Psychology Past Paper Review PDF

Review from last week 1. What is the difference between sensation and perception? 2. What does absolute threshold of a sensation mean? 3. Why are people nearsighted? 4. What is transduction? 5. If a sound wave had low amplitude but high frequency, what would the sound be like? 6....

Review from last week 1. What is the difference between sensation and perception? 2. What does absolute threshold of a sensation mean? 3. Why are people nearsighted? 4. What is transduction? 5. If a sound wave had low amplitude but high frequency, what would the sound be like? 6. Why would you be itchy? 7. What is sensory adaptation? 8. What are heuristics? 9. What does the placebo effect demonstrate? 10. If I smell something and wrinkle my nose, raise my upper eye lid, and have narrow eyes, what emotion am I experiencing? Review from last week 1. What is the difference between sensation and perception?  Sensation  awareness of a stimulation of a sense organ. Perception  the organization and interpretation of sensations 2. What does absolute threshold of a sensation mean?  The lowest intensity that a stimulus can be detected more than 50% of the time correctly 3. Why are people nearsighted?  Visual accommodation has the focus in front of the retina 4. What is transduction?  Stimuli converted into neural impulses  neural impulses sent to the brain  integrated into experience  interpreted into the sense we experience 5. If a sound wave had low amplitude but high frequency, what would the sound be like?  Quiet high pitch Review from last week 6. Why would you be itchy?  Repeated stimulation of the pain receptors 7. What is sensory adaptation?  A decreased sensitivity to a stimulus after prolonged and constant exposure 8. What are heuristics?  Shortcuts brains take to fill in gaps of information 9. What does the placebo effect demonstrate?  Expectations influence our perception and experience 10. If I smell something and wrinkle my nose, raise my upper eye lid, and have narrow eyes, what emotion am I experiencing?  Disgust Lecture 15 – Chapter 7 Tanner McCubbing [email protected] Consciousness  Consciousness – our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment  It includes awareness of the self, bodily sensations, thoughts, and the environment  Even while awake, things can be outside of our conscious awareness  Freud’s concept of “subconscious” proposed that some of our memories and basic motivations exist outside of our conscious mind Consciousness and Psychology  Dualism – the mind is a nonmaterial entity that is separate (but connected to) the physical body  Psychologists believe that consciousness exists in the brain  Consciousness is a result of neural connections in the brain.  What happens in our brain impacts our experience of Consciousness Consciousness and Functioning  We use consciousness to control our actions and thoughts every day.  Planning our day, paying attention to this lecture  Consciousness allows us to make decisions.  Automatic (unconscious) and controlled (conscious) behaviours  Implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) memory Awareness  Humans experience two levels of Awareness  High awareness - our consciousness of what is happening around us.  Low awareness – things we are not paying much attention to. Low Awareness  Consider the sensory information in this room. What sights, sounds, and smells are present?  Which ones were you paying attention to?  We often are unable to process everything going on around us.  Cues or stimuli can signal our brain even if we are unaware of them.  These can influence our behaviours Priming Studies  Priming studies explore how concepts and associations exist in people’s memory.  Researchers observe how priming influences people’s behaviours.  Ex. Doing a crossword with words about the elderly (old, grandma) and walking slower afterwards. IAT Test  The idea is that it should be easier/faster to respond when the two concepts are related in your mind (good and thin).  The computer picks up tiny delays in responses. Delays are associated with more mental effort.  Was the trial where “Thin” was paired with “Bad” more difficult?  IATs are used to investigate stereotypes and uncover non-conscious biases High Awareness  What tasks require purposeful effort and attention?  Taking an exam or following a complicated recipe requires a higher state of consciousness  Mindfulness – a state of consciousness with a heightened awareness of the thoughts in one’s mind  Reflecting on your thoughts, actions, and the influences behind them Awareness and Influences  In Low Awareness states, we are more easily influenced by non-conscious stimuli.  Flexible Correction Model – suggests that humans can change or correct their beliefs that have been influenced by outside forces.  High Awareness states (like mindfulness) help us identify what is influencing us so that we can correct the bias. Hypnosis  Hypnosis – a mental state characterized by reduced peripheral awareness A person under hypnosis is focusing on the hypnotist’s words or clock that they are unaware of anything else.  