UGBS 108 (Psychology) Slides PDF

UGBS 108- Introduction to Psychology Dr. Ernest Darkwah Department of Psychology University of Ghana College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017 SESSION OBJECTIVES Gain a general/overall idea of what the course is about Understand course rubrics/ expectations of students/lecturer Introduce the origins and current definitions of psychology Discuss Psychology as a scientific discipline Introduce the concept of behavior and differences between types of behaviour PSYC101: ELEMENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY Slide 2 Topic One COURSE OVERVIEW Slide 3 General Overview Expected Learning Outcomes: Define psychology and explain what psychologists do Describe goals and scope of psychology Explain basic psychological concepts such as self-esteem, stress and learning Describe coping strategies against stress Describe major psychological processes by which learning occurs Measure/ assess self-esteem and perceived stress State some factors necessary for forming inter-personal relationships General Overview Assessment and grading: Interim Assessment 1: 40% End of Semester exam 60% IA & Exam formats will be communicated at a later date Grading Scale: Refer to undergraduate handbook Points to note: Course content may be modified in the course of the semester where necessary Please check department notice board for tutorial times and please attend tutorials. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I General Overview Class Norms: All students will participate in class Reading assigned texts before class is mandatory Classroom manners: Mind your language Respect everyone’s views/ opinions Endeavour not to be late to class Please put your phones on off/silence CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I General Overview Students with special Needs: Contact Office of Students with Special Needs The Counselling and Career Center can also help You are welcome to speak to the lecturer for any assistance they can provide CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I General Overview Course Delivery Schedule & required reading Check the course syllabus on SAKAI CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Campus Tips Academic activity is the primary reason for your admission into UG. Attending lectures, tutorials, group work are mandatory for all students especially at the Department of Psychology It would benefit you to dedicate a larger proportion of your time to your academic work There is no library at the department but the university has libraries in the halls of residence and at various other places in CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I addition to the Balme Library Campus Tips The UG campus provides enormous opportunities to socialise and build networks Making friends and socializing is a great way to live a fulfilling student life on campus Exercise caution in the friendships you form as some can get you in trouble Romantic relationships also sometimes become a part of life on UG campus Singles are free to mingle, However, exercise caution! CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Life on campus Be sure to report abuses, assaults etc. to the relevant offices. You can get information on these offices at the department general office The various halls host hall weeks and other fun programmes, join and have fun. There are also student political activities that go on every semester, it is a great way to train yourself and get some leadership experience CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Eat well, sleep well, read well, behave yourself and chill!! CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Two The science of behavior CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 13 Psychology. What comes to your mind when 1 you hear that someone is a psychologist? 2. You signed up to study psychology, write down two things you are expecting to learn in the course Psychology is an interesting field of scientific exploration It is concerned with understanding people and their behavior CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology: The origins So what is psychology? The definition of psychology has evolved over the years. Psychology used to be seen as the study of the mind. This is because the word “psychology” comes from two Greek words: “Psyche” = mind, soul “Logos” = study of/ knowledge Psyche + logos = study of the mind. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology: The origins Origin of psychology: The field of psychology originated from the older fields of philosophy and physiology Philosophers were interested in understanding issues like: – How the human mind functions? – How do our bodies relate with our mind? – How do we perceive/interpret the world around us? Physiologists were interested in understanding how living organisms functionCHECAR using a method called the scientific method - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology: The origins Some philosophers and physiologists became convinced that the scientific method used in physiology could be used to study and understand the human mind. Attempts to use this scientific method to study human mind began from here. The first lab to try this new idea was set up in 1879 by a German physiologist called Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, GermanyCHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Origins: Wilhelm Wundt First person to set up a psychology lab The lab was located at the University of Leipzig in Germany The lab later became the Institute for Experimental Psychology Is often referred to as the founder of Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) Psychology CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology: The origins The focus of Wundt and other psychologists that he trained including G. Stanley Hall, was on applying the scientific method to study and understand the human mind and how it functions The early psychologists therefore stuck to the definition of psychology as “the scientific study of mental processes” CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology: The origins In the 1920s, psychologist John B. Watson thought that in order to understand the mind, psychologists need to study observable behaviour. ❑ Psychology therefore changed from “the study of the mind” to: John Braudus Watson (1878-1958) “The scientific study of CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I behaviour” Defining psychology Modern day psychologists define psychology as: The scientific study of human behavior and that of other organisms(animals) (Coon, 2004) The scientific study of behavior and mental processes Note these key words: Scientific study Human behaviour Other organisms ( animals) Mental processes CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Defining Psychology Defining Psychology 2. Psychology as a science: the scientific method CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology as a science Discuss with the person next to you: In your Opinion, who is a scientist? CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology as a science Scientific study If a field or discipline is defined as a ‘science’ or as ‘scientific’, it means it follows the scientific method to generate knowledge. The scientific method: A systematic, rigorous process of obtaining information or data and through that generating knowledge It has some main characteristics: CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology as a science Empirical backing: the information/knowledge is observable and generated using procedures that can be observed. Objectivity: The procedure used and information generated should be free from any form of bias as much as possible Replicability: all details of the procedure should be described so that anybody who repeats the procedure in a comparable group of subjects should be able to come out with similar results Generalization: the knowledge generated from the procedure should be able to apply to a wider society as much as possible Quantifiability: the variables/ objects of study should be in quantifiable units e.g. 6kgs CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology as a science Think and tell: based on this discussion of the “scientific method”, who is a scientist? Points to note: any researcher who uses the scientific method in the conduct of their research. Whether a discipline is a science or not depends on its method of investigation A person is not a scientists because of what they are wearing, who they are or what the study, but how they study what they study These “characteristics” describe the nature of the scientific method and do not give the steps in the scientific method. Individual home reading: Read about the steps in the scientific method CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Three Defining Psychology The science of Behaviour CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 27 Defining Psychology Behaviour (human/animal): The way in which an organism/ individual responds to stimuli Simply, it is what people/ organisms do. E.g. laughing, talking, responding to pain, barking etc. Classifications of behaviour: Reflex behaviour: Occurs automatically in response to a stimulus. It is not planned. E.g. jumping after coming into contact with a hot object, salivating at the smell of food. Goal-directed behaviour: occurs when an individual/animal has a specific need an acts in ways intended to satisfy that need. This is planned behaviour. E.g. studying to write exams, building a nest. Conditioned behaviour: occurs after persistent experience, training, practice over a period of time to respond to specific stimuli. E.g. a child crying on seeing a nurse. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Defining Psychology Frustration Behaviour: occurs when a behaviour is exhibited to achieve a goal but the goal is not achieved within expected time. E.g. a child who is hungry and has been crying for a long time might respond by throwing the food on the floor and spilling it when it is finally brought. Behaviour may also be overt or covert Overt behavour is any outward behaviour that can be observed or seen by others. E.g. laughing, crying, running Covert behaviour is internal to the individual and cannot be seen by others: e.g. salivating, imagining, CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Goals of Psychology CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Goals of Psychology The definition of psychology means that psychologists focus on studying behavior (overt and covert) But what exactly do psychologists want to know about behavior And how will knowledge about behavior benefit psychologists These questions form the bases for the need to understand CHECAR the goalsThe - Killing of psychology Notion Of Me And I Goals of Psychology The practice of psychology in whatever specialization is aimed at achieving four main goals: 1. Describe Behaviour: – Psychologists seek to gather as much information as possible about a behaviour in order to be able to tell its distinguishing features and characteristics. – E.g. depressive behaviour is characterized by sad mood, weight loss or gain, loss of interest in everything, psychomotor retardation, sleep problems etc. