Psychology In Action (PIA-2) PDF

 brief contents psychology in action Secrets for Surviving College and Improving Your Grades PIA-2 1 The Science of Psychology 2 2 The Biological Perspective 44 3 Sensation and Perception 90 4 Consc...

 brief contents psychology in action Secrets for Surviving College and Improving Your Grades PIA-2 1 The Science of Psychology 2 2 The Biological Perspective 44 3 Sensation and Perception 90 4 Consciousness 134 5 Learning 174 6 Memory 218 7 Cognition: thinking, ­intelligence, and language 260 8 Development Across the Life Span 304 9 Motivation and Emotion 352 10 Sexuality and Gender 386 11 Stress and Health 418 12 Social Psychology 452 13 Theories of Personality 500 14 Psychological Disorders 536 15 Psychological Therapies 574 appendix A Statistics in Psychology A-1 appendix B Applied Psychology and Psychology Careers B-1 iii contents Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization 17 Psychology: The Scientific Methodology 20 The Five Steps of the Scientific Method 20 Preface x Descriptive Methods 22 About the Authors PIA-1 Correlations: Finding Relationships 27 The Experiment 29 issues in psychology: Stereotypes, Athletes, and ­College psychology in action Test Performance 32 secrets for surviving college and Ethics of Psychological Research 33 improving your grades PIA-2 The Guidelines for Doing Research With People 34 Animal Research 35 Study Skills PIA-4 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically Study Methods: Different Strokes for Different Folks PIA-4 About Critical Thinking 37 When and Where Do You Fit in Time to Study PIA-5 Chapter Summary 40   Test Yourself 42 Mastering the Course Content PIA-6 Reading Textbooks: Textbooks Are Not Meatloaf PIA-6 2 Getting the Most Out of Lectures PIA-9 Demonstrating Your Knowledge: Tests and Papers PIA-11 Studying for Exams: Cramming is Not an Option PIA-11 Writing Papers: Planning Makes Perfect PIA-14 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Strategies for Improving the biological perspective 44 Your Memory PIA-17 psychology in action summary PIA-18 Neurons and Nerves: Building the Network 46 Test Yourself 1 Structure of the Neuron: The Nervous System’s Building Block 46 Generating the Message Within the Neuron: The Neural Impulse 48 Sending the Message to Other Cells: The Synapse 51 Neurotransmitters: Messengers of the Network 52 1 Cleaning Up the Synapse: Reuptake and Enzymes 54 An Overview of the Nervous System 56 The Central Nervous System: The “Central Processing Unit” 56 psychology in the news: Fact or Fiction: Focus on the the science of psychology 2 Brain, but Check Your Sources! 58 The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves on the Edge 60 What Is Psychology? 4 Psychology’s Goals 4 Distant Connections: The Endocrine Glands 63 The Pituitary: Master of the Hormonal Universe 63 Psychology Then: The History of Psychology 6 The Pineal Gland 65 In the Beginning: Wundt, Introspection, and the Laboratory 6 The Thyroid Gland 65 Titchener and Structuralism in America 7 Pancreas 65 William James and Functionalism 7 The Gonads 65 issues in psychology: Psychology’s African American The Adrenal Glands 65 Roots 8 Looking Inside the Living Brain 67 Gestalt Psychology: The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of Lesioning Studies 67 Its Parts 9 Brain Stimulation 67 Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis 10 Mapping Structure 68 Pavlov, Watson, and the Dawn of Behaviorism 11 Mapping Function 69 Psychology Now: Modern Perspectives 13 From the Bottom Up: The Structures of the Brain 71 Psychodynamic Perspective 14 The Hindbrain 72 Behavioral Perspective 14 Structures Under the Cortex: The Limbic System 74 Humanistic Perspective 14 The Cortex 77 Cognitive Perspective 14 The Association Areas of the Cortex 80 Sociocultural Perspective 15 Biopsychological Perspective 15 classic studies in psychology: Through the Looking Evolutionary Perspective 16 Glass—Spatial Neglect 81 The Cerebral Hemispheres: Are You in Your Right Mind? 82 iv  CONTENTS  v Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Paying Attention to Sleep 138 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 85 The Biology of Sleep 138 Chapter Summary 87   Test Yourself 89 The Stages of Sleep 142 Sleep Disorders 146 psychology in the news: Murder While 3 Sleepwalking 147 Dreams 150 Freud’s Interpretation: Dreams as Wish Fulfillment 151 The Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis 151 sensation and perception 90 What Do People Dream About? 153 The Effects of Hypnosis 154 The ABCs of Sensation 92 Steps in Hypnotic Induction 154 What Is Sensation? 92 Fact or Myth: What Can Hypnosis Really Do? 155 Sensory Thresholds 92 Theories of Hypnosis 156 Habituation and Sensory Adaptation 94 The Influence of Psychoactive Drugs 158 The Science of Seeing 96 Dependence 158 Perceptual Properties of Light: Catching the Waves 96 Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away 160 The Structure of the Eye 96 Down in the Valley: Depressants 162 How the Eye Works 99 Hallucinogens: Higher and Higher 165 Perception of Color 100 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically The Hearing Sense: Can You Hear Me Now? 104 About Ghosts, Aliens, and Other Things That Go Bump in the Perception of Sound: Good Vibrations 104 Night 169 The Structure of the Ear: Follow the Vibes 105 Chapter Summary 170   Test Yourself 172 Perceiving Pitch 106 Types of Hearing Impairments 107 Chemical Senses: It Tastes Good and Smells Even Better 109 5 Gustation: How We Taste the World 110 The Sense of Scents: Olfaction 112 Somesthetic Senses: What the Body Knows 113 Perception of Touch, Pressure, Temperature, and Pain 113 Pain: Gate-Control Theory 114 learning 174 The Kinesthetic Sense 115 Definition of Learning 176 The Vestibular Sense 116 It Makes Your Mouth Water: Classical The ABCs of Perception 118 Conditioning 176 The Constancies: Size, Shape, and Brightness 118 Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs 177 The Gestalt Principles 118 Elements of Classical Conditioning 177 Depth Perception 120 Putting It All Together: Pavlov’s Canine Classic, or Tick Tock Tick Perceptual Illusions 123 Tock 178 Other Factors That Influence Perception 126 Conditioned Emotional Responses: Rats! 183 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Beyond “Smoke and Biological Influences on Conditioning 184 Mirrors”—The Psychological Science and Neuroscience of Why Does Classical Conditioning Work? 185 Magic 129 What’s in It for Me? Operant Conditioning 186 Chapter Summary 130   Test Yourself 132 Frustrating Cats: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box and the Law of Effect 186 B. F. Skinner: The Behaviorist’s Behaviorist 187 4 The Concept of Reinforcement 187 Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the One-Armed Bandit is so ­Seductive 190 The Role of Punishment in Operant Conditioning 194 consciousness 134 issues in psychology: The Link Between Spanking and ­ ggression in Young Children 198 A What Is Consciousness? 136 Stimulus Control: Slow Down, It’s the Cops 199 Definition of Consciousness 136 Shaping and Other Concepts in Operant Altered States of Consciousness 137 Conditioning 199 vi  CONTENTS 7 classic studies in psychology: Biological Constraints on ­Operant Conditioning 200 Using Operant Conditioning: Behavior Modification 201 Cognitive Learning Theory 205 Tolman’s Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning 205 cognition: thinking, ­intelligence, and Köhler’s Smart Chimp: Insight Learning 207 language 260 Seligman’s Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness 207 How People Think 262 Observational Learning 209 Mental Imagery 262 Bandura and the Bobo Doll 209 Concepts and Prototypes 264 The Four Elements of Observational Learning 210 Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Strategies 266 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Can You Really Toilet Problems with Problem Solving and Decision Making 270 Train Your Cat? 212 Creativity 271 Chapter Summary 215   Test Yourself 216 Intelligence 274 Definition 274 6 Theories of Intelligence 274 Measuring Intelligence 276 psychology in the news: Neuropsychology Sheds Light on Head Injuries 282 memory 218 Extremes of Intelligence 285 classic studies in psychology: Terman’s What Is Memory? 