Chapter 4: Sensation, Perception & Consciousness PDF

# Chapter - 4 ## Sensation, Perception and States of Consciousness ### Connect Master Introductory Psychology **Because learning changes everything.** **CLO:** 3- Evaluate the effect of sensation and perception on people's behavior ## Sensation Perception and Conciousness **Topics to be covered:...

# Chapter - 4 ## Sensation, Perception and States of Consciousness ### Connect Master Introductory Psychology **Because learning changes everything.** **CLO:** 3- Evaluate the effect of sensation and perception on people's behavior ## Sensation Perception and Conciousness **Topics to be covered:** - The five senses and the brain. - Subliminal stimulation. - Perception and attention. - Perceptual interpretation. - States of consciousness. - The conscious and unconscious mind. **Module:** Consciousness ## Sensing and Perceiving **Sensation**" usually refers to biological processes. - Example: Function of neurons. "**Perception**" is usually applied to higher level mental processes. - Example: Identifying objects. **Stimulus:** Any passing source of physical energy that produces a response in a sense organ. Stimuli vary in type and intensity. - Stimuli can have different intensities. ## Psychophysics **Gustav Fechner (1801–1887)** in the 1800s helped to establish the field of psychophysics. It is the study of the relationship between the physical characteristics of a stimulus and the manner in which we experience it. Fechner noted that although there is a relationship between the increase in the physical intensity and the subjective experience, it is not a linear relationship. For example, we do not experience a 200-watt light bulb as being twice as bright as a 100-watt bulb. What this suggests is that experiences in the mental world are not the same as changes in the physical world. ## Sensation and Perception Defined **Sensation** is the activation of the sense organs by a source of physical energy. - The range of sensations we feel are often more diverse and complex than they might appear. **Perception** is the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli carried out by the sense organs and brain. - Perceptions include hearing a theme song on television, understanding that a person is sipping a hot drink, and looking out the window and perceiving that it is windy outside. ## Thresholds, Sensation, and Perception **Sensation** is the activation of sense organs by a source of physical energy, and **perception** is the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli. A stimulus must reach or exceed a certain level of energy to be detected by the sensory organs and brain. This is called a **threshold**. - There are two types of thresholds: - Absolute thresholds. - Difference thresholds. ## Absolute Thresholds & Difference Thresholds An **absolute threshold** is the smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for it to be detected (Aazh & Moore, 2007). If one encounters multiple stimuli at once, however, a single stimulus can be more difficult to detect. The **difference threshold**, also called a just noticeable difference, is the smallest change in the level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change has occurred (Heath & Manzone, 2017; Namdar et al., 2016; Qin et al., 2010). - A difference threshold is not a single value. It is computed relative to the strength of the stimulus prior to the change. Example: If you turn on a lamp on a sunny day in a room full of windows, it seems relatively dim compared to turning on that same lamp at night. ## Sensory Adaptation (Habituation) Absolute thresholds do not remain constant. - **Sensory adaptation**, or **habituation**, is one of the ways in which they can change. When we are repeatedly exposed to a stimulus, the result is an apparent reduction in sensitivity to it. Example: If you move into a neighborhood near a train line, the sound of the trains will likely keep you up at night for the first several nights. But over time, you'll become accustomed to it. Your sensitivity to the stimulus is reduced because of **habituation**. ## The Senses **Vision:** Vision depends on sensitivity to light that is either produced by an energy source or reflected off objects. **Hearing:** Hearing or audition is the manner in which we detect sounds. The auditory system is not only able to detect whether a sound is present but also where the sound is coming from. **Smell and Taste:** Smell enables humans and other animals to detect chemicals in the environment that signal the presence of food, danger, and other animals. Moreover, the sense of smell goes hand in hand with another sense, taste, to allow people to evaluate their food for the presence of nutrients or toxins. Both of these senses help humans survive and thrive in dynamic environments. **Skin and Body Senses:** touch, temperature, and pain-allow people to make use of their world and avoid perilous situations. Similarly, body senses, like proprioception and balance, allow one to move around in order to pursue wanted resources while avoiding danger. In concert with the other senses, they allow us to adapt and succeed in an ever-changing world. ## Consciousness **Consciousness:** Our subjective awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment. Two types of states of consciousness: - Waking consciousness. - Altered consciousness. **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: The Different States of Consciousness ## Theory of Mind **Theory of mind:** When people can identify their own mental states, including emotions and thoughts, while also attributing mental states to others, even though they might be