saturation” is achieved; Saturation is when the Screening – judge if the article is collection of data are repeated. relevant by checking the abstract of the ✓ Analysis of “data” will typically involve a article. search for important themes. Retrieve – use databases accessible to you. Locating relevant Literature for a Research Review: Research Journal Articles: 1. Formulating a search strategy (Cooper Abstract 2010) IMRAD (Format) Ancestry approach: Recent - Introduction studies → Earlier study - Methods Descendancy approach: Earlier - Results study → Recent studies - And Searching for references in - Discussion bibliographic databases. References Bibliographic Databases Abstract EBSCOhost - A brief description of the study, place on Science direct the beginning of the study. PRELIMS | JK  - It answers the following questions, in 250 - Implications for clinical practice and for words: future and research, and What were the research - Study limitations and ramifications for the questions? integrity of the result. What methods did the researcher - Presents limitations use to address the questions? References What did the researcher find? What are the implications for - List of articles and other resources cited practice? in the literature - Citation style for your thesis: American Introduction Psychological Association (APA), 7th - Communicates the research problem edition. and its context. Analyzing and synthesizing information - It describes the following: The central phenomena, concepts Substantive Theme or variables under the study; ✓ What is the pattern of evidence? The population of interest; ✓ What findings predominate? The current state of evidence; ✓ How much evidence is there? based on a literature review; ✓ How consistent is the body of evidence? The theoretical framework; ✓ What gaps are there in the evidence? The study purpose, research questions, or hypotheses to be Theoretical Theme testes; ✓ What theoretical or conceptual The study’s significance; frameworks have been used to address Methods the primary question? ✓ Has most research have been a - It describes the methods used to answer theoretical? the research questions. ✓ How congruent are the theoretical Results And frameworks? - Presents the findings from the data Methodologic Theme analysis. ✓ What methods have been used to - Quantitative – provides information address the question? about statistical tests, which are used to ✓ What are major methodologic test hypotheses. deficiencies and strengths? - Qualitative – have several subsections, the heading of which correspond to the Generalizability or Transferability themes, processes or categories ✓ To what population does the evidence identified in the data. apply? Discussion ✓ Do the findings vary for different types of people or setting? In Quantitative and Qualitative: - An interpretation of the results and their clinical significance, PRELIMS | JK Organizing the Review - Subsection for literature review Literature Review Title (What the review is about?) Main Point 1 Supporting point 1 Supporting point 2 Conclude, then connect idea to the next (main) point. Main point 2 Supporting point 1 Supporting point 2 Conclude, then connect idea to the next (main) point. PRELIMS | JK  NCMB-311 – PRELIMS Theory connotes an abstraction WEEK 4 – Understanding Theoretical and Precarity Conceptual Framework - State that of being uncertain or insecure. Conceptual Integration happens when… Karlyn, an RN since 2012: Research questions fit the chosen “Before I passed the board exams, I tried method. volunteering at a small hospital near our house. Ex. If your question aims to test an intervention, They said they would give me a regular position you should use and experimental method. And once I passed but they never did. Ang tagal na, not a non-experimental method or a qualitative. hinihintay namin… Even worse, the volunteers were doing the same work as the regular Research questions are consistent with nurses! I was so tired, I just left.” existing evidence. There is a conceptual rationale for Abstraction expected outcome, including rationale for - It can be portrayed as the experience of hypotheses or interventions. precarity. Studies (i.e., Researches) are not developed in - Precarity can be experienced as the vacuum – “they say, I say” inability to secure a well-paying job. People’s behaviors and characteristics have an Phenomena or An abstraction of underlying conceptualization. concept human attributes. Theory connotes an abstraction Ex: pain, fatigue, Abstract Concrete obesity Construct An abstraction about Abstraction the human condition - Can be defined as the process of deliberate invented or considering independently of its constructed. associations, attributes, or concrete accompaniments. Ex: self-care by D. - A representation of what if general Orem; social justice; about a phenomenon without any details beauty or references to what is concrete. Theory An explanation of some aspects of reality. PRELIMS | JK Example of a Theory: Theory of Planned Framework Behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 2005) - Is the overall conceptual underpinnings of a study. - Not everyday is based on formal theory or conceptual framework but every study has a framework. - If you’re using theory in your study, your framework is a theoretical framework, because the theory serves as your underpinnings. - Every study has a framework = the conceptual rationale - Based on theory → theoretical The concept or phenomena that made theories framework have a well-defined relationship or connection. - Based on conceptual model → conceptual framework Conceptual and Schematic Models Use of Framework in Qualitative Research Conceptual models - Theories are innate in qualitative - Are considered a less formal means of research organizing phenomena than theories. - Different traditions involve theory in - Deals with obstructions as well. different ways. Sandelowski (1993): - They are also made of concepts and are Substantive theory – a priori organize based on its relevance. conceptualization of phenomenon It lacks preposition that assert and Theory that reflects a explain relationships among conceptualization of human concepts. inquiry. It reflects the assumptions and - Some qualitative researchers insist on a philosophic views of the model’s theoretical stance vis-à-vis the designer. phenomenon of interest. - Phenomenology based on Husserl, van Manen, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, etc. - Ethnography