220 “Termites” 288 Three Processes of Memory 220 The Nature/Nurture Controversy Regarding Intelligence 290 Models of Memory 220 Language 294 The Information-Processing Model: Three Memory The Levels of Language Analysis 294 Systems 222 The Relationship Between Language and Thought 295 Sensory Memory: Why Do People Do Double Takes? 222 Short-Term Memory 225 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Mental and Physical Long-Term Memory 228 ­Exercises Combine for Better Cognitive Health 299 Chapter Summary 301   Test Yourself 302 Getting It Out: Retrieval of Long-Term Memories 235 Retrieval Cues 235 Recall and Recognition 236 8 classic studies in psychology: Elizabeth Loftus and Eyewitnesses 239 Automatic Encoding: Flashbulb Memories 240 The Reconstructive Nature of Long-Term Memory Retrieval: How Reliable Are Memories? 241 development across the life span 304 Constructive Processing of Memories 242 Memory Retrieval Problems 242 Issues in Studying Human Development 306 Research Designs 306 What Were We Talking About? Forgetting 245 Nature Versus Nurture 306 Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve 246 Encoding Failure 247 The Basic Building Blocks of Development 308 Memory Trace Decay Theory 247 Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA 308 Interference Theory 248 Dominant and Recessive Genes 308 Genetic and Chromosome Problems 309 Neuroscience of Memory 249 Neural Activity, Structure, and Proteins in Memory Prenatal Development 312 Formation 249 Fertilization, the Zygote, and Twinning 312 The Hippocampus and Memory 249 psychology in the news: Abby and Brittany Hensel, When Memory Fails: Organic Amnesia 250 Together for Life 313 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Health and The Germinal Period 313 Memory 254 The Embryonic Period 314 Chapter Summary 256   Test Yourself 257 The Fetal Period: Grow, Baby, Grow 315  CONTENTS  vii 10 Infancy and Childhood Development 316 Physical Development 317 Baby, Can You See Me? Baby, Can You Hear Me? Sensory Development 317 classic studies in psychology: The Visual Cliff 319 sexuality and gender 386 Cognitive Development 320 The Physical Side of Human Sexuality 388 issues in psychology: The Facts and Myths About The Primary Sex Characteristics 388 Immunizations 326 The Secondary Sex Characteristics 389 Psychosocial Development 328 The Psychological Side of Human Sexuality: Gender 390 classic studies in psychology: Harlow and Contact Gender Roles and Gender Typing 390 ­Comfort 331 issues in psychology: Sex Differences in Science and Math: Adolescence 334 A Game Changer? 394 Physical Development 335 Theories of Gender-Role Development 396 Cognitive Development 335 Gender Stereotyping 397 Psychosocial Development 337 Gender Differences 397 Adulthood 339 Human Sexual Behavior 399 Physical Development: Use It or Lose It 339 Sexual Response 399 Cognitive Development 340 classic studies in psychology: Masters and Johnson’s Psychosocial Development 341 ­Observational Study of the Human Sexual Response 401 Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging 344 Different Types of Sexual Behavior 402 Stages of Death and Dying 344 Sexual Orientation 404 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Cross-Cultural Views on issues in psychology: What Is the Evolutionary Purpose Death 346 of ­H omosexuality? 408 Chapter Summary 347   Test Yourself 349 Sexual Dysfunctions and Problems 409 Causes and Influences 410 9 Prevalence 411 Sexually Transmitted Infections 411 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: The AIDS Epidemic in Russia 414 motivation and emotion 352 Chapter Summary 415   Test Yourself 416 Approaches to Understanding Motivation 354 Instincts And The Evolutionary Approach 355 11 Approaches Based on Needs And Drives 355 Arousal Approaches 359 Incentive Approaches 361 Humanistic Approaches 361 What, Hungry Again? Why People Eat 365 stress and health 418 Physiological Components of Hunger 365 Social Components of Hunger 367 Stress and Stressors 420 Obesity 368 Definition of Stress 420 What Are Stressors? 420 psychology in the news: Cartoon Characters Influence Environmental Stressors: Life’s Ups and Downs 421 ­Children’s Food and Taste ­Preferences 369 Psychological Stressors: What, Me Worry? 425 Emotion 371 Physiological Factors: Stress and Health 430 The Three Elements of Emotion 371 The General Adaptation Syndrome 430 Theories of Emotion 375 Immune System and Stress 430 classic studies in psychology: The Angry/Happy issues in psychology: Health Psychology and Stress 434 Man 378 The Influence of Cognition and Personality on Stress 435 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: When Motivation Is Not Social Factors in Stress: People Who Need People 441 Enough 382 Coping With Stress 444 Chapter Summary 383   Test Yourself 384 Coping Strategies 445 viii  CONTENTS 13 How Culture Affects Coping 447 How Religion Affects Coping 447 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Becoming More ­Optimistic 449 Chapter Summary 450   Test Yourself 451 theories of personality 500 Theories of Personality 502 12 The Man and the Couch: Sigmund Freud and the Origins of the Psychodynamic Perspective 503 The Unconscious Mind 504 Freud’s Divisions of the Personality 504 social psychology 452 Stages of Personality Development 506 The Neo-Freudians 508 Social Influence: Conformity, Group Behavior, Compliance, and Current Thoughts on Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective 509 Obedience 454 Conformity 454 The Behaviorist and Social Cognitive View of Personality 512 Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism and Self-Efficacy 512 Group Behavior 457 Rotter’s Social Learning Theory: Expectancies 513 Compliance 458 Current Thoughts on the Behaviorist and Social Cognitive psychology in the news: Anatomy of a Cult 460 Views 514 Obedience 461 The Third Force: Humanism and Personality 514 Social Cognition: Attitudes, Impression Formation, and Carl Rogers and Self-Concept 515 ­Attribution 465 Current Thoughts on the Humanistic View of Personality 516 Attitudes 465 Trait Theories: Who Are You? 518 Attitude Change: The Art of Persuasion 467 Allport 518 Cognitive Dissonance: When Attitudes and Behavior Cattell and the 16PF 518 Clash 468 The Big Five: OCEAN, or the Five-Factor Model of Personality 519 Impression Formation 471 Current Thoughts on the Trait Perspective 520 Attribution 473 The Biology of Personality: Behavioral Genetics 521 Social Interaction: Prejudice and Discrimination 476 Twin Studies 522 Defining Prejudice and Discrimination 476 Adoption Studies 522 How People Learn Prejudice 477 Current Findings 523 classic studies in psychology: Brown Eyes, Blue classic studies in psychology: Geert Hofstede’s Four Eyes 478 ­Dimensions of Cultural Personality 523 Overcoming Prejudice 479 Assessment of Personality 525 Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction 482 Interviews 526 The Rules of Attraction 482 Projective Tests 526 psychology in the news: Facing Facebook—The Social Behavioral Assessments 527 ­Nature of Online Networking 483 Personality Inventories 528 Love Is a Triangle—Robert Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Biological Bases of the Love 484 Big Five 531 Aggression and Prosocial Behavior 487 Chapter Summary 533   Test Yourself 534 Aggression 487 Prosocial Behavior 490 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the Social Brain 494 Chapter Summary 496   Test Yourself 498  CONTENTS  ix 14 15 psychological disorders 536 psychological therapies 574 What Is Abnormality? 