different from their own (Sebastian, 2016). **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: The Different States of Consciousness ## Waking Consciousness **Waking consciousness** is when individuals are awake and are aware of their: - Thoughts. - Emotions. - Perceptions. - Internal states (hunger, etc.). **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: The Different States of Consciousness ## Altered States of Consciousness When people are not fully aware of their thoughts, emotions, and perceptions, they are in **altered states of consciousness**. Could include trances, hallucinations, and sleep. **May be caused by:** - Sleep and dreaming. - Hypnosis. - Meditation. - Psychoactive drug use. **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: The Different States of Consciousness ## Challenges of Studying Consciousness **Traditional problems with studying consciousness:** - Consciousness is a personal phenomenon. - Consciousness is subjective. - Difficult to determine objective differences in how someone perceives reality. **Contemporary psychologists**, however, argue that several approaches do permit scientific study of consciousness. **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: The Different States of Consciousness ## Hypnosis and Its Impact **Hypnosis** produces a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to others' suggestions. **What hypnotism cannot compel people to do:** - Lose their free will. - Perform antisocial behaviors. - Perform self-destructive acts. - Reveal hidden truths. - Be hypnotized against their will. **Preliminary studies suggest hypnosis could be beneficial for:** - Treating pain. - Anesthesia. - Decreasing allergic responses. - Treatment for IBS. - Decreasing blood pressure. **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Hypnosis and Meditation ## Susceptibility to Hypnosis **There are variations in susceptibility to hypnosis:** - Five to 20% cannot be hypnotized. - Fifteen percent are easily hypnotized (they tend to be daydreamers, who also get easily absorbed while reading books or listening to music) (Benham et al., 2006; Parris, 2017). - Females tend to be more likely to be able to be hypnotized as well as people who are outgoing (Költő et al., 2014; Lombard et al., 1990). **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Hypnosis and Meditation ## Meditation and Mindfulness **Meditation:** A learned technique for refocusing attention that may bring about an altered state of consciousness. - Typically consists of the repetition of a mantra. - Key is concentrating so thoroughly that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside stimulation. **Mindfulness:** The ability to be present and aware of our current surroundings. **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Hypnosis and Meditation ## Meditation Benefits **Benefits include:** - Relaxation during and immediately following meditation, linked directly to altered brain-wave patterns (Lee et al., 2007). - Stress management (Travis et al., 2009 ). - New self-insights and increased adjustment to difficult diagnoses such as cancer. - Lower heart rate and blood pressure (Steinhubl et al., 2015). - Decrease in chronic pain (Horowitz, 2010). - Potential beneficial effects in treating substance use disorders (Horowitz, 2010). **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Hypnosis and Meditation ## FREUD’S PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory of Personality- emphasizes the importance of early childhood experiences, unconscious or repressed thoughts that we cannot voluntarily access, and the conflicts between conscious and unconscious forces that influence our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors - **Conscious thought** - wishes, desires, or thoughts that we are aware of, or can recall, at any given moment - **Unconscious forces** - wishes, desires, or thoughts that, because of their disturbing or threatening content, we automatically repress and cannot voluntarily access - **Unconscious motivation** - Freudian concept that refers to the influence of repressed thoughts, desires, or impulses on our conscious thoughts and behaviors **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Techniques to discover the unconscious - **Free association** - technique in which clients are encouraged to talk about any thoughts or images that enter their head; the assumption is that this kind of free-flowing, uncensored talking will provide clues to unconscious material - **Dream interpretation** - technique of analyzing dreams, is based on the assumption that dreams contain underlying, hidden meanings and symbols that provide clues to unconscious thoughts and desires - **Freudian slips** - mistakes or slips of the tongue that we make in everyday speech; such mistakes, which are often embarrassing, are thought to reflect unconscious thoughts or wishes **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Why We Sleep **Sleep is necessary for:** - Energy conservation. - Neuron repair. - Memory transfer. - Protection from illness. **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleep Stages 1 There are four stages of sleep, plus a wakefulness stage. Wakefulness is defined as being aware of your surroundings. Other stages are defined as different, unique states of consciousness. - Stage W (wakefulness). - Stage N1 (Non-REM1) Sleep. - Stage N2 (NonREM2) Sleep. - Stage N3 (NonREM3) Sleep. - Stage R (REM) Sleep. **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleep Stages 2 **Stage N1 (Non-REM1) Sleep** - Transition between wakefulness and sleep.. - Could include myoclonic jerks (feeling of falling as you drop off