based on ideational and materialistic theories. Use of Framework in Quantitative Research Testing an existing theory – for instance, you may want to test a particular theory or model can still explain what they observe on a human condition. Theory as source of intervention – it Schematic models means that the intervention you should - Are visual representations of some propose should be based on theories and aspect of reality. models. PRELIMS | JK  Theory as an organizing structure – in quantitative research, we’re not always 3. Is there a testing the validity of a theory. Most of the significant difference time we use theories in our study to guide between the pre-test and organize our findings. and post-test scores of the respondents Research Questions and Hypothesis in stress, anxiety General → Specific and knowledge? Topic A general “Effect of classical phenomenon music in students’ 4. Is there a that is the educational and significant difference focus of the psychological in the post-test study. outcomes.” scores of respondents from Research An enigmatic “Previous studies the experimental Problem or troubling about the effect of and control groups? condition: classical music identified shows conflicting Hypothesis of the Research Questions within a topic results… What is the of interest. effect of classical 1. There is no significant difference music in student’ between the pre-test and post-test educational and scores of the respondents in stress, psychological anxiety and knowledge? outcomes?” 2. There is now significant difference in the post-test scores of respondents from the Purpose Summary of To determine the experimental and control groups? Statement the study. potential of classical Hypotheses is our presumed answer to the background music in inferential question. That’s why its in declarative influencing stress, statement. It shouldn’t contain a question mark. anxiety, and knowledge inside a Undergraduate thesis requires inferential classroom, during questions. It means that there are questions that lecture hours. ask about the relationship between variables. Hypothesis Research The specific 1. What is the pre- Question queries test scores of the Directional – it specifies the existence researchers respondents in and expected direction of the relationship want to stress, anxiety and between variables. answer; knowledge? Ex: “Older patients are more likely to fall than guide the younger patients.” types of data 2. What is the post- collect in a test scores of the study. respondents in stress, anxiety and knowledge? PRELIMS | JK  Non-directional – does not state the direction of the relationship of the variables. Ex: “Older patients differ from younger ones with respect to their risk of falling.” Research Hypothesis – statement of expected relationships between variables. Null Hypothesis – are more commonly used; also known as statistical hypothesis. It requires hypothesis be expressed as an expected absence of relationship. Ex: “There is no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the respondents in stress, anxiety and knowledge?” Research Questions in Qualitative Research - Stipulates the phenomenon and population of interest. - Based on a particular qualitative research tradition. - Not all qualitative studies are rooted in particular qualitative research tradition – based on constructivist approaches to describe or explore phenomena. - Research questions often evolve during the study. Grounded theory – process questions (social structures, social interactions). Phenomenology – meaning (essence) and experience (lived experiences) questions. Ethnography – descriptive questions about cultures (roles, lifeways, cultural behavior). PRELIMS | JK  NCMB-311 – PRELIMS Ethnography WEEK 5 – Qualitative & Quantitative Research - Involves the description and Design and Approaches interpretation of cultural behavior. - Fieldwork is how the ethnographer Qualitative Research Design comes to understand a culture. - Is flexible - Participants observations, in-depth - Benefits from ongoing data analysis to interviews, records, etc. guide subsequent strategies. - Labor-intensive, requiring long periods - Often involves triangulating various data (months or even years) in the field. sources. - Emic (insider) vs. Etic (outsider) - Tends to be holistic, aimed at an perspective; and tacit knowledge. understanding of the whole. - “Researcher as Instrument” - Requires researchers to become Emic intensely involved and reflexive. - The design typically evolves over the - It is the way members of a cultural course of the study. division envision their world. (Insiders - Used an emergent design, this design view) happens when the design take shape or Etic become more specific as researchers make on going decisions reflection on - It is the interpretation of their experiences what they’ve already learn. in a particular culture. (Outsiders view) Qualitative Design Features Phenomenology Comparisons - Rooted in a philosophical tradition developed by Husserl and Heidegger, is - Are done to identify patterns emerging in an approach to understanding people’ the data. everyday life experiences. Research Setting - What is the essence of this phenomenon as experienced by theses people and - Data are collected in real-world what does it mean? naturalistic setting. - Useful when a phenomenon has been Time Frames poorly defined or conceptualized. - In-depth conversations are the main data - Can either be cross-sectional or source, with researchers and informants longitudinal. as co-participants. Intervention, Control, and Blinding Phenomenologists Qualitative Research Traditions - Assume there is an essence – an Ethnography essential invariant structure that can be Phenomenology understood. Grounded Theory PRELIMS | JK Descriptive Phenomenology Other Types of Qualitative Studies - Husserl – What do we know as persons? Case Studies - Descriptive phenomenologists insist on Narrative Analysis the careful description of ordinary Descriptive Qualitative Studies conscious experience of everyday life – a description of things as people Case Studies experience them. - In-depth investigations of a single entity - Examples: hearing, singing, believing, or small number of entities, which could feeling, remembering, etc. be an individual, family, institution, Steps: community or other social unit. - In a case study, the “case” itself is Bracketing – suspending preconceived central. beliefs and opinions. Narrative Analysis Intuiting – remaining open to the meaning attributed to the phenomenon. - Focuses on story as the subject of inquiry Analyzing to examine how individuals make sense Describing of events in their lives. - Focus on the broad contours of a Interpretative Phenomenology narrative; stories are not fractured and (Hermeneutics) dissected. - Heidegger is the student of Husserl, but Descriptive Qualitative Studies - he moves away from his teacher’s philosophy. - The method is based on a broader - Heidegger – What is being? general qualitative approach. - In an interpretative phenomenology, - There is a cause of induction and bracketing does not necessarily occur. deduction. - Reflexive Bracketing Research with Ideological Perspective - rely primarily on in-depth interviews, but may also use other supplementary text. Critical Theory Ground Theory - Critique of the society, to push for emancipation. - Tries to account for actions in a substantive are from the perspective of Feminist Research those involved. - Critique of the patriarchal society, to push - The manner in which people resolve this emancipation of women. main concern is called the core variable → Basic Social Process (BSP) Participatory Action Research - GOAL: to discover the main concern and - Co-creation and participation with BSP. community members in solving their - Grounded theory does not begin with a problems. focused research problem. - Constant Comparison PRELIMS | JK  Quantitative Research Design Experimental Design (Randomized Control Triad) - Characteristics of a TRUE experiment includes: Manipulation Control Condition Randomization Manipulation – introduction of an intervention to some study participants to manipulate an independent variable. Example: Intervention/IV → Outcome/DV An 8-hour Sexual health sexual health knowledge, care training. and self- efficacy. Quasi-Experimental Design - Characteristics of a QUASI-experiment includes: Manipulation Control Condition? Randomization (Random Assignment) Randomization - It involves distributing the respondents of - The signature of quasi-experiment your study to either controlled or design is an intervention in the absence experimental group. of randomization. - Is to further decreasing biases in the Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs groups. Types of Experimental Designs Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest- Posttest Design Pretest-Posttest (Before-After) Design One-group Pretest-Posttest Designs & Posttest only (After only) Design Time-Series Design Crossover Design PRELIMS | JK  Research Designs according to Time Dimension 1. Cross-Sectional Design – involves collection of data at one point in time. 2. Longitudinal Design – designed to collect data at more than one point in time over an extended period. Techniques of Research Control Controlling the study context - Blinding – keeping the data collectors unaware of the study allocation. - Standardization of communications (Ex. formal scripts in recruiting study Nonexperimental Design (Observational participants; intervention protocol) Studies) Controlling participants factors - It examine social phenomena without direct manipulation of the conditions that 1. Randomization the subjects experience. 2. Homogeneity 3. Matching Types of Nonexperimental Designs 4. Statistical Control Correlational Research Characteristics of a Good Design - Examines relationships between Statistical Conclusion Validity variables. (Ex. correlation of weight and height). - Validity of inferences that is truly is an - Correlation does not prove causation. empirical relationship between the - Investigators do not control the presumed cause and effect. independent variable. - The researcher job is to provide - Groups being compared can differ in strongest possible evidence. ways that affect outcomes of interest. - “What is the strenght of evidence that a relationship between variables really Descriptive Research exists?” - Observes, describes, and documents Threats: aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs. Low statistical power - Describes relationships among variables Minimal difference between the rather than to support inferences of independent variable causality. (Ex. whether men are less Internal Validity likely than women to seek assistance for - depression). - Refers to the extent to which it is possible to make an inference that the independent variable, rather than PRELIMS | JK  another factor, is truly causing variations collected – looking in the outcome. backward or forward? Location Where will the study Threats: take place? Temporal ambiguity Causality Selection - Many research questions are about the History causes and effects. Maturation - Ex. Does turning patients cause Moratality/Attrition reduction in pressure ulcers? External Validity - Causes of health-related phenomena usually are not deterministic but rather - Concerncs the extent to which it can be are probabilistic. inferred that relationships observed in a - Effect: Counterfactual – what would study hold true over variations. have happened to the same people Construct Validity exposed to a casual factor if they simultaneously were not exposed to the - Involves inferences from study casual factor. (Shadish, et al., 2002) particulars to the higher order constructs - an effect represents the difference that they are intended to represent. between what actually did happen with Features Key Question the exposure and what would have Intervention Will there be an happened without it. intervention? Three criteria for establishing causal Comparison What type of relationships (John Stuart Mill, as cited in comparison will be Lazarshfeld, 1955): made to illuminate relationship? Temporal – a cause must precede an Control over How will confounding effect in time. confounding variable be controlled? Relationship – an existence of an variable Which confounding association between the presumed variables will be cause and effect. controlled? Confounders – the relationship must not be explained be caused by a third Blinding From whom will critical variable. information be withheld to avoid bias? Additional: Time frames How often will the data Biological Plausibility – evidence from be collected? basic physiological studies that a causal When relative to other pathway is credible. (Bradford-Hill, 1971) events, will data be collected? "You don't have to be sorry for doin' it on Relative timing When will information your own" on independent and dependent variable be PRELIMS | JK