538 Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Past to Present 576 A Very Brief History of Psychological Disorders 538 Early Treatment Of The Mentally Ill 576 What Is Abnormal? 539 Current Treatments: Two Kinds Of Therapy 576 Models of Abnormality 541 Psychotherapy Begins 577 Diagnosing and Classifying Disorders 543 Psychoanalysis 578 Disorders in the DSM-5 544 Evaluation of Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Approaches 578 How Common Are Psychological Disorders? 544 Interpersonal Psychotherapy 579 The Pros and Cons of Labels 544 Humanistic Therapy: To Err Is Human 579 Disorders of Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress: What, Tell Me More: Rogers’s Person-Centered Therapy 580 Me Worry? 547 Gestalt Therapy 581 Phobic Disorders: When Fears Get Out of Hand 547 Evaluation of the Humanistic Therapies 582 Panic Disorder 548 Behavior Therapies: Learning One’s Way to Better Behavior 584 Generalized Anxiety Disorder 549 Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning 584 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 549 Therapies Based on Operant Conditioning 586 Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Evaluation of Behavior Therapies 587 (PTSD) 550 Causes of AnxIety, Trauma, and Stress Disorders 551 Cognitive Therapies: Thinking Is Believing 588 Beck’s Cognitive Therapy 588 Disorders of Mood: The Effect of Affect 552 Ellis and Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) 589 Major Depressive Disorder 552 Evaluation of Cognitive and Cognitive–Behavioral Therapies 589 Bipolar Disorders 553 Causes of Disordered Mood 554 Group Therapies: Not Just for the Shy 590 Types of Group Therapies 590 Eating Disorders 556 Evaluation Of Group Therapy 591 Anorexia Nervosa 556 Bulimia Nervosa 557 Does Psychotherapy Really Work? 593 Studies of Effectiveness 593 Binge-Eating Disorder 558 Characteristics of Effective Therapy 594 Causes of Eating Disorders 558 Culture and Eating Disorders 558 psychology in the news: Mental Health on Campus 595 Dissociative Disorders: Altered Identities 559 Cultural, Ethnic, and Gender Concerns in Psychotherapy 596 Dissociative Amnesia And Fugue: Who Am I And How Did I Get Cybertherapy: Therapy in the Computer Age 598 Here? 559 Biomedical Therapies 598 Dissociative Identity Disorder: How Many Am I? 559 Psychopharmacology 598 Causes of Dissociative Disorders 560 Electroconvulsive Therapy 602 Schizophrenia: Altered Reality 562 Psychosurgery 603 Symptoms 562 Emerging Techniques 604 Causes Of Schizophrenia 563 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Virtual Reality Personality Disorders: I’m Okay, It’s Everyone Else ­Therapies 606 Who’s Weird 565 Chapter Summary 608   Test Yourself 610 Antisocial Personality Disorder 566 Borderline Personality Disorder 566 appendix A: Statistics in Psychology A-1 Causes of Personality Disorders 566 appendix B: Applied Psychology and Psychology Careers B-1 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Taking the Worry Answer Key AK-1 Out of Exams 568 Glossary G-1 Chapter Summary 570   Test Yourself 572 References R-1 Credits C-1 Name Index NI-1 Subject Index SI-1  psychology in action  PIA-5 Table PIA.1 PIA.1 Multiple Study Methods Verbal Methods Visual Methods Auditory Methods Action Methods PIA.2 Use flash cards to identify Make flash cards with Join or form a study group Sit near the front of the main points or key terms. pictures or diagrams to aid or find a study partner classroom and take notes by Write out or recite key recall of key concepts. so that you can discuss jotting down key terms and information in whole Make charts and diagrams concepts and ideas. making pictures or charts PIA.3 sentences or phrases in your and sum up information in While studying, speak out to help you remember what own words. tables. loud or into a digital recorder you are hearing. When looking at diagrams, Use different colors of that you can play back later. While studying, walk back and PIA.4 write out a description. highlighter for different Make speeches. forth as you read out loud. Use “sticky” notes to remind sections of information in Record the lectures (with Study with a friend. yourself of key terms and text or notes. permission). Take notes on While exercising, listen to PIA.5 information, and put them Visualize charts, diagrams, the lecture sparingly, using recordings you have made of in the notebook or text or and figures. the recording to fill in parts important information. on a mirror that you use Trace letters and words to that you might have missed. Write out key concepts on a frequently. PIA.6 remember key facts. Read notes or text material large board or poster. Practice spelling words Redraw things from memory. into a digital recorder or get Make flash cards, using or repeating facts to be study materials recorded and different colors and remembered. play back while exercising or diagrams, and lay them out PIA.7 Rewrite things from memory. doing chores. on a large surface. Practice When learning something putting them in order. new, state or explain the Make a three-dimensional information in your own words model. out loud or to a study partner. Spend extra time in the lab. Use musical rhythms Go to off-campus areas such as memory aids, or put as a museum or historical information to a rhyme or a site to gain information. tune. methods. Take the opportunity to try them out and find which methods work best for you. Table PIA.1 lists just some of the ways in which you can study. All of the methods listed in this table are good for students who wish to improve both their understanding of a subject and their grades on tests. See if you can think of some other ways in which you might prefer to practice the various study methods. When and Where Do You Fit in Time to Study? PIA.2 What are some strategies for time management? One of the biggest failings of college students (and many others) is managing the time for all the tasks involved. Procrastination, the tendency to put off tasks until some later time that often does not arrive, is the enemy of time management. There are some strate- gies to defeating procrastination (The College Board, 2011): Make a map of your long-term goals. If you are starting here, what are the paths you need to take to get to your ultimate goal? Get a calendar and write down class times, work times, social engagements, everything! Before you go to bed, plan your next day, starting with when you get up and priori- tizing your tasks for that day. Mark tasks off as you do them. Go to bed. Getting enough sleep is a necessary step in managing your tasks. Eat- ing right and walking or stretching between tasks is a good idea, too. If you have big tasks, break them down into smaller, more manageable pieces. How do you eat an elephant? One bite at a time.  1 the science of psychology Most people think of psychology as the study of weird people, odd behavior. But in reality, psychol- ogy is much, much more: the study of how each of us thinks, feels, and acts in our everyday life. You may not realize it, but you use psychology every day: when you correct a child’s behavior, teach a pet a new trick, get a salesperson to give you what you want, or fall victim to a telemarketer’s come-on. It’s psychology in action when you talk with your significant other (or a friend or relative) when he or she is feeling down. Psychology is involved in both the tragedy of a person who commits an act of violence or terrorism for no apparent reason and in our reaction to that horrifying act. From everyday actions and interactions to the rarer triumphs and tragedies of life, psychology is all around us. How would you define psychology? What do you hope to learn about psychology, yourself, and others after taking this course? CC Watch the Watch theVideo MyPsychLab.com Videoaton MyPsychLab.com 2 Why study psychology? Psychology not only helps you understand why people (and animals) do the things they do, but it also helps you better understand yourself and your reactions to others. Psychology can help you comprehend how your brain and body are connected, how to improve your learning abilities and memory, and how to deal with the stresses of life, both ordinary and extraordinary. In studying psychology, an understanding of the methods psy- chologists use is crucial because research can be flawed, and knowing how research should be done can bring those flaws to light. And finally, psychology and its research methods promote critical thinking, which can be used to evaluate not just research but also claims of all kinds, including those of advertisers and politicians. learning objectives How are case studies and surveys used to de- What defines psychology as a field of study, and 1.1 what are psychology’s four primary goals? 1.8 scribe behavior, and what are some drawbacks to each of these methods? Who were some of the early pioneers in psy- What is the correlational technique, and what 1.2 chology, and how did structuralism and function- 1.9 does it tell researchers about relationships? alism differ? What were the basic ideas and who were the im- What are the steps involved in designing an 1.3 portant people behind the early approaches known 1.10 experiment? as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism? What are the basic ideas behind the seven mod- How do the placebo and experimenter effects 1.4 ern perspectives, and what were the important 1.11 cause problems in an experiment, and what are contributions of Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers? some ways to control for these effects? How does a psychologist differ from a psychia- What are some basic elements of a real-world 1.5 trist, and what are the other types of profession- 1.12 experiment? als who work in the various areas of psychology? Why is psychology considered a science, and What are some ethical concerns that can occur 1.6 what are the steps in using the scientific 1.13 when conducting research with people and method? animals? How are naturalistic and laboratory settings What are the basic principles of critical think- used to describe behavior, and what are some of 1.7 the advantages and disadvantages associated 1.14 ing, and how can critical thinking be useful in everyday life? with these settings? 3 Success Center Study on MyPsychLab What Is Psychology? Dynamic Study Modules 1.1 What defines psychology as a field of study, and what are psychology’s four pri- Watch the Video on MyPsychLab mary goals? Study Methods Managing Time Some people believe psychology is just the study of people and what motivates their Reading the Text behavior. Psychologists do study people, but they study animals as well. And to better understand what motivates behavior, psychologists study not only what people and ani- Lecture Notes mals do, but also what happens in their bodies and in their brains as they do it. Before Exam Prep examining the field of psychology, participate in the experiment What Do You Know Paper Writing About Psychology? to understand more about your own preconceived notions of people Improve Memory and human behavior. Simulation What Do You Know About Psychology? This survey asks you about your attitudes towards and experiences with a broad range of psychological principles and theories. Go to the Experiment Simulate the Experiment, What Do You Know About Psychology? at MyPsychLab Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Behavior includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as talking, facial expressions, and movement. The term mental processes refers to all the internal, covert (hidden) activity of our minds, such as thinking, feeling, and remembering. Why “scientific”? To study be- havior and mental processes in both animals and humans, researchers must observe them. Whenever a human being observes anyone or anything, there’s always a possibility that the observer will see only what he or she expects to see. Psychologists don’t want to let these possible biases* cause them to make faulty observations. They want to be precise, and to measure as carefully as they can—so they use the scientific method to study psychology. Psychology’s Goals Every science has the common goal of learning how things work. The goals specifically aimed at uncovering the mysteries of human and animal behavior are description, expla- nation, prediction, and control. *biases: personal judgments based on beliefs rather than facts. 4  the science of psychology  5 Description: What Is Happening? The first step in understanding anything is to describe it. Description 1.1 ­involves observing a behavior and noting everything about it: what is happening, where it happens, to whom it hap- 1.2 pens, and under what circumstances it seems to happen. For example, a psychologist might wonder why so many computer scientists seem to be male. She makes 1.3 further observations and notes that many “non-techies” stereotypically perceive the life and environment of a com- puter scientist as someone who lives and breathes at the 1.4 computer and surrounds himself with computer games, junk food, and science-fiction gadgets—characteristics that add up to a very masculine ambiance. 1.5 That’s what seems to be happening. The psy- chologist’s observations are a starting place for the next goal: Why do females seem to avoid going into this Is this an environment that you would want to work in? Some researchers 1.6 have wondered if your answer might be influenced by your gender. environment? Explanation: Why Is It Happening? Based on her observations, the psychologist 1.7 might try to come up with a tentative explanation, such as “women feel they do not b ­ elong in such stereotypically masculine surroundings.” In other words, she is trying to understand or find an explanation for the lower proportion of women in this field. Finding explana- 1.8 tions for behavior is a very important step in the process of forming theories of behavior. A theory is a general explanation of a set of observations or facts. The goal of description provides the observations, and the goal of explanation helps to build the theory. 1.9 The preceding example comes from a real experiment conducted by psychologist Sapna Cheryan and colleagues (Cheryan et al., 2009). Professor Cheryan (who teaches 1.10 psychology at the University of Washington in Seattle) set up four experiments with more than 250 female and male student participants who were not studying computer science. In the first experiment, students came into a small classroom that had one of two 1.11 sets of objects: either Star Trek® posters, video-game boxes, and Coke™ cans, or nature posters, art, a dictionary, and coffee mugs (among other things). Told to ignore the ob- jects because they were sharing the room with another class, the students spent several 1.12 minutes in the classroom. While still sitting in the classroom, they were asked to fill out a questionnaire asking about their attitude toward computer science. While the attitudes of male students were not different between the two environments, women exposed to the 1.13 stereotypically masculine setup were less interested in computer science than those who were exposed to the nonstereotypical environment. The three other similar experiments 1.14 yielded the same results. Prediction: When Will It Happen Again? Determining what will happen in the ­future is a prediction. In the Cheryan et al. study, the prediction is clear: If we want more women to go into computer science, we must do something