to sleep). - Lasts approximately 5–10 min. **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleep Stages 3 **Stage N2 (Non-REM2) Sleep** - Lose awareness of the environment. - Body temperature reduces. - Breathing and hear rate regulated. - Lose muscle activity. - Last about 20 min per cycle. **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleep Stages 4 **Stage N3 (Non-REM3) Sleep** - Deepest sleep stage. - Least responsive to outside stimulation. - Dominates sleep in first half of night. **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleep Stages 5 **Stage R (REM) Sleep** - Dreaming most likely here. - Back-and-forth eye movement. - Increases in hear rate, blood pressure, breathing - Brain waves similar to relaxed wakefulness. - Muscles appear paralyzed. - About 20% of adults' total sleep time. **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleep Stages and Brain Waves - Each sleep stage is associated with a unique pattern of brain waves that change in amplitude and frequency in regular sequences. - There are significant changes in physical activity in muscle and eye movements. **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Hours of Sleep Needed by Age | Age | Recommended Hours | Lower than Recommended | Higher than Recommended | |------------|----------------------|--------------------------|--------------------------| | 0-3 months | 14-17 | 11-13 | 18-19 | | 4-11 months| 12-15 | 10-11 | 16-18 | | 1-2 years | 11-14 | 9-10 | 15-16 | | 3-5 years | 10-13 | 8-9 | 14 | | 6-13 years | 9-11 | 7-8 | 13 | | 14-17 years| 8-10 | 7-8 | 11 | | 18-25 years| 7-9 | 7 | 11 | | 26-64 years| 7-9 | 6 | 10 | | 65+ years | 7-8 | 5 | 9 | **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleep Deprivation: Minor When an individual does not get the amount of sleep they require, it is called **sleep deprivation**. **After minor deprivation:** - Feel weary and irritable. - Cannot concentrate. - Loss of creativity. - Decline in logical reasoning ability. - Can inhibit performance on academic and physical tasks. (Morad et al., 2009; Kong et al., 2011; Ben Simon et al., 2017). **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleep Deprivation: Long-Term **Long-term sleep** deprivation can be extremely problematic. **Longer periods of sleep deprivation can:** - Increase pain. - Increase risk of cardiovascular disease. - Increase aggression. - Lead to hallucinations. **Fatal familial insomnia:** Genetic sleep disorder that leads to extreme sleep deprivation and can lead to death. (Mograss et al., 2009; Jackson et al., 2013; Maturana et al., 2014). **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Circadian Rhythms 1 **Circadian rhythms:** Circadian rhythms are the physical, mental, and behavioral changes an organism experiences over a 24-hour cycle. Light and dark have the biggest influence on circadian rhythms, but food intake, stress, physical activity, social environment, and temperature also affect them. Biological processes that occur regularly on an approximately 24-hr cycle, including: - Sleep. - Wakefulness. - Body temperature. Driven by the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus. (Karatsoreos et al., 2011; Labrecque & Cermakian, 2015). **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Circadian Rhythms 2 Differences in circadian rhythms between European Americans and African Americans specifically is potentially a factor contributing to higher rates of disease among African Americans (Egan et al., 2017). Jet lag, caused by flying through multiple time zones, is explained by circadian rhythms as we fight our internal clocks. - Can result in fatigue, irritability, and errors. - Many major disasters caused by human error occurred late at night (Refinetti, 2005; Kyriacou & Hastings, 2010), and car accidents increase during things like daylight savings time (Varughese & Allen, 2001). **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Strategies for Better Sleep **Suggestions for better sleep** (Benca, 2005; Finley & Cowley, 2005; Reddy, 2013; Guarana et al., 2021): - Increase daytime exercise. - Keep a regular bedtime routine. - Use your bed only for sleep. - Avoid long naps, but shorter (10–20 mins) okay. - Avoid caffeine after lunch. - Avoid sleeping pills. - Drink warm milk before bed. - Try to avoid sleep until you're tired. - Avoid blue lights before bed or try blue-light filtering glasses during the day. **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Sleep and the Stages of Sleep **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Dreams, Nightmares, and Lucid Dreaming By age 70, the average person has experienced 150,000 dreams. - **Dreams** are typically about everyday events. - **Nightmares** are unusually frightening dreams that reflect the day's worries and anxieties. - **Lucid dreaming** is an altered state in which people are both somewhat asleep and somewhat awake. **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Dreaming **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Dream Theory: Unconscious Wish Fulfillment In Freud's **unconscious wish fulfillment theory**, dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled (Freud, 1900). **Dreams have:** - **Manifest content:** The dream's story line. - **Latent content:** The dream's true meaning, which is disguised because the wishes threaten the dreamer's conscious awareness. **Many psychologists reject this theory.