Itis easier to be influenced in this state, but it is not “mind control”  Dissociation  Dissociation– the separation of one’s consciousness from everything except for their central focus  Ex.Daydreaming in class and realizing you have no idea what the lecturer is talking about.  Sometimes complex tasks can be done “on autopilot” Altered Mental States  Sensory Deprivation – intentional reduction of stimuli affecting one or more of the five senses  Meditation – techniques in which the individual focuses on something specific to achieve an improved internal state  Trance State – disassociation of the self where you have reduced or no control over your actions Psychoactive Drugs  Psychoactive drug – a chemical that changes our states of consciousness, especially perceptions and mood  Hallucinogens – substances that alter perceptions, often creating hallucinations  Includes marijuana, LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms  Depressants – substances that slow down the body and mental processes, such as alcohol or narcotics  Stimulants – substances that speed up the body and mental processes, like caffeine, nicotine, or cocaine Why do people choose to alter consciousness?  Some people seek pleasant experiences, and the rewards substances/behaviours bring  For others, consciousness may be distressing, triggering, or uncomfortable.  Substances (and certain behaviours) bring perceived rewards in the short term; an immediate relief or pleasure Attention  Attention is the concentration of consciousness  We have limited capacity for attention  Sustained Attention - staying highly alert for extended periods of time  Divided Attention – Attending to many sources of information at once  Selective Attention – some information is attended, but some is blocked on purpose  Studying in a noisy location  Cocktail Party Effect  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gpQpnS6ubTU  Researchers use dichotic listening and shadowing to study this  Hearing two different messages at the same time and being asked to pay attention to a specific one  Peopleoften cannot recall many details from the unattended message.  Instudies, people have been unaware that one message was changed languages or said a certain word multiple times Treisman’s Attenuation Model  Treisman conducted dichotic listening experiments with a different story in each ear.  When stories switched ears, people naturally followed the story they were focusing on.  Even if we are not paying attention to something, our brain is monitoring it to some extent  This is how we hear our name be said across the room  Our brain filters information. Meaningful information can pass through this filter. Triesman’s Attenuation Model Late Selection Models  Suggests all information is processed, but only relevant information makes it into consciousness So can we multitask?  We may think we are pretty good at it, but research evidence says otherwise.  We can reach a point where activities require little cognitive attention. We typically do not think about how to walk or eat.  But paying less attention to them (or placing our attention on other things) can cause us to trip or choke on our food Divided Attention Tasks  Can people perform two complex tasks at the same time, without impairing performance?  Spelkeconducted a study where participants practiced taking notes from a person speaking while also reading a book for comprehension. 1 hour a day, 5 days a week, for 17 weeks  Some participants gained the ability to do both activities. Any change to the tasks impaired performance Distracted Driving  Your eyes cannot simultaneously be on the road and the phone screen. But more importantly:  You are placing an increased cognitive demand on a limited capacity system  Cognitive distractions produce inattentional blindness  Phone conversations impact driving performance  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tMiyzuO1qMs  Sleep  We lose awareness when we sleep, but our brain is still active  Our body naturally regulates our Circadian Rhythm – when we naturally become tired and wake up  Daylight, activity, hormones and more can influence this  When awake, your brain activity is shown in beta waves (high frequency, low intensity), and when asleep they change to alpha waves (less frequent, more intense)  Stages of Sleep  Two categories: REM – Rapid Eye Movement NREM - non-rapid eye movement  Stage 1 – NREM, falling asleep  Stage 2 – NREM, light sleep, about half of all sleep Has bursts of rapid brain activity called sleep spindles Stages of Sleep  Stage3 – NREM, 25% of all sleep, more muscle relaxation  The deepest level of sleep, consciousness is distant  Mostsleep abnormalities occur here (nightmares, sleepwalking) Stage 4 - REM Sleep  Stage 4 – REM, 20% of all sleep, brain activity is similar to wakefulness.  