to change either the environ- ment or the perception of the environment typically associated with this field. This is the purpose of the last of the four goals of psychology: changing or modifying behavior. Control: How Can It Be Changed? The focus of control, or the ­modification of some behavior, is to change a behavior from an undesirable one (such as women avoiding a cer- tain academic major) to a desirable one (such as more equality in career choices). Profes- sor Cheryan suggests that changing the image of computer science may help ­increase the number of women choosing to go into this field. Not all psychological investigations will try to meet all four of these goals. In some cases, the main focus might be on description and prediction, as it would be for a per- sonality theorist who wants to know what people are like (description) and what they might do in certain situations (prediction). Some psychologists are interested in both  6  CHAPTER 1 description and explanation, as is the case with experimental psychologists who design 1.1 research to find explanations for observed (described) behavior. Therapists may be more interested in controlling or influencing behavior and mental processes, although the other three goals would be important in achieving this objective. 1.2 Although these goals have not really changed over the years, in the time since psy- chology’s beginnings, the methods of achieving them certainly have changed. In the next 1.3 section, we’ll take a look at the early pioneers in psychology. 1.4 Psychology Then: The History of Psychology How long has psychology been around? 1.5 Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm of the sciences, only about 135 years old. It’s not that no one thought about why people and animals do the things they do be- 1.6 fore then; on the contrary, there were philosophers,* medical doctors, and physiologists** who thought about little else—particularly with regard to people. Philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Descartes tried to understand or explain the human mind and its 1.7 connection to the physical body (Durrant, 1993; Everson, 1995; Kenny, 1968, 1994). Medical doctors and physiologists wondered about the physical connection between the 1.8 body and the brain. For example, physician and physicist Gustav Fechner is often cred- ited with performing some of the first scientific experiments that would form a basis for ­experimentation in psychology with his studies of perception (Fechner, 1860), and 1.9 ­physician Hermann von Helmholtz (von Helmholtz, 1852, 1863) performed ground- breaking experiments in visual and auditory perception. to Learning Objectives 3.1 and 3.3. 1.10 In the Beginning: Wundt, Introspection, and the Laboratory 1.11 1.2 Who were some of the earlier pioneers in psychology, and how did structuralism and functionalism differ? 1.12 It really all started to come together in a laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. It was here that Wilhelm Wundt (VILL-helm Voont, 1832–1920), a physiologist, attempted 1.13 to apply scientific principles to the study of the human mind. In his laboratory, students from around the world were taught to study the structure of the human mind. Wundt believed that consciousness, the state of being aware of external events, could be broken 1.14 down into thoughts, experiences, emotions, and other basic elements. In order to inspect these nonphysical elements, students had to learn to think objectively about their own thoughts—after all, they could hardly read someone else’s mind. Wundt called this pro- cess objective introspection, the process of objectively examining and measuring one’s own thoughts and mental activities (Rieber & Robinson, 2001). For example, Wundt might place an object, such as a rock, into a student’s hand and have the student tell him everything that he was feeling as a result of having the rock in his hand—all the sensa- tions stimulated by the rock. (Objectivity*** was—and is—important because scientists German physiologist Wilhelm need to remain unbiased. Observations need to be clear and precise, but unaffected by the Wundt. individual observer’s beliefs and values.) *philosophers: people who seek wisdom and knowledge through thinking and discussion. **physiologists: scientists who study the physical workings of the body and its systems. ***objectivity: expressing or dealing with facts or conditions as they really are without allowing the influ- ence of personal feelings, prejudices, or interpretations.  the science of psychology  7 This was really the first attempt by anyone to bring objectivity and measurement to the concept of psychology. This attention to objectivity, together with the establishment 1.1 of the first true experimental laboratory in psychology, is why Wundt is known as the father of psychology. 1.2 Titchener and Structuralism in America One of Wundt’s students was Edward Titchener (1867–1927), an Englishman who 1.3 eventually took Wundt’s ideas to Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. Titchener ex- panded on Wundt’s original ideas, calling his new viewpoint structuralism because the focus of study was the structure of the mind. He believed that every experience could 1.4 be broken down into its individual emotions and sensations (Brennan, 2002). Although Titchener agreed with Wundt that consciousness could be broken down into its basic elements, Titchener also believed that objective introspection could be used on thoughts 1.5 as well as on physical sensations. For example, Titchener might have asked his students to introspect about things that are blue rather than actually giving them a blue object and Structuralists would be interested in asking for reactions to it. Such an exercise might have led to something like the follow- 1.6 all of the memories and sensations ing: “What is blue? There are blue things, like the sky or a bird’s feathers. Blue is cool and this woman is experiencing as she restful, blue is calm …” and so on. smells the rose. 1.7 In 1894, one of Titchener’s students at Cornell University became famous for be- coming the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology (Goodman, 1980; Guthrie, 2004). Her name was Margaret F. Washburn, and she was Titchener’s only graduate stu- 1.8 dent for that year. In 1908 she published a book on animal behavior that was considered an important work in that era of psychology, The Animal Mind (Washburn, 1908). Structuralism was a dominant force in the early days of psychology, but it eventu- 1.9 ally died out in the early 1900s, as the structuralists were busily fighting among them- selves over just which key elements of experience were the most important. A competing view arose not long after Wundt’s laboratory was established, shortly before structuralism 1.10 came to America. William James and Functionalism 1.11 Harvard University was the first school in America to offer classes in psychology in the late 1870s. These classes were taught by one of Harvard’s most illustrious instruc- 1.12 tors, William James (1842–1910). James began teaching anatomy and physiology, but as his interest in psychology developed, he began teaching it almost exclusively (Brennan, 2002). His comprehensive textbook on the subject, Principles of Psychology, is so brilliantly 1.13 written that copies are still in print ( James, 1890, 2002). Unlike Wundt and Titchener, James was more interested in the importance of con- sciousness to everyday life rather than just its analysis. He believed that the scientific 1.14 study of consciousness itself was not yet possible. Conscious ideas are constantly flowing in an ever-changing stream, and once you start thinking about what you were just think- ing about, what you were thinking about is no longer what you were thinking about—it’s what you are thinking about—and … excuse me, I’m a little dizzy. I think you get the picture, anyway. Instead, James focused on how the mind allows people to function in the real world—how people work, play, and adapt to their surroundings, a viewpoint he called functionalism. (He was heavily influenced by Charles Darwin’s ideas about natural selec- tion, in which physical traits that help an animal adapt to its environment and survive are passed on to its offspring.) If physical traits could aid in survival, why couldn’t behavioral traits do the same? Animals and people whose behavior helped them to survive would pass those traits on to their offspring, perhaps by teaching or even by some mechanism of heredity.* (Remember that this was early in the days of trying to understand how heredity *heredity: the transmission of traits and characteristics from parent to offspring through the actions of genes.  8  CHAPTER 1 worked.) For example, a behavior such as avoiding the eyes of others in an elevator can be 1.1 seen as a way of protecting one’s personal space—a kind of territorial protection that may have its roots in the primitive need to protect one’s home and source of food and water from intruders (Manusov & Patterson, 2006) or as a way of avoiding what might seem 1.2 like a challenge to another person (Brown et al., 2005; Jehn et al., 1999). It is interesting to note that one of James’s early students was Mary Whiton 1.3 Calkins, who completed every course and requirement for earning a Ph.D. but was de- nied that degree by Harvard University because she was a woman. She was allowed to take those classes as a guest only. Calkins eventually established a psychological labo- 1.4 ratory at Wellesley College. Her work was some of the earliest research in the area of human memory and the psychology of the self. In 1905, she became the first female pres- ident of the American Psychological Association (Furumoto, 1979, 1991; Zedler, 1995). 1.5 Unlike Washburn, Calkins never earned the elusive Ph.D. degree despite a successful career as a professor and researcher (Guthrie, 2004). Women were not the only minority to make contributions in the early days of psy- 1.6 Mary Whiton Calkins, despite being chology. In 1920, for example, Francis Cecil Sumner became the first African American denied a Ph.D. degree by Harvard to earn a Ph.D. in psychology at Clark University. He eventually became the chair of the because she was a woman, became psychology department at Howard University and is assumed by many to be the father 1.7 the first female president of the American Psychological Association of African American psychology (Guthrie, 2004). Kenneth and Mamie Clark worked and had a successful career as a to show the negative effects of school segregation on African American children (Lal, 1.8 professor and researcher. 2002). In the 1940s, Hispanic psychologist George ( Jorge) Sanchez conducted research in the area of intelligence testing, focusing on the cultural biases in such tests (Tevis, 1994). Since those early days, psychology has seen an increase in the contributions of 1.9 all minorities, although the percentages are still small when compared to the popula- tion at large. For a summary of the contributions of African Americans to the early days of psychology, see the following section, Issues in Psychology: Psychology’s African 1.10 ­American Roots. 1.11 Is functionalism still an important point of view in psychology? In the new field of psychology, functionalism offered an alternative viewpoint to 1.12 the structuralists. But like so many of psychology’s early ideas, it is no longer a major perspective. Instead, one can find elements of functionalism in the modern fields of educational psychology (studying the application of psychological concepts to education) 1.13 and industrial/organizational psychology (studying the application of psychological con- cepts to businesses, organizations, and industry), as well as other areas in psychology. to Learning Objective B.6. Functionalism also played a part in the develop- 1.14 ment of one of the more modern perspectives, evolutionary psychology, discussed later in this chapter. issues in psychology Francis Cecil Sumner, the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, went on to chair the psychology department at Howard Psychology’s African American Roots University and is considered by Even the Rat Was White is a book written by the late Dr. Robert V. Guthrie in 1976 many to be the father of African American psychology. and recently republished (Guthrie, 2004). It is a summary of the history of African Americans in the field of psychology. The contributions to early psychology of ­African American psychologists have often been ignored in textbooks. Dr. Guthrie includes in his text a detailed listing of the important African American psychologists and their contribu- tions to the relatively new field of psychology. The following is a brief summary of just a few of these often neglected scholars and their work.  the science of psychology  9 Dr. Charles Henry Thompson (1896–1980) was the first African American to receive a doc- torate in educational psychology in 1925 from the University of Chicago. For 30 years he 1.1 was the editor of the Journal of Negro Education. Dr. Albert Sidney Beckham (1897–1964) received his Ph.D. in psychology in 1930 from New York University. He was senior assistant psychologist at the National Committee for 1.2 Mental Hygiene at the Illinois Institute for Juvenile Research in the early 1930s; he also counseled many Black youths in his role as the psychologist at DuSable High School in 1.3 Chicago. He, like Thompson, had many publications of his research in the areas of intel- ligence and social concerns of the African American youth of his time. Dr. Robert Prentiss Daniel (1902–1968) earned his Ph.D. in educational psychology from 1.4 Columbia University in 1932. At one time the director of the Division of Educational Psy- chology and Philosophy at Virginia Union University, he became president of Shaw Univer- sity in North Carolina and finally the president of Virginia State College. 1.5 Dr. Inez Beverly Prosser (1897–1934) earned her Ph.D. in educational psychology from the University of Cincinnati in 1933 and was the first African American woman to earn this degree. Her promising teaching career met a tragic end when she died in an automobile 1.6 accident only 1 year after earning her doctorate. Dr. Howard Hale Long (1888–1948) received his Ed.D. in educational psychology from 1.7 Harvard University in 1933. After teaching psychology and doing research in educational psychology for many years, Dr. Long became dean of administration at Wilberforce State College in Ohio. 1.8 Dr. Ruth Howard (1900–1997) is known as the first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology (not educational psychology) in 1934 from the University of Minnesota. She served with her husband, Dr. Albert Beckham, as codirector for the 1.9 Center for Psychological Services and also maintained a private practice in clinical psychology. These few African American pioneers in the field of psychology represent only a fraction 1.10 of all those who made important contributions to psychology’s early days. Questions for Further Study: 1.11 1. What kind of challenges might African American women have faced in the early days of psychology? 1.12 2. Are there people or areas of study in psychology today that you think might face similar challenges? 1.13 Gestalt Psychology: The Whole is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts 1.14 1.3 What were the basic ideas and who were the important people behind the early approaches known as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism? Meanwhile, back in Germany, other psychologists were attacking the concepts of psy- chology in yet another way. Max Wertheimer (VERT-hi-mer), like James, objected to the structuralist point of view, but for different reasons. Wertheimer believed that psy- chological events such as perceiving* and sensing** could not be broken down into any smaller elements and still be properly understood. For example, you can take a smart- phone apart, but then you no longer have a smartphone—you have a pile of unconnected bits and pieces. Or, just as a melody is made up of individual notes that can only be un- derstood if the notes are in the correct relationship to one another, so perception can only *perceiving: becoming aware of something through the senses. **sensing: seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, or smelling something.  10  CHAPTER 1 be understood as a whole, entire event. Hence, the familiar slogan, “The whole is greater 1.1 than the sum of its parts.” Wertheimer and others believed that people naturally seek out patterns (“wholes”) in the sensory information available to them. Wertheimer and others devoted their efforts to studying sensation and perception 1.2 in this new perspective, Gestalt psychology. Gestalt (Gesh-TALT) is a German word meaning “an organized whole” or “configuration,” which fit well with the focus on study- 1.3 Figure 1.1 A Gestalt Perception ing whole patterns rather than small pieces of them. See Figure 1.1 for an example of The eye tends to “fill in” the blanks Gestalt perceptual patterns. Today, Gestalt ideas are part of the study of cognitive psy- here and sees both of these figures as chology, a field focusing not only on perception but also on learning, memory, thought circles rather than as a series of dots or 1.4 a broken line. processes, and problem solving; the basic Gestalt principles of perception are still taught within this newer field (Ash, 1998; Kohler, 1992; Wertheimer, 1982). to Learn- ing Objective 3.9. The Gestalt approach has also been influential in psychological ther- 1.5 apy, becoming the basis for a therapeutic technique called Gestalt therapy. to Learning Objective 15.3. 1.6 Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis It should be clear by now that psychology didn’t start in one place and at one particular 1.7 time. People of several different viewpoints were trying to promote their own perspective on the study of the human mind and behavior in different places all over the world. Up to now, this chapter has focused on the physiologists who became interested in psychology, 1.8 with a focus on understanding consciousness but little else. The medical profession took a whole different approach to psychology. 1.9 What about Freud? Everybody talks about him when they talk about psychology. Are his ideas still in use? 1.10 Sigmund Freud had become a noted physician in Austria while the structuralists were arguing, the functionalists were specializing, and the Gestaltists were looking at the 1.11 big picture. Freud was a neurologist, a medical doctor who specializes in disorders of the nervous system; he and his colleagues had long sought a way to understand the patients 1.12 who were coming to them for help. Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders for which he and other doctors could find no physical cause. Therefore, it was thought, the cause must be in the mind, 1.13 and that is where Freud began to explore. He proposed that there is an unconscious (un- aware) mind into which we push, or repress, all of our threatening urges and desires. He believed that these repressed urges, in trying to surface, created the nervous disorders in 1.14 his patients (Freud et al., 1990). to Learning Objective 13.2. Freud stressed the importance of early childhood experiences, believing that per- sonality was formed in the first 6 years of life; if there were significant problems, those problems must have begun in the early years. Some of his well-known followers were Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, and his own daugh- ter, Anna Freud. Anna Freud began what became known as the ego movement in psy- chology, which produced one of the best-known psychologists in the study of personality development, Erik Erikson. to Learning Objective 8.7. Freud’s ideas are still influential today, although in a somewhat modified form. He had a number of followers in addition to those already named, many of whom became famous by altering Freud’s theory to fit their own viewpoints, but his basic ideas are still discussed and debated. to Learning Objective 13.3. While some might think that Sigmund Freud was the first person to deal with Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud people suffering from various mental disorders, the truth is that mental illness has a fairly walks with his daughter Anna, also long (and not very pretty) history. For more on the history of mental illness, see the a psychoanalyst. to Learning Objective 14.1.  the science of psychology  11 Freudian psychoanalysis, the theory and therapy based on Freud’s ideas, has been the basis of much modern psychotherapy (a process in which a trained psychological pro- 1.1 fessional helps a person gain insight into and change his or her behavior), but another major and competing viewpoint has actually been more influential in the field of psy- 1.2 chology as a whole. Pavlov, Watson, and the Dawn of Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov, like Freud, was not a psychologist. He was a Russian physiologist who 1.3 showed that a reflex (an involuntary reaction) could be caused to occur in response to a formerly unrelated stimulus. While working with dogs, Pavlov observed that the saliva- 1.4 tion reflex (which is normally produced by actually having food in one’s mouth), could be caused to occur in response to a totally new stimulus, in this case, the sound of a ticking metronome. At the onset of his experiment, Pavlov would turn on the metronome, give 1.5 the dogs food, and they would salivate. After several repetitions, the dogs would salivate to the sound of the metronome before the food was presented—a learned (or “condi- American psychologist John Watson is known as the father of tioned”) reflexive response (Klein & Mowrer, 1989). This process was called conditioning. 1.6 behaviorism. Behaviorism focuses to Learning Objective 5.2. only on observable behavior. By the early 1900s, psychologist John B. Watson had tired of the arguing among the structuralists; he challenged the functionalist viewpoint, as well as psychoanalysis, 1.7 with his own “science of behavior,” or behaviorism (Watson, 1924). Watson wanted to bring psychology back to a focus on scientific inquiry, and he felt that the only way to 1.8 do that was to ignore the whole consciousness issue and focus only on observable be- havior—something that could be directly seen and measured. He had read of Pavlov’s work and thought that conditioning could form the basis of his new perspective of 1.9 behaviorism. Watson was certainly aware of Freud’s work and his views on unconscious ­repression. Freud believed that all behavior stems from unconscious motivation, whereas 1.10 ­Watson believed that all behavior is learned. Freud had stated that a phobia, an irrational fear, is really a symptom of an underlying, repressed conflict and cannot be “cured” with- out years of psychoanalysis to uncover and understand the repressed material. 1.11 Watson believed that phobias are learned through the process of conditioning and set out to prove it. Along with his colleague Rosalie Rayner, he took a baby, known as 1.12 “Little Albert,” and taught him to fear a white rat by making a loud, scary noise every time the infant saw the rat, until finally, just seeing the rat caused the infant to cry and become fearful (Watson & Rayner, 1920). Even though “Little Albert” was not afraid 1.13 of the rat at the start, the experiment worked very well—in fact, he later appeared to be afraid of other fuzzy things including a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. to Learning Objective 5.3. 