** **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Dreaming **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Dreams-for-Survival Theory According to the **dreams-for-survival theory**, dreams illustrate our uncertainties, indecisions, ideas, and desires about our daily lives (Ross, 2006; Horton, 2011). **Research supports this theory**. - Suggests that certain dreams permit people to consolidate memories, especially "how-to-do-it" dreams. **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Dreaming **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Activation-Synthesis Theory The **activation-synthesis theory** asserts that dreams do not necessarily have true meanings. Instead, dreams are a result of random electrical energy that stimulates different memories in the brain, which are then woven into a coherent story line (Hobson, 2005; Hangya et al., 2011). **Theory further refined by the activation information modulation (AIM) theory.** - Dreams begin in the brain's pons, which sends random signals to the cortex, which are then eventually processed as the dream's content (Hobson, 2007; Dang-Vu et al., 2010). **Module:** Consciousness-Topic Overview: Dreaming **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Types of Sleep Disturbances **Parasomnias:** - More common in children. - Include night terrors and sleepwalking. **Dyssomnias:** - Defined as problems with falling or staying asleep. Both types are commonly seen in all populations but with different prevalence dependent on the group. Black people report overall more sleep problems such as shortened sleep, snoring, and disordered sleeping (Brimah et al., 2013). **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Sleep Disturbances **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Insomnia **Insomnia:** Sleep disorder characterized by difficulty sleeping. Affects as many as one third of all people in the United States. **Causes may include:** - Stress about relationships, breakups, and job loss. - Concerns about work or academic performance. - Chronic or short-term pain. - Poor sleeping habits. **Treatment** usually includes changing sleeping habits or, if severe, medications and therapy. **Idiopathic insomnia** (no obvious cause) can affect anyone at any time (Espie et al., 2012). **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Sleep Disturbances **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Insomnia Symptoms **Insomnia symptoms include:** - Problems falling asleep. - Trouble staying asleep, with multiple wakings throughout the night. - Difficulty focusing during the day. - Not feeling well-rested, even after a good night’s sleep. - Daytime sleepiness. **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Sleep Disturbances **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleep Apnea Defined **Sleep apnea:** A condition in which people have difficult breathing while sleeping. - A person is repeatedly awakened when their body senses a lack of oxygen caused by the relaxation of throat and muscles. - Can cause some people to awaken as many as 500 times per night. - Becoming increasingly prevalent in United States, with some studies citing up to 38% of the population affected (Senaranta et al., 2017). - More common in men, older adults, and overweight people. **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Sleep Disturbances **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleep Apnea Risks **Sleep apnea** can cause severe problems. - Increased risk of stroke, high blood pressure, depression, anxiety, and risk of car crashes (Tippin et al., 2009). **Treated** by using an equipment called the continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine. **May play a role in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)**, a mysterious killer of seemingly normal infants who die while sleeping (Arimoto et al., 2011; Bjornsdottir et al., 2015; Thach, 2005). **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Sleep Disturbances **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Night Terrors **Night terrors:** Sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep that are accompanied by extreme fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal (Lowe et al., 2007; Carter, 2010). Usually occur in children between the ages of 3 and 8, with only around 2% of adults having night terrors in comparison to around 30% of children (Fleetham & Fleming, 2014). - Night terrors occur during sleep; most people do not remember them in the morning. - Nightmares, however, occur during the REM stage and usually can be remembered upon wakening. **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Sleep Disturbances **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Sleepwalking and Sleep Talking - Relatively harmless disturbances during stage N3 sleep. - More common in children than adults. - These are not behaviors linked to what people do in dreams; that is a separate disorder (REM behavior disorder). - **Narcolepsy:** Condition in which people experience uncontrollable sleeping for short periods while awake. **Module:** Consciousness—Topic Overview: Sleep Disturbances **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Physical Dependence - When a person compulsively uses a drug to maintain bodily comfort. - **Physical Dependence** (addiction) exists. - **Physical Dependence:** Addiction based on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms - Drug Tolerance: Reduction in body's response to a drug. - Withdrawal Symptoms: Physical illness following withdrawal of the drug. **McGraw Hill LLC** ## Psychological Dependence - Person who develop a **Psychological Dependence** feel that a drug is necessary to maintain their comfort or well-being. - **Psychological Dependence:** Drug dependence based on psychological or emotional needs. - Usually crave drug. - Can be as powerful as physiological addiction **McGraw Hill LLC**