Occurs about 90 minutes after falling asleep  Increased heart rate, facial twitches, and muscles shut down (to prevent us from accidentally hurting ourselves or acting out dreams)  Strongly associated with dreams  We go through several cycles of REM and nREM sleep every night Dreams  Allhumans dream  There are several theories on why we dream: Our unconscious mind making sense of daily experiences Our subconscious desires  Biological rhythms influence the lives of all organisms, including humans. Key Rhythms: Introduction to q q Annual Cycles: Migration of birds, hibernation of bears. Menstrual Cycle: 28-day cycle in women. Biological q Circadian Rhythm: Daily sleep-wake cycle. Rhythms Role of Light in Biological Rhythms q Pineal Gland: Sensitive to light; influences mating and migration in birds. q Impact on Humans: o Increased depression in winter (Seasonal Affective Disorder - SAD). o Bright light exposure can alleviate symptoms (McGinnis, 2007).  Ganglion Cells: Retina sends signals to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the brain. Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): o Primary circadian pacemaker. Sleep and o Analyzes light strength/duration. Signals pineal gland to release melatonin when light is low Light Therefore: q Biological rhythms are essential for coordinating behaviours in organisms. q Light plays a crucial role in regulating sleep and mood through biological rhythms.  Brain remains active during sleep despite loss of consciousness. Overview of Sleep stages tracked using Electroencephalogram (EEG). Each cycle lasts about 90 minutes, including: Sleep Stages o Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep o Non-Rapid Eye Movement (non-REM) Sleep REM Sleep: Non-REM Sleep: Characterized by quick eye movements and Deep sleep with very slow brainwaves, dreaming. subdivided into: Accounts for about 25% of total sleep time. Stage N1: Drowsiness; theta waves; muscle tone lost. Low awareness of external events; dominated by internally generated images. Stage N2: Half of total sleep; theta waves with sleep spindles. Muscle paralysis protects from acting out Stage N3: Slow wave sleep; deepest sleep; dreams (Hobson, 2004). delta waves; sleep abnormalities occur.  Sleep Cycle Patterns Sleep Disorders Overview Multiple cycles of REM and non-REM Prevalence: 60% of Canadian adults sleep throughout the night. report feeling tired most of the time REM duration increases over the night (Statistics Canada, 2011). (5-10 minutes early, 15-20 minutes Common Sleep Disorders: before waking). o Insomnia: Difficulty Dreams become more vivid and falling/staying asleep. elaborate as the night progresses. o Sleep Apnea: Breathing Sleep typically ends with a return to interruptions during sleep. alpha and beta waves, waking o Narcolepsy: Extreme daytime refreshed. sleepiness. o Sleepwalking & Sleep Terrors: Disruptions during non-REM sleep. Other Sleep Disorders The Importance of Sleep Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): o It is more common in childhood and occurs in about 4% of adults. Sleep Terrors: Sleep Requirements by Age: o Disruptive; involves loud screams and panic; affects up to 3% of adults. o Newborns: 16-18 hours/day Other Disorders: o Bruxism: Teeth grinding during o Preschoolers: 10-12 hours/day sleep. o School-aged children & o Restless Legs Syndrome: Teenagers: At least 9 Uncomfortable sensations in the legs. hours/night o Periodic Limb Movement Disorder: Involuntary limb o Adults: 7-9 hours/night movements. (Mental Health Canada, 2014) REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: o Vigorous activity during REM in response to intense dreams; treated with hypnosis and medications.  Consequences of Sleep Deprivation Impact on Mood & Performance: Health Risks: Chronic sleep deprivation can lead to Even a 1-2 hour nightly deficit can lead to: severe issues, including: Increased anxiety Diminished performance Increased accident risk (similar effects to alcohol consumption on driving). Poor medical treatment and industrial accidents linked to sleep deprivation.  Health Benefits of Good Sleep Understanding Dreams Restorative Function: o Sleep helps fight infections and Definition: Dreams are the succession supports immune responses. of images, thoughts, sounds, and o Prolonged lack of sleep can lead to: emotions experienced during sleep. § Obesity REM Sleep: we usually report § Hypertension dreaming when awakened from REM § Memory impairment sleep, indicating that dreaming occurs Longevity: several times a night, though most o Better sleep patterns associated with dreams are forgotten upon waking longer life (Dew et al., 2003). (Dement, 1997). Therefore Prioritizing sleep is a vital aspect of health and well-being. Recognize the detrimental effects of sleep deprivation on daily life and health. Strive to meet individual sleep needs to enhance overall functioning and longevity.  