1.14 This sounds really bizarre—what does scaring a baby have to do with the science of psychology? Watson wanted to prove that all behavior was a result of a stimulus–response rela- tionship such as that described by Pavlov. Because Freud and his ideas about unconscious motivation were becoming a dominant force, Watson felt the need to show the world that a much simpler explanation could be found. Although scaring a baby sounds a little Mary Cover Jones, one of the cruel, he felt that the advancement of the science of behavior was worth the baby’s rela- early pioneers of behavior therapy, tively brief discomfort. earned her master’s degree under A graduate student of Watson’s named Mary Cover Jones later decided to repeat the supervision of John Watson. Her long and distinguished career also Watson and Rayner’s study but added training that would “cancel out” the phobic reac- included the publication in 1952 tion of the baby to the white rat. She duplicated the “Little Albert” study with another of the first educational television child, “Little Peter,” successfully conditioning Peter to be afraid of a white rabbit ( Jones, course in child development 1924). She then began a process of counterconditioning, in which Peter was exposed to the (Rutherford, 2000).  12  CHAPTER 1 white rabbit from a distance while eating a food that he really liked. The pleasure of the 1.1 food outweighed the fear of the faraway rabbit. Day by day, the situation was repeated with the rabbit being brought closer each time, until Peter was no longer afraid of the rabbit. Jones went on to become one of the early pioneers of behavior therapy. Behavior- 1.2 ism is still a major perspective in psychology today. It has also influenced the develop- ment of other perspectives, such as cognitive psychology. 1.3 1.4 1.5 Explore the Concept at MyPsychLab 1.1 1.2 1.3 C ON C E P T MA P 1.6 it has methods for it has four describe studying phenomena primary goals explain 1.7 What Is Psychology? predict studied nonphysical structure control (i.e., thought, experiences, (it is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes) emotions, etc.) of the human mind used objective introspection 1.8 A relatively new science that formally began in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt (”father to study processes that were of psychology”) established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany the result of physical sensations first attempt to bring objectivity 1.9 was a student of Wundt’s and measurement to psychology expanded Wundt’s original ideas; believed every experience Structuralism could be broken down into individual emotions and sensations 1.10 founded by Edward Titchener applied introspection method to thoughts as well as physical sensations influenced by Darwin’s ideas about natural selection—focused 1.11 on how the mind allows people to function in the real world Functionalism interested in how behavioral traits could aid in survival founded by William James influenced development of evolutionary psychology 1.12 has elements in educational psychology and industrial/organizational psychology 1.13 Psychology Then: The History of Psychology (has roots in several disciplines, including philosophy, medicine, and physiology, and has developed through several perspectives) 1.14 did not believe that psychological events could be broken down into smaller elements; could only be understood as Gestalt psychology a whole, entire event; has influenced field of cognitive founded by Max Wertheimer psychology and a form of psychological therapy, Gestalt therapy stressed importance of early life experiences, the role Psychoanalysis of the unconscious, and development through stages ideas put forth by Sigmund Freud wanted to bring focus back on scientific inquiry Behaviorism and believed only way to do so was to focus on associated with work of John B. Watson, who was greatly observable behavior and ignore “consciousness” influenced by Ivan Pavlov’s work in conditioning/learning issue; early work examined phobias  the science of psychology  13 Practice quiz How Much Do You Remember? Answers available in answer key. 1.1 Study Help Note: These practice quizzes are spaced throughout each chapter to give you an opportunity to check your understand- ing of the material in each section and to provide practice for exams. Pick the best answer. 1.2 1. In the definition of psychology, mental processes means 4. Which of the following early psychologists would have been a. internal, covert processes. most likely to agree with the statement, “The study of the b. unconscious processes. mind should focus on how it functions in everyday life”? 1.3 c. outward or overt actions and reactions. a. Wilhelm Wundt c. John Watson d. only human behavior. b. William James d. Sigmund Freud 2. Dr. Baker designs an experiment for studying lab rats’ 5. Who was the first woman to complete the coursework for a 1.4 ­reaction to energy drinks in relation to problem solving. doctorate at Harvard University? Dr. Baker is most interested in the goal of a. Mary Whiton Calkins c. Margaret Washburn a. description. b. Mary Cover Jones d. Ruth Howard 1.5 b. explanation. 6. Which early perspective tried to return to a focus on scien- c. prediction. tific inquiry by ignoring the study of consciousness? d. control. a. behaviorism c. psychoanalysis 1.6 3. Results of the study by Cheryan et al. (2009) suggest that b. functionalism d. Gestalt changes must occur to the perception of the computer ­science field. This illustrates the goal of Thinking Critically: 1.7 a. description. Would it be possible to do a study such as Watson and b. explanation. Rayner’s “Little Albert” research today? Why or why not? What c. prediction. might justify such a study today? d. control. 1.8 1.9 Psychology Now: Modern Perspectives 1.10 1.4 What are the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives, and what were the important contributions of Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers? 1.11 Even in the twenty-first century, there isn’t one single perspective that is used to explain all human behavior and mental processes. There are actually seven modern perspectives, with two of those being holdovers from the early days of the field. Watch the video The Basics: 1.12 Diverse Perspectives to get a quick overview of the perspectives before we continue on. 1.13 1.14 CC Watch the Video, The Basics: Diverse Perspectives, at MyPsychLab  14  CHAPTER 1 Psychodynamic Perspective 1.1 Freud’s theory is still used by many professionals in therapy situations. It is far less com- mon today than it was a few decades ago, however, and even those who use his techniques modify them for contemporary use. In the more modern psychodynamic perspective, 1.2 the focus may still include the unconscious mind and its influence over conscious be- havior and on early childhood experiences, but with less of an emphasis on sex and sex- 1.3 ual motivations and more emphasis on the development of a sense of self, social and ­interpersonal relationships, and the discovery of other motivations behind a person’s be- havior. to Learning Objective 13.3. Some modern psychodynamic practitioners 1.4 have even begun to recommend that the link between neurobiology (the study of the brain and nervous system) and psychodynamic concepts should be more fully explored (Glucksman, 2006). 1.5 Behavioral Perspective 1.6 Like modern psychodynamic perspectives, behaviorism is still also very influential. When its primary supporter, John B. Watson, moved on to greener pastures in the world of advertising, B. F. Skinner became the new 1.7 leader of the field. Skinner not only continued research in classical conditioning, but