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Goals of Psychology 2. Understand/ Explain Behaviour: Psychologists seek to know why a particular behaviour occurs or be able to tell what causes a particular behaviour. E.g. why do people forget things? Why do people take risks? 3. Predict behaviour: Psychologists also seek to be able to tell under what circumstances a behaviour is likely to occur. Psychologists do this by relying on accumulated knowledge. E.g. Under CHECARwhat- circumstance will a student Killing The Notion Of MefailAnd exams? I Goals of Psychology 4. Influence/control /cause a change in behaviour: Psychologists’ ability to describe, explain and predict behaviour helps them to be able to ultimately influence behaviour by controlling, preventing or reinforcing it in helpful ways. E.g. We can influence children’s study behaviour by attaching rewards to it. Specialist group of psychologists called Applied psychologists are the ones involved in actively influencing behaviour by applying knowledge obtained by basic psychologists. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I UGBS108 Session 2 – Animals & Psychology, Para / Pseudo psychology Dr. Ernest Darkwah Department of Psychology University of Ghana College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017 CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I SESSION OBJECTIVES The Objectives of this session are to: Develop basic understandings of the goals of psychology Discuss the basic principles underlying Para and Pseudo Psychology Discuss the subtypes of para and pseudo psychology CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 2Of Me And I Review of session 1 Which two Greek words make up the term psychology Psychology emerged from two disciplines. Name them The initail definition of psychology was..... Why is the term scientific included in the study of psychology Give one current definition of psychology What is behaviour Name any type of behaviour you know CHECAR - Killing The Notion PSYC101: ELEMENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY Slide 3Of Me And I Topic one Psychology and the use of animals CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 4Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals Remember: One definition of psychology is that it is “the scientific study of human behavior and that of other organisms(animals)”. But why would psychologists be interested in studying animal behaviour as much as human behaviour? In the next five minutes discuss this with the person next to you and see if you come up with any possible answers to this question CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals ❑In our quest to understand and predict behaviour, psychologists use a lot of animals in their studies. ❑Although the majority of psychological research involve human participants, about 7- 8% involve animal subjects (APA, 2017). ❑Psychologists use animals in research for a number of reasons: CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals 1. Darwin’s theory of evolution: This theory explains that humans evolved from similar species with animals (e.g. chimpanzees) We share certain common biological, physical and behavioural characteristics. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals American Museum of Natural History: humans and chimpanzees share about 98.8% of their DNA Psychologists therefore believe that information The Bonobo Chimpanzee. (google Images) obtained from animal studies can be applied to humans to some extent. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals 2. Similar learning principles and motivation: Psychologists observe that the principles that guide learning in animals appear similar to that of humans. Studying how animals learn can therefore help understand human learning. 3. Structure and functions of the central nervous system There is scientific evidence showing that the structure and functions of the central nervous system are similar in humans and some animals. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals E.g. Mora-Bermúdez et al (2016): – cytoarchitecture, cell type composition, and neurogenic gene expression programs are very similar between humans and chimpanzees – A large degree of difference between humans and chimps is down to cell numbers and structural sizes. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals 4.Principle of parsimony: This principle states that if two or more theories are capable of explaining a phenomenon, the simpler, most basic one should be used. In accordance with this principle, psychologists believe that since animals are lower order species, they should be used for research if information from them can apply to humans. E.g. why open the skull of a human being to see the structures of the brain when we can find the same structures in brains of chimpanzees? CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals 5. Minimal ethical requirements/ no need for consent Involving humans in , for example psychological experiments require that the participant give their consent before the research can proceed. This can be cumbersome and complicate the research. Using Animals requires no explanation or consent to the animal, although there are stipulated ethical guidelines to follow in using animals for research. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals 6. Cost of research: All research come at a cost in terms of resources and logistics. Using animals instead of humans could be cheaper in this regard. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals 7. To avoid causing harm to humans through experimentation Certain research procedures involve a significant risk of harm to participants. To avoid causing harm to humans, animals are used as an alternative. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals 8. For their own sakes/ to understand them better: Studying animals also helps psychologists understand animal behaviour and their needs to help improve their wellbeing e.g. – studies involving dogs have helped improve their co- existence with humans in a friendly environment – animal studies help zoo keepers to know how to handle them. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals Arguments against the use of animals: 1. Animals and humans are different: Some critics argue that humans and animals have significant differences that set each apart from the other. Applying information from animal behaviour to humans is therefore not best practice. Animals are animals and humans are humans CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals 2. Similarities in central nervous system challenged: Some critics argue that despite the similarities in the structure of central nervous systems of humans and animals, differences still exist in these systems which underly behavioral differences. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals 3. Animal rights violations: Animal rights activists argue that humans have no moral right to use animals for researches that they consider harmful to humans. The idea is that animals breathe, feel pain, etc. just as humans so what is bad for the human is bad for the animal. Newkirk (1986): – argued that “a rat is a pig is a dog is a boy”. – They are all mammals. In this sense, there is no rational basis for singling out animals for research. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Psychology and the study of animals Home assignment: 1. Click the link and read https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/opinion- why-research-using-animals-important-psychology 2. Find at least 2 other arguments against the use of animals in psychological research CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Two Para and Pseudo psychology CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 20 Para Psychology Think about this: 1. How is it possible for someone to know something/ an event before it happens? 2. Imagine: someone falls unconscious, and is declared “dead”, minutes/ hours later, they wake up and begin to tell stories of where they went when they “died”. Do you believe them? Why or why not? CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Parapsychology The two scenarios discussed fall within the scope of what is known as Parapsychology. The word “para” is a Greek word meaning: beside, closely related to, beyond. Thus the term parapsychology could be translated into: closely related to psychology, beyond psychology or beside psychology. The reason this ‘branch’ of psychology is called para is because its subject matter goes beyond and fall outside what “normal” psychologists study. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Parapsychology Different scholars over the years have given their ideas of what parapsychology actually involves: The term “Parapsychology” was first coined by philosopher Max Dessoir to refer to the study of paranormal and psychic phenomena. Max Dessoir Pasricha(2011): while psychology is the scientific study of behavior and experience, Parapsychology studies anomalies of behavior and experience called CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I paranormal experiences. Parapsychology The status of parapsychology as to whether it is Scientific or unscientific is still being debated. Some scholars view parapsychology as unscientific because by its nature and characteristics, parapsychological knowledge is difficult to objectively verify However, over the years, some psychologists and other scholars have claimed that parapsychology is scientific and experimental methods have been developed for their investigations. (Rao & Palmer, 1987) For eg. The American Parapsychological Association, describes themselves as an “organization of scientists who study psychic phenomena.” The aim of the association is to “achieve a scientific understanding of these CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I experiences”. Parapsychology Currently parapsychology could be defined as: …study of the interactions between living organisms and their external environment that seem to transcend the known physical norms of nature. The link to the Parapsychological Association website: CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I https://www.parapsych.org/ Parapsychology ❑Parapsychology is a component of the broader study of consciousness and the mind. There are 3 main branches of parapsychology: 1. Extra-Sensory Perception( ESP) 2. Psychokinesis (PK) 3. Survival studies CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Parapsychology Extra-Sensory Perception: the study of communications ostensibly without the known sensory organs. Areas under ESP: 1. Telepathy: The transfer of information on thoughts or feelings between individuals by means other than the five classical senses or communication between two geographically separated persons, outside the range of sensory organs. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Parapsychology 2. Clairvoyance /remote viewing: knowledge of hidden objects or events occurring outside the physical reach of the person or knowledge of events or objects that are hidden in time or space. E.g. knowledge of what is happening to someone thousands of miles away/ or an object concealed in a box. 3. Precognition: knowledge of future events that can not be predicted or inferred from the available information. Simply, it is the knowledge of an event that has not happened yet. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Parapsychology Psychokinesis (PK): This branch deals with the mind interacting with matter at a distance. It is the study of physical events that apparently occur without involvement of any recognized motor organs. E.g. Bending a spoon by looking at it intensely. Poltergeist phenomenon where noises, physical disturbances such as throwing objects around and kicking doors open are attributed to ghost or supernatural activity and paranormal healing are some areas of study under Psychokinesis. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Parapsychology Survival Studies: This area explores the nature of human consciousness and an examination of whether consciousness survives the physical form. It investigates survival after bodily death. Areas Under Survival studies: 1. Near- death experience An experience recounted by a person who nearly died or who experienced clinical death and then revived CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Parapsychology 2. Reincarnation: The rebirth of a soul or other non-physical aspect of human consciousness in a new physical body after death 3. Apparitional experiences (ghost activities): Phenomena often attributed to ghosts and encountered in places a deceased person is thought to have frequented or in association with the person’s CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I former belongings. Pseudo Psychology CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Pseudo Psychology ❑The word “pseudo” means “false” or “pretend” Pseudo Psychology therefore means a practice that is made to look like psychology but that is actually not psychology. Pseudo psychologists do not follow the rigorous scientific principles followed in psychology but follow some other means of predicting behavior that superficially resembles psychological practice. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Pseudo Psychology: Types Types of Pseudo Psychologies: Astrology: Probably the most popular pseudo-psychology. It is based on an assumption that the position of the stars and planets at the time of a person’s birth determines personality characteristics and affects behavior Palmistry: Claims that the lines and other features in a person’s palm are indicators of personality and provide information about the individual’s future. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Pseudo Psychology: Types ❑Graphology: The use of a person’s handwriting to indicate their personality. Graphology has been used in various endeavors to employ people, solve crimes etc. e.g. Some companies use handwriting analysis to select candidates for employment. While Graphology has been useful in crime investigations such as forgeries, it is often less accurate in personality prediction. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Pseudo Psychology: Types Phrenology: Started by German anatomy teacher Franz Gall Theorizes that bumps on a person’s skull provides information on their personality It developed as part of Physiognomy: Franz J. Gall the practice where a person’s character or personality is assessed from their outer appearance e.g. the face CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Pseudo Psychology: Types Believes that the brain has different parts each controlling different personality characteristics Parts of the brain that are used more often tends to get bigger pushing against the skull and causing bumps on the skull. Studying the bumps on the skull therefore reveals a person’s frequent activities and their likely personality. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I HOME reading: Read on the various branches /sub- disciplines in psychology CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I UGBS108 Session 3 – Psychology of learning Dr. Ernest Darkwah Department of Psychology University of Ghana College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2022/2023 Academic Year CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I SESSION OBJECTIVES The Objectives of this session are to:  Gain a general/overall idea of what the course is about  Understand course rubrics/ expectations of students/lecturer  Refresh our memories on Last semester’s lectures  Briefly describe topics for this semester CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 2Of Me And I SESSION READINGS Session Reading: Course textbook Chapter 6 CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 3Of Me And I Topic One The Psychology of LerningThe Psychology of Learning CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 4Of Me And I The Psychology of Learning ❑ For centuries, psychologists and scholars in other disciplines have been interested in how humans and other organisms learn ❑ This interest ties in with our quest to understand and influence behavior. However: ❑ There continues to be challenges in establishing a single, universally accepted definition of learning ❑ Over the years, various scholars have given their ideas of how the concept of learning can be defined: CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I The Psychology of Learning 1. Hall (2003): “Learning refers to the process by which an animal (human or non-human) interacts with its environment and becomes changed by this experience so that its subsequent behavior is modified” 2. Breedlove et al, (2007) “The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information, behavior patterns or ability characterised by modification of behavior as a result of practice, study or experience” CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I The Psychology of Learning 3. Mazur (2013): “Learning is a process of change that occurs as a result of an individual’s experience” Psyc Central (2018): “…Learning can be defined as the process leading to a relatively permanent behavioral change or potential behavioural change…” See: Baron et al (2015). Embracing multiple definitions of learning. for a list of other definitions given by scholars from different discipline. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I The Psychology of Learning ❑The most commonly used definition of learning in psychology: Mayer (2009) “Learning is a relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience” ❑The various definitions show some certain key characteristics or components of learning that scholars agree on. ❑These components or characteristics are often referred to as attributes of learning CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Attributes of learning 1. Learning is a process: Learning occurs over time and follows a process and is not a single event. It begins from somewhere. E.g. One event and continues before actual learning occurs 2. Change due to learning is long-term, not short-term The phrases “enduring” and “relatively permanent” used in the definitions mean that the change that occurs during learning lasts longer compared to other changes in the individual that are not a result of learning. eg,. Changes in behavior due to drugs, illness etc. are not changes due to learning CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Attributes of learning 3. The locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge not the behavior of the learner When learning occurs, information about the event/situation/object etc. is stored or changed in the brain and this also orchestrates changes in the individual’s behavior 4. Experience causes the change The change in behavior is not evident/ does not occur until the individual goes through a prior experience. Therefore, the cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiological intervention. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Attributes of learning 5. The learning process may not be directly observable The actual learning process may not be directly observable because the acquisition and storage of information are internal processes. However, the change in behaviour manifests in the individual’s activities. E.g. One cannot know the amount of learning that has occurred in a student until he/ she writes a test/ performs an activity 6. The change in behavior desirable/ undesirable Learning results in a change in behavior. This change could be for better or for worse. The new behavior could be a desirable one or an undesirable one. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Relevance of learning Reflect and discuss with the person next to you (2 min) : why is learning relevant/ important to us? CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Relevance of learning – Learning enables us acquire essential life skills and abilities e.g. language and communication, right and wrong etc. – Learning helps in the acquisition of knowledge (information, ideas, etc.,) and skills (writing, dancing, driving, etc.,) among others. – Effective social interaction/interpersonal relations, emotional maturity etc., are also acquired through one or a combination of the various types of learning – Learning helps us adapt to our environment and improve our wellbeing CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Domains of learning – Learning can occur in different domains/ aspects of the individual’s life: Psychomotor domain: this includes the acquisition of physical skills like walking, talking, etc. Cognitive domain: includes the ability to acquire, retain and organize information to solve problems Affective domain: includes the acquisition of attitudes, values, feelings etc. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Two Types of Learning CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 15 Types of learning Psychologists differentiate between different types of learning: – 1. Classical Conditioning (CC): This type of learning was accidentally discovered by Pavlov (1927) while studying gastric secretion/digestion in dogs. The key issue in CC is the formation of association between/among stimuli which originally/initially may have nothing in common. Learning here occurs through a stimulus-response mechanism when an organism learns to respond to a stimulus in a particular way after that stimulus has been paired with another one over a period of time. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s experimental trials: 1. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) =Unconditioned response (UCR) 2. Neutral Stimulus (NS) = Neutral response (NR) 3. UCS +NS = UCR 4. CS = CR- Killing The Notion Of Me And I CHECAR Classical Conditioning CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Classical Conditioning Extinction: occurs when the CS is continuously presented( after the association) without the UCS. This – weakens the association between the CS and the UCS Spontaneous recovery - the re-ignition of the association between the CS and the UCS after extinction Note: Classical Conditioning is also known as learning by association CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Classical Conditioning The principles of CC is applicable in various aspects of everyday life. Give one example of a practical life situation CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Application of Classical Conditioning 1. Advertising 1. Aversive Conditioning: Treating alcohol/drug addiction CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Types of learning 2. Operant Conditioning This is a neo-Behaviorist theory of learning in organisms. It argues that the organism/ individual is not a passive recipient of stimulus-response processes but rather actively engages/ operates with the environment before learning occurs. It argues that the individual’s behavior is governed by the anticipated consequences rather than automatic response elicited by a stimulus. Simply put, an organism first acts in a way and the consequences of that action determine the change that will occur in the behavior CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Operant Conditioning This type of learning is therefore called instrumental learning because the organism is instrumental in the learning process. The organism/ individual becomes ‘conditioned by its operation’ CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Operant Conditioning Raffles and Draws are often based on operant conditioning Eg. Scratch and win promotions, lotteries etc CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Which two Greek words make up the term psychology Psychology emerged from two disciplines. Name them The initail definition of psychology was..... Why is the term scientific included in the study of psychology Give one current definition of psychology What is behaviour Name any type of- Killing CHECAR behaviour you The know Of Me And I Notion Types of learning 3. Social Learning This type of learning occurs when organisms/ individuals adapt their behavior as a result of their social environment. Three types of social learning are commonly discussed in basic psychology: CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Social learning Vicarious Learning: This is also called learning by observation. It occurs when individuals observe the behaviours of others and learn from the consequences of those behaviours. ❑ Self-Regulatory Learning: This is another type of observational learning where individuals observe/ reflect on their own behavior, evaluate it by their own standards and reinforce or punish themselves. Note: there is another form of social learning called modelling. Google it!! CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Types of learning 4. Habituation: considered as the simplest form of learning. It enables the individual to adapt to, and/or ignore certain regular environmental variables/stimuli in order to reduce sensory overload 5. Complex learning: involves the integration of knowledge, skills etc., that goes beyond the forming of associations as is largely the case of classical and operant conditioning. e.g. strategizing CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Three Factors Influencing Learning CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 29 Factors Influencing learning ❑In this lecture we will group the factors influencing /affecting learning into two: Learner factors Other Factors CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing Learning Points to note: The efficiency of learning (in both human and non-human subjects) can depend on a host of factors Learning is described as efficient when what is learnt can easily be retained and recalled. Psychological experiments and experiences from learning professionals have produced a list of factors that could influence or affect learning. This list is not exhaustive though as more research is coming out with additional factors CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing Learning Follow the link below to read a chapter on learning: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q= &esrc=s&source=web&cd=10&ved=2ahUKE wiY0ryepcfgAhVgTBUIHTUUBekQFjAJegQIC RAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Flabs.psychology.il linois.edu%2F~asbenjam%2Fpubs%2FBenja min_Book_Chapter_2014.pdf&usg=AOvVa w0TOYB0T3H54AhEqM-1yB9H CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning ❑In this lecture we will group the factors influencing /affecting learning into two: Learner factors Other Factors CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning Learner factors: ❑These are characteristics about the learner that may help or harm their learning. ❑They include: 1. Motivation: The learner’s motive to learn and acquire new knowledge and the value attached to this new knowledge determines the effort exerted towards the learning activity. This effort has a direct influence on the amount of learning that will occur. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning Motivation can be: Intrinsic: where the individual has an innate drive to learn because they like it or it satisfies them, extrinsic: where the learner is driven by an external force eg. reward or punishment from a higher authority to learn. Intrinsically motivated learning is often found to be more efficient than extrinsically motivated CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I learning Factors Influencing learning 2. Intelligence: A concept that is difficult to define. Various groups/scholars have given similar but different definitions of intelligence. American Psychological association(APA): ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt eﬀectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought.” See Legg (2006) A collection of definitions of intelligence for different definitions that have been put forward for intelligence CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning Effective/efficient learning depends on ability to encode, recall and utilize information/skill to solve problems. This is a function of intelligence. The learner’s intelligence level is therefore a key influence on how much and how well they are able to learn. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning 3. Maturation Like intelligence, maturation has been defined differently Boring, Longfeld & Weld (undated): Maturation means growth and development that is necessary either before any unlearned behaviour can occur or before the learning of any particular behaviour can take place. In simple terms, Maturation refers to the ways in which we grow and develop throughout the lifespan CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning Before learning occurs, the learner should have attained the physical and cognitive|psychological maturity necessary to understand the content to be learnt. Eg. A child has to develop legs before it can learn to walk and a learner’s brain needs to be fully developed before it can process complex information Maturation is a change/improvement in structure and function that occurs in an organism not as a result of biological processes not learning. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning 4. Physical condition of the learner The learners physical condition can impact their ability to learn in many ways Eg. Sensory defects of the eyes, ears etc. as well as fatigue and ill health can inhibit or hinder the learner’s ability to receive and process information, or practice a skill to acquire knowledge about it 5. Mental Health of the learner Psychological and educational studies show that the mental state/state of mind of the learner can affect attention, concentration etc. necessary for learning to take place Eg. Extreme anxiety, depression, worries, fears, emotional disturbances etc. have negative impacts on learning CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning 6. Learner’s previous knowledge|experience The learner’s previous experiences may also affect their ability to learn new things. Eg. Previously negative experience may affect a learner’s ability to learn new skills or behavior especially if they are similar to they previous experience 7. Active practice and repetition: The degree or extent of the learner’s active participation, repetition and rehearsals of the skill or content in the teaching –learning interaction determines the extent of encoding and recall which further reflect how much learning occurs. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning Other Factors Aside from characteristics of the learner, other factors external to the individual may influence learning: 1.The physical learning environment/conditions: This included the physical structures/ utilities/ infrastructure etc. that necessary to create a conducive environment where effective learning can occur. Eg. In classroom situation, the class size, lighting, ventilation, design of the classroom, location, distractions etc. make up the learning environment and these may affect CHECAR learning. - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning 2. Distributed Learning Learning schedules that are spaced out with enough breaks and rests allow for more effective learning. This is called distributed learning. This is necessary because learning capacity decreases with time and fatigue. After some continuous periods of learning, one has to take a walk or chat for a while before continuing again CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning 3. Teaching methods and aids: The methods adopted by the educator/teacher and the aids adopted for the teaching –learning interaction influences the amount of learning that occurs Learner-centered approaches with audio-visual aids and practical or participatory sessions have been found to be more effective for learning compared to teacher-centered approaches. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning 4. The content The content refers to the material to be learnt. In order for effective learning to occur, the content being taught must be relevant to the leaner and elicit their interest. The content must also be designed according to the maturity levels of the learner and must be structured to fit their understanding CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning 5. Timing of the teaching/learning Learning has been found to be more effective when the teaching is scheduled at times that are convenient to the learner and at which the leaner is relaxed and ready. Some studies (eg. Monguno et al, 2017) have found that learning is more effective at certain times of the day when the temperature is cooler. Eg. mornings and evenings). The teaching could also be planned at time when the learner actually needs to learn that content. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning 6. The educator|teacher Characteristic of the teacher can also affect the effectiveness of learner Studies have found that: Teacher/educator’s communication skills eg. Voice modulation, body language can affect the learner’s encoding and recall or attention to the content. Depth of the teacher/educator’s own knowledge of the content influences their ability to explain which then influences the learner’s understanding CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning Physical characteristics of the teacher/educator could influence the learner’s concentration/attention etc. The teacher or educator’s attitude towards learners could encourage or discourage them. Eg. Unnecessary scolding, criticism, punishments etc. could reduce the learner’s motivation and interest in the material to be learnt CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors Influencing learning 7. Feedback/Results communication The provision of feedback on results after assessment of learning helps learners reflect and re- strategise to improve their learning For feedback to be effective, it must be timely and constructive to encourage the learner to put in more effort or stay on course CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Four Improving Learning CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 50 Improving learning Class activity: ❑ Pick any of the points we have discussed that can affect learning and explain how that point can be used to improve learning Demonstration: Characteristics of the educator: For effective learning, 1. the teacher or educator must be well versed in the content and be able to demonstrate the skill or knowledge to the understanding of the learners. 2. Demonstrate good attitudes that encourage learner participation and interest in the content CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I UGBS108 Session 4 – Social Psychology Dr. Ernest Darkwah Department of Psychology University of Ghana College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2022/2023 Academic Year CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I SESSION OVERVIEW The session will explore the various ways people think about, affect, and relate to one another. The session will cover topics such as the attitudes, helping behavior, social judgment (attribution) among others. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 2Of Me And I SESSION OBJECTIVES By the end of this lecture, students will be able to: Demonstrate some understanding of attitudes Explain the effect of attitude on behaviour Explain the cognitive dissonance theory Explain the attribution theory Explain the concept of pro-social (helping behaviour) CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 3Of Me And I RECAP OF SESSION 2 What is memory? Outline some importance of memory Explain different types of memory Explain factors that influence memory How can memory be improved? CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 4Of Me And I SESSION READINGS Session Reading: Course textbook Chapter 12 CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 5Of Me And I Topic One SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 6Of Me And I Supposing you wake up one morning only to find total quietness around you. There is no one in your house and the streets. You turned on the TV or the Radio and there is no program. You check your social media and there is no activity/posts. You try calling a friend or family and there is no response. You run to the nearest shop and there is no one even though it is open for business. You realise there are supplies; food, electricity, etc; thus the physical world is intact but no people around. What will be your reaction? CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Social Psychology Social Psychology focuses on human social interaction. It is concerned with studying the way people relate to others and how we relate to them….…how our behaviours affect others and how others’ behaviours affect us; thus the social side of our existence as human beings. Definitions Myers (2008) the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. Allport (1985) attempt to understand how the thought feeling and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Social Psychology Other people are the main source of many of our most satisfying forms of pleasure (e.g., love, recognition, help) as well as many of our worst forms of pain (e.g., rejection, criticism, embarrassment). At the heart of Social Psychology are concepts such as attitude, aggression, love, group behaviour etc., CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Two Attitudes and Behavior CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 10 Attitudes and behaviour An attitude is a set of beliefs and feelings. The covert/ unseen views and thoughts that we have on issues. Allport (1985) A favourable or unfavourable evaluative reaction towards something or someone, exhibited in one’s beliefs, feelings or intended behaviour. E.g., Advertising is sometimes based on attitude formation CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Attitudes could be positive or negative and we often evaluate the object before forming an opinion. Question: should men be responsible for preparing food? Why? As to whether men should be responsible for preparing food for the family or not depends on how you evaluate the issue. Attitude towards this issue is largely influenced by our beliefs and values we hold about it (having a negative attitude to men cooking at home because your culture forbids it). E.g., Some Christians would not use contraceptives because of the belief that it is against the teachings of the Bible. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Three components of attitudes Affective (evaluative) component: based on people’s subjective feelings and mood and the physiological responses that accompany an attitude. E.g., your attitude towards female Chief Executive Officers will be based on how you feel about them. Cognitive Component: based on people’s thoughts and beliefs about the properties of the attitude object. E.g., your attitude towards pre-marital sex is likely to be based on your beliefs about the advantages and disadvantages of it. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Behavioural Component: physical and mental processes that prepare the individual to act in a certain manner. It is the ways in which we act or behave towards the attitude object. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Attitude Formation: Learning theories We can form attitudes based on the three main forms of learning; Classical conditioning (learning by association). E.g., developing a negative attitude towards a particular advert on TV due to a condemnation of that advert by both parents anytime it is shown. Operant conditioning ( attitude formation based on the consequences of behaviour. E.g., majoring in Psychology because you had a grade ‘A’ in your first Psychology exams. Modelling (imitation). E.g., developing a liking for a particular product because of you watching your parents use it at home CHECAR over - Killing The Notion Of Me And I the years. Topic Three Cognitive Dissonance CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 16 The teacher You have a was really bad Do attitudes tell us about belief that But you cheat on a test!!! so in that class it is OK. someone’s behaviour? Yes. The two are supposed to cheating on tests is bad. be consistent Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger,1957) People want to have consistent attitudes and behaviors….when they are not they experience dissonance (unpleasant tension). CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Examples of Cognitive Dissonance CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Explaining our Social World: Attribution Theory Attribution: the process by which we explain our own behaviour and that of others. We can attribute behaviour to either: External Causes (situational): That is to causes and factors that lie outside of a person, such as doing of God, demons, the weather, the teacher, the exam was very difficult, etc or Internal Causes (dispositional): Attributing the cause behind behaviour to factors within the individual (Ones that lie within a person) such as I worked hard, I am very intelligent or gifted. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Fundamental attribution error: the tendency as an observer to We tend to overestimate the overestimate dispositional role of dispositional factors influences (internal causes) and for others. underestimate situational influences (external causes) upon others’ behaviour than for one’s own behaviours. When we try to explain someone If you win it is else’s behaviour, the focus is on because you are the person but not the awesome…if you surrounding situation, hence we lose, it must have are more likely to jump into been the coach or conclusion. weather or…. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Prosocial Behavior: Helping Behavior Prosocial Behaviour- ‘Voluntary actions that are intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals’ (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989: 3) CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Prosocial Behavior: Helping Behavior CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Why do we help? Social Exchange Theory (self-interest): human interactions are transactions that aim to maximise one’s rewards and minimise one’s costs. We help for rewards be it internal(e.g., increase our sense of self-worth) or external (material benefit). Social norms (reciprocity): the oughts of our lives, are social expectations. They prescribe proper behaviour. Two social norms motivate helping behaviour; a. The Reciprocity Norm (Gouldner, 1960): An expectation that people will help, not hurt those who have helped them. We invest in others and expect dividends. ‘’If you don’t go to somebody’s funeral, they wont come to yours’’-Yogi Berra. b. The Social Responsibility Norm: An expectation that people will help those needing help even if they cannot reciprocate. Altruism: acting to help someone else at some cost to oneself. It can include a vast range of behaviours including sacrificing one’s life to save others. Often, people behave altruistically when they see others in challenging circumstances and feel empathy and a desire to help. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I When will we help? Kitty Genovese case in Kew Gardens NY (read about in on the internet). Bystander Effect: This concept explains conditions in which people are more or less likely to help one another. In general…the more people around…the less chance of help….because of… 1. Diffusion of Responsibility - The lessening of a sense of individual responsibility for a task when responsibility is shared among members of a group. 2. Pluralistic Ignorance - People decide what to do by looking to others. It is a false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Number of Bystanders & Offers of Help CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Offering Help: Decision Tree (Darley & Latane, 1968) CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I UGBS108 Session 5 – Self-Esteem Dr. Ernest Darkwah Department of Psychology University of Ghana College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2022/2023 Academic Year CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I SESSION OBJECTIVES By the end of this lecture, students will be able to: Define and explain the concept of self-esteem Explain the processes through which self-esteem develops Discuss the various ways of measuring self-esteem Explain how self-esteem can be improved CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 2Of Me And I SESSION READINGS Session Reading: ABDEL-KHALEK (2015) CHAPTER ON SELF ESTEEM CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 3Of Me And I Topic One The concept of self-esteem CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 4Of Me And I Self-Esteem Reflect : 1. Who are you? try to find an answer to this question in your mind 2. Now ask the person next to you, “who are you ?” and listen to what they say 3. Ask the next person: Do you like what you see/how you feel when you look at yourself in the mirror? CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Self-Esteem The activity we just did is a self-esteem exercise Psychologists believe that our sense of who we are and our evaluation/ appraisal of ourselves are central to all aspects of our health and well- being Myers(2007): Our sense of self worth plays an important role in our outward behavior, our interactions with others, and in forming relationships. It also affects our motivations, aspirations and efforts in various aspects of our lives This sense of self-worth is what is known as self-esteem. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Self-Esteem Baumeister (2008): Self-esteem can be defined as how favourably someone evaluates herself/himself Myers (2007): Self-esteem reflects a person’s overall self- evaluation or sense of self-worth Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (eg. I am competent/ capable) and emotions (eg. Despair, pride)CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I about oneself Self-Esteem Some psychologists believe that self-esteem can be global or domain-specific. Global self-esteem reflects your evaluation of your overall self (eg. “I believe I am a good person and feel proud about myself in general” Domain-specific self-esteem reflects your evaluation of some aspect of yourself. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Self-Esteem In other words, a person’s self-esteem could be related to specific domains of their lives. Eg. “I believe I am a good communicator and I feel proud about that in particular” In like manner, a person’s self-esteem could be related to their looks. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Self-Esteem ❑Some psychologists regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic. This view is often called the “trait” self-esteem ❑However there is also an agreement that normal, short-term variations in self-esteem exists ❑In self-esteem research, some scholars have used different terms that are synonymous or near- synonymous to self-esteem to describe it: CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Self-Esteem Synonyms:/ near-synonyms: Self-worth Self-regard Self-respect Self-integrity CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Self-Esteem Importance of self esteem: A healthy self-esteem is related to: Creativity Rationality Flexibility Willingness to admit mistakes Openness Honesty CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Two Development of Self-esteem CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 13 Development of Self-Esteem ❑How does self-esteem develop? Psychologists believe that self-esteem develops in individuals throughout the life course The specific trend of development is still being debated Robins (2005): On average, self-esteem is relatively high in childhood, drops during adolescence (Especially for girls), rises gradually throughout adulthood and then declines sharply CHECAR in old age. - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Some Researchers challenge this view: Erol &Orth, 2011: Self-esteem may drop, rise or remain unchanged during adolescence Bottom Line: As people grow various experiences that they encounter influences how they come to value themselves and how they judge who they are. These influences can be negative or positive and cause the variations in the level of self-esteem at a particular stage CHECAR in life - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Development of Self-Esteem 1. Nature /Nurture: This is the belief that a combination of biological circumstances and environmental experience influences a person’s development of self-esteem. Eg. A healthy child with no physical/biological deformities or problems (positive biological circumstance) growing in a loving, responsive family environment (positive environmental experience) will likely develop a relatively high self-esteem and vice versa. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Development of Self-Esteem However, even if biological circumstances are positive, negative environmental experiences eg. Abusive parents, bullying at school etc. can still reduce a person’s self esteem 2. Evaluation of the self through others’ eyes: Social psychologists have established that individuals may develop a sense of self-worth on the basis of how others see them. Positive feedback eg. kind comments, compliments, appreciation about a person lead them to develop a high sense of self- worth and vice versa. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Development of Self-Esteem 3. Achievement: As people grow they face different tasks/ challenges at different stages of their lives. Eg. Examinations, learning new skills, performing some social functions, forming new relationships. The development of self-esteem may be influenced by how well individuals perceive themselves to perform in these tasks/challenges. Individuals who consistently fail or underperform may develop a lower self-esteem as compared to individuals who consistently succeed. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Development of Self-Esteem 4. Childhood experiences: Psychologists have established that experiences during childhood have an impact on our determination of our self-worth. Positive, encouraging circumstances help increase our sense of self-worth while negative experiences decrease our self-worth. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors leading to low self-esteem – The factors that influence the development of self- esteem can be positive and negative. – Negative experiences reduce the sense of self-worth and cause low self-esteem. – The following factors have been found to specifically contribute to low self-esteem: CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors leading to low self-esteem Poor physical health: Illness, injury, deformity and other physical health problems can make a person feel de-valued or demeaned. This can influence how a person values themselves relative to others. Negative comments/actions of other people: Other people’s treatment of us and feedback concerning eg. our looks, actions, etc. can make us feel worthless. This is especially true if the other person CHECAR is a significant other or authority figure - Killing The Notion Of Me And I to us. Factors leading to low self-esteem Domestic violence: Violent/ aggressive/ abusive behavior including emotional abuse at home with a family or co-habitant can significantly reduce a person’s sense of worth. It can make them feel worthless or unimportant. Prejudice & negative stereotyping: Prejudice refers to prejudgments of persons or situations that are based on their membership of a group and can be harmful. Stereotyping is preconceived notions about a person or groups’ nature and behavior. Racial profiling, religious discriminations etc. are examples that can reduce a person’s sense of self-worth within a certain environment. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors leading to low self-esteem Emotional neglect: It occurs when a person, especially children’s emotional needs are ignored or not responded to appropriately. Parental actions such as failing to comfort a sad child, preferring one child over the other, leaving very small children all by themselves etc. work against the emotional strength of the child and can negatively affect their sense of worth. Add at least two more points on your own on factors that can reduce self-esteem. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Three Measuring self-esteem CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 24 Measuring self-esteem Psychologists do not only aim to understand and explain self-esteem A considerable amount of psychological research aims at developing techniques to measure self- esteem Over the years, several means have been developed to measure individuals’ self-esteem CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem Mecca (2004): Instruments developed to measure self-esteem fall within 4 main categories : 1. Behavioral trace reports 2. Direct observations 3. Projective techniques 4. Self-reports CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem 1.Behavioral trace reports: These measures base judgment of self-esteem on concrete behaviours. Eg. Grades, teachers’ comments on behaviours etc. Through this they are able to eliminate observer bias There can be problems with memory and validity (eg. Of the grades) with these types of measures. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem 2. Direct Observations: Some measures base their judgments on direct observations of physical characteristics and signs These are often used on very young children who may not be able to communicate effectively on a verbal level The observer’s values, feeling and attitudes may compromise the validity of results from CHECAR such - Killing The Notion Of Me And I measures Measuring self-esteem 3. Projective techniques: They are designed to elicit from a specific age group self-perceptions of worthwhileness These can also reveal unconscious processes in children and adults Eg. Ask a child to draw how they will look like when they grow up Scoring procedures here are difficult and may be neither objective nor valid. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem 4. Self-reports: These require the individual to report their own feelings usually on a range or scale Self-reports are practical and easily scored respondents may manipulate their self-reports to obtain desirable results (e.g., to elicit sympathy CHECARfrom the observer). - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: By far the most popular self-esteem measure Falls within the category of self-reports Developed by Sociologist Dr. Morris Rosenberg in 1965 The test/ measure is popular because of its strong validity CHECAR and reliability - Killing scores. The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem It was developed from responses from an original sample of 5,024 high school juniors and seniors from 10 randomly selected schools in New York State. It measures self-esteem through ten items/statements Individuals respond to these items by indicating their levels of agreement or disagreement on a 4- pointCHECAR Likert scale. - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem The Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale Instructions: The statements below have been used by people to describe themselves. Please read through each one carefully and circle the number that best describes how much of a problem each has been for you in the past month, including today. Use the following scale as a guide: A=Strongly Agree B =Agree C=Disagree D=Strongly Disagree CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem 1. On the whole I am satisfied with myself.--------- 2. At times I think that I am no good at all.--------- 3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.-------- - 4. I am able to do things as well as most other people.— 5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of-------------- -- 6. I certainly feel useless at times.-------------------------- - 7. I feel that I am a person of worth, at least the equal of others.---------- CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem 8. I wish I could have more respect for myself.--- ---- 9. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.--- 10. I take a positive attitude toward myself.------- ----- CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem Scoring the Rosenberg scale: One approach is below: For items 1,2,4,6and 7 Strongly agree =3 Agree = 2 Disagree = 1 Strongly disagree = 3 CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Measuring self-esteem For items 3,5,8,9 and 10 Strongly agree = 0 Agree = 1 Disagree = 2 Strongly disagree = 3 Interpretation: The scale range is from 0-30. Psychologists use a score of 15 as a threshold score to judge low or high self-esteem. A score in the range of 15-25 suggests a normal self-esteem CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Improving self-esteem CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Improving self-esteem do a self-assessment of your self-esteem using available self-esteem tests Take care of your physical health Have a positive mindset and attitude towards events. Eg. Yes I can!! Reward yourself: find out something that satisfies you and do it when you feel you have achieved something. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Improving self-esteem Enjoy yourself: take time off and engage yourself in activities that make you happy Develop supportive social networks: find some good friends who will encourage you. Take Home: Read about the dark/negative side of self-esteem CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I UGBS108 Session 6 – Human Memory Dr. Ernest Darkwah Department of Psychology University of Ghana College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2022/2023 Academic Year CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I SESSION OBJECTIVES By the end of this lecture, students will be able to: Demonstrate some understanding of the concept of memory Explain different types of memory Explain factors that influence memory Explain how memory can be improved CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 2Of Me And I RECAP OF SESSION 1 State and explain the two main groups of factors that can affect learning Mention and explain some learner factors affecting learning Mention and explain any other factors that could affect learning How could human learning be improved? CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 3Of Me And I SESSION READINGS Session Reading: Course textbook Chapter 12 CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 4Of Me And I Topic One Memory CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 5Of Me And I Memory Activity (5 minutes): 1. Tell us about a day you will never forget 2. Why do you think that day will never go away CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory The activity we just did is a memory exercise Baron (2007): Memory refers to our cognitive systems for storing and retrieving information Our ability to remember things serves an adaptive purpose Human life would almost be impossible without the benefit of a memory system. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory Importance of memory Memory helps: To remember the past To retain new information Solve problems Plan for the future Build and maintain relationships Etc. Psychologists are interested in studying and understanding human memory because of these and more CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory Experimental studies of human memory were started by German psychologist Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) He used a set of nonsense syllables (meaningless 3-letter combinations) to test how well he could remember things. Eg. GAK, VAB He would memorize the texts, leave some delay time, and then try to recall them Herman Ebbinghaus (1850- 1906) After several trials he realized it was easy to forget things as quickly as they are learnt. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory ❑Years after Ebbinghaus, several researchers have proposed their own models/theories explaining human memory works. ❑One of these proposed theories is: The Information processing model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory The Information Processing Model Also called Modal Model /multi-store model of memory Developed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968 It views memory as a systematic movement of information from one storage system to another. It is an approach to human memory emphasizing encoding, storage and retrieval of information The movement and storage of information are aided by mental processes such as encoding, attention and rehearsal CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory encoding: The process through which sensory information is converted into a form that can be entered into memory. storage: The process through which information is retained in memory Retrieval: The process through which stored information is located in the memory system CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory Key arguments: Human memory is like computer memory Information first enters the memory system and is received, encoded/ processed and stored in a temporary store called the sensory store The sensory store holds the information for briefly and then transfers it to the short-term memory The short-term memory does further processing and stores the information temporarily before transferring it to the Long-Term Memory The Long-Term Memory holds the information relatively permanently for future use. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory Environmental cues eventually cause a retrieval of the information stored in the Long-Term Memory Facts about the Model: It emphasizes three distinct memory types: 1. Sensory store/Memory/ register (SM): This is a temporary storage system that receives raw sensory information. It is the first point of reception for information and has quite a high capacity but very short duration It encodes the information and holds it briefly (less than 1 second for vision a few seconds for auditory) Its main job is to preserve the characteristics of a particular sensory modality: the way an item looks, sounds, feels etc. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory 2. Short-Term Memory/Store (STM): This is the second storage unit in the memory system It is also called the Working Memory Information from the SM is transferred through attention to the short- term memory for further processing and brief storage. It has a low capacity and can hold information in current use for 5-15 seconds without rehearsal. It is called the working memory because information presently being used is stored in this memory system CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory 3. Long Term Memory (LTM): This is the final memory store in the memory system It stores information relatively permanently and has infinite storage capacity Information is transferred into this system through elaborative rehearsal. Appropriate cues can lead to retrieval of information from this system for use in the working memory CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory Points to note: Information that do not receive attention at the sensory stage is not transferred into the STM and is forgotten Information that is not elaborately rehearsed/used in the STM is also forgotten at this stage Forgetting can also occur in the LTM through factors such as decay, amnesia etc. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Two Other types of memory CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 19 Other Types of Memory ❑Aside from the types of memory identified in the Information Processing Model, other distinct types of memory have been identified by psychologists ❑Some of these types are specifications of memory systems within the LTM. ❑Each of these other types describe the kinds of information stored in them. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Declarative Memory Declarative/ Explicit Memory: This is a memory system that stores factual information eg. The president of Ghana, your birth date etc. It is called ‘explicit’ or ‘declarative’ because we can retrieve information from it and consciously report/explicitly declare it It has two may sub-types: – Episodic memory – Semantic CHECAR memory - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory types: Episodic Episodic Memory: This is the type of memory about information we acquired at a specific time and place. This kind of memory enables us to go back in time and recollect specific thoughts/ experiences we had at a specific place or time. Eg. Recollection of how you learnt the definition of psychology. Basically it reflects memory of particular ‘episodes’ of experience or factual information CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Semantic Memory Semantic Memory: This reflect memory of more general information. This kind of memory holds information that we cannot readily remember where and when we acquired it. It basically stores general, abstract knowledge about the world Egs. The meaning of words, properties of an object CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Memory Procedural memory: Aside from declarative memory, psychologists also identify procedural memory This is the memory system that stores information we cannot readily express verbally It is our memory of skills and steps in procedures that we possess and can demonstrate but cannot verbally articulate it. Some psychologists term this type of memory as implicit memory Eg. Riding-aKilling CHECAR bike, walking etc. The Notion Of Me And I Topic Three Factors influencing memory CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Slide 25 Factors influencing Memory Psychologists have identified several factors that can influence how well we store and retrieve information A lot of these identifications were done through experimentation The list produced here is not exhaustive ReadCHECAR about other factors - Killing in the Of The Notion library/ Me Andonline. I Memory 1. Decay/rehearsal: It is the loss of information(usually unused, meaningless or unrehearsed ones in the short-term memory) due to the passage of time. 2. levels of processing: This view holds that the effort expended in processing information determines whether that information will be retained or lost. That is, memory of an event or information can be influenced by how deeply that information was processed. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors influencing Memory 3. Context of memory: This is the view that information entered into memory in one context or setting, is easier to recall in that context than others. This is called context-dependent memory 4. Retrieval cues Retrieval cues are stimuli associated with information stored i memory that can aid in retrieving that information later. This means that retrieval cues can influence our memory by affecting how well we are able to retrieve information CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors influencing Memory 5. Attention and rehearsal: According to the information processing model, how well we store and retrieve information is influenced by how much attention we pay to that information (at the sensory stage and how well we rehearse information at the short-term memory stage. Attention sends information to the STM (a temporary store) and rehearsal transfers information to a permanent store, the LTM. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors influencing Memory 6. Physical/ mental state: Some psychologists argue that the physical or mental state in which a person is, can influence how they store and retrieve information Information stored during one mental or physical state could be retrieved easier when the person is in that state again. This is called state-dependent memory Also the physical and mental state can reduce or increase encoding and retrieval ability. Eg. An alert mental state could increase attention and through that increase encoding while a depressed mental state could do the opposite. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors influencing Memory 7. Repression: It is the psychological process of pushing out painful experiences from our memories. Some psychologists argue that a person’s memory of events could sometimes be influenced by the nature of the event/ experience. While pleasant experiences may be retained relatively longer compared to painful experiences. Brain injury: Researchers have found that injury to certain parts of the brain responsible for memory could influence memory CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors influencing Memory 8. Brain injury/memory disorders: Researchers have found that injury to certain parts of the brain responsible for memory may result in memory disorders and influence our memories. For example Amnesia is a memory disorder that affects people’s ability to recollect information. There can be retrograde amnesia: inability to recollect past events before a brain damage occurred or Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new memories after a brain injury occurs. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors influencing Memory 9. Interference: This is when material that has already been learnt and stored tends to confuse the recollection of newly learnt material and vice versa. It occurs for example, when too much information is stored within a short time such that new and old information tend to mix up in the memory system. There are two forms of interference: Proactive interference: the situation where old material increases forgetting of new material Retroactive interference: when new material increases forgetting of old material CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors influencing Memory 10. von Restorff effect:  This is the tendency to remember unusual material better than more common items.  This form of memory was named after von Restorff, the psychologist who first demonstrated it. 11. Learning interval:  Psychologists also believe that memory is influenced by how distributed or spaced out encoding is done.  Spacing out learning activities helps the encoding, storage and retrieval process better that learning everything at a go which can result in sensory overload and a consequent loss of information. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Improving Memory Psychologists are also interested in how human memory can be improved. The nature of the list of factors that influence mean that some of the same factors improve memory. TAKE HOME: Using the list of factors influencing memory, Develop/ explain five (5) ways in which human memory can be improved. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Factors influencing Memory  Baron R. (2007) Psychology. 5th Edition. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall  Kalat. J.W. (2001). Introduction to Psychology. 6th Edition. California(CA). Wadsworth-Thomson Learning. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I UGBS108 Session 7 – Emotions and Emotional Intelligence Dr. Ernest Darkwah Department of Psychology University of Ghana College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2022/2023 Academic Year CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I SESSION OBJECTIVES Have an idea of current understandings of the concept of emotion Understand the various ways of detecting emotions Understand the role of facial expressions in emotions Explain emotional intelligence CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 2Of Me And I SESSION READINGS Session Reading: Course textbook Chapter 10 CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 3Of Me And I Topic One The concept of emotion CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 4Of Me And I Defining emotion Think and Tell: What do we mean when we describe someone/ourselves as “emotional”? No single/ universally accepted definition of “emotion” One of the most difficult concepts to define (Izard, 2010) ❑ Originated from the Middle French word émotion, meaning "a (social) moving, stirring, agitation.“ ❑ Defined variously by psychologists across time and context: CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Defining emotion Skinner (1953):..emotion is one of those fictional causes to which we commonly attribute behavior.. Myers (2010): Emotions are psychological responses of the whole organism involving an interplay among physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience Lim (2016): emotions not only mental/ neural, but also context determined/ influenced by environment/ culture CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Defining emotion PsycCentral (2018): “…emotion refers to a feeling state involving thoughts, physiological changes, and an outward expression or behavior…” In the midst of the confusion: Reisenzein (2007): “..a proper definition of emotion is not necessary for fruitful research and successful communication…” CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Defining emotion Currently, despite observations of inconsistencies & confusions there is some consensus that: 1. emotions are elicited/ triggered by some stimuli 1. Emotions have cognitive, physiological and behavioural/expressive components. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Topic Two Emotion Elicitors/ Triggers CHECAR - Killing The Notion Slide 9Of Me And I Emotion elicitors Consider: you get grade ‘F’ in a course you desperately need to pass. A friend of yours copies your grade and attaches this imoji to it and sends to you on whatsapp, what will be your reaction? Emotions don’t just occur in a vacuum An emotion is triggered by a variety of factors Emotion elicitors are factors/ events/ objects/ actions that trigger/ elicit an emotional response These can be grouped into Internal and External factors CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Emotion elicitors Internal elicitors/triggers: may include changes in your physiological states (e.g., hunger) and cognitive processes (a pleasant thought) External elicitors/triggers: May include death of a loved one, sighting an event/object, words spoken by another person CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Components of Emotion Remember: There is some consensus among emotion researchers that emotions involve physiological, cognitive and behavioural/expressive dimensions. These are the main components of emotion CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Components of Emotion CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Components of Emotion: Physiology Physiological arousal: Physiological component innate/built into the body Often triggered by autonomic nervous system response to internal/ external stimuli Stimuli causes autonomic nervous system to produce neural, hormonal, visceral, and muscular changes that produce an emotional state. The energy mobilized by the autonomic nervous system arouses us by for example, increasing our pupil dilation, heart rate, perspiration etc. CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Components of Emotion CHECAR (Myers, - Killing 2010) The Notion Of Me And I Components of Emotion: Physiology Physiological changes associated with emotional arousal are consistent across cultures. These reactions are nearly universal because they are controlled by the autonomic nervous system. E.g. the body’s reaction to excitement is the same among people of different cultures although the triggers of excitement may differ between cultures CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Components of Emotion:Cognition Cognitive appraisal: Discuss with the person next to you (2mins): is there a connection between how we think (cognition) and how we feel (emotion) and vice versa? CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Components of Emotion The cognition component of emotion involves the evaluations/ appraisals/ interpretations we associate with an emotional arousal/ stimuli Our mental interpretations/ appraisal/ memories/ expectations of events/objects/ actions etc is what triggers resulting emotional state During an emotional arousal, sensory information goes through the brain for analysis The results of this analysis is what produces the emotion CHECAR - Killing The Notion Of Me And I Components of Emotion:Expression/Behavior Think/ reflect on this: How do you know someone loves you/ how do you show you love someone? ❑ Overt/ outward expression or s

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