Theories on Dreaming Content of Memory Consolidation Theory: Dreams o Dreams may assist in moving information into long-term memory o Studies show that REM sleep deprivation hampers task performance in rats Everyday Influences: Dream o Activation-Synthesis Theory content often relates to daily Dreams result from the brain interpreting random neuron firing experiences, concerns, fears, and during REM sleep. failures (Cartwright et al., 2006; o The brain strings these random Domhoff et al., 2005). signals into coherent stories. Importance of REM Sleep: Cultural Significance: Many cultures view dreams as o Deprivation leads to difficulties significant, potentially revealing in engaging in daily tasks. o Dreaming is essential for important insights or predicting psychological and cognitive future events. functioning.  Potential Negative Effects Altering Consciousness with Psychoactive Drugs Regular Use Risks: o Long-term use can lead to Definition: Psychoactive drugs are negative side effects and drug substances that alter consciousness and abuse. may be prescribed for medical purposes or Tolerance Development: used recreationally. o Users may need higher doses to Four primary categories: achieve the same effects. o Stimulants: Dependence and Addiction “speed up” the body’s physiological and mental processes (e.g., Cocaine, meth, ice) Dependence Types: o Depressants: o Psychological Dependence: Slow down the body’s physiology and mental Cravings without severe processes (e.g., Alcohol) physical symptoms. o Opioids: Slow down, pain reducer (e.g., o Physical Dependence: Opium, heroin) Withdrawal symptoms occur o Hallucinogens: Creating unreal visions when the drug is not taken. (e.g., marijuana, LSD, and MDMA/Ecstasy ) Addiction: Characterized by an overwhelming desire to use the drug, often despite negative consequences.  Mechanisms of Action “Psychoactive Drugs affect consciousness by influencing how neurotransmitters (i.e., dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin). operate at the synapses of the central nervous system (CNS)” Neurotransmitter Influence: o Agonists: Mimic neurotransmitter actions (e.g., Hallucination) o Antagonists: Block neurotransmitter actions (e.g., Opioids) o Reuptake Inhibitors: Prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters (e.g., Stimulants). Effects: Can induce states of relaxation (e.g., benzodiazepines) or drowsiness (e.g., sleeping pills).  Misconceptions About Addiction Reality of Addiction: o Addiction is complex; not all users become addicted; e.g., only about 15% of cocaine users develop an addiction. Medical Use vs. Recreational Use: o Medical users generally have lower addiction rates compared to recreational users. Risks Associated with Drug Use Health Consequences: o Smoking drugs: Risk of lung cancer. o Snorting drugs: Damage to nasal passages. o Injecting drugs: Risk of infections (e.g., HIV, hepatitis). Quality Concerns: Unknown contents and variable dosages in illegal drugs.  Combining Drugs Danger of Drug Combinations: Therefore: o Synergistic effects can lead to Awareness and Caution: overdose; e.g., Alcohol + Understanding the effects, benzodiazepines or cocaine can be particularly harmful. risks, and safety ratios is essential for responsible drug Safety Ratios of Recreational Drugs use. Definition: Safety ratio = Lethal dose / Need for Further Education: Effective dose. Continued public education Danger Assessment: on the dangers of o Heroin: Safety Ratio of 6 psychoactive drugs is (high risk). crucial. o Marijuana: Safety Ratio of 1,000 (lower risk). Interpretation: Lower ratios indicate a higher risk of overdose.  Speeding Up the Brain with Stimulants Definition: Stimulants are psychoactive drug that enhance brain activity by blocking the reuptake of neurotransmitters (dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin). Effects on the Body: o Increased heart rate and breathing o Pupil dilation o Increased blood sugar levels o Decreased appetite Risks and benefits Moderate Use: Can improve alertness and focus. Irresponsible Use: May lead to dependency and withdrawal symptoms, including profound depression after the "crash." Withdrawal Symptoms: Intense cravings to repeat the high after drug effectiveness diminishes.  Benefits and Risks of Stimulants Moderate Use: Can improve alertness and focus. Irresponsible Use: May lead to dependency and withdrawal symptoms, including profound depression after the "crash." Withdrawal Symptoms: Intense cravings to repeat the high after drug effectiveness diminishes.  Common types of Stimulants Caffeine Nicotine Source: Found in coffee, tea, soft drinks, Source: Found in tobacco and related plants. candy, and desserts. Addiction: Causes strong psychological and Prevalence: Over 80% of North American physical dependence, making it one of the adults consume caffeine daily. hardest addictions to break. Effects: Mood enhancement, increased Health Risks: Long-term tobacco use energy. poses significant health threats. Dependence Symptoms: Irritability, Quitting Aids: Prescription drugs like restlessness, drowsiness, headaches Chantix help reduce withdrawal symptoms. during withdrawal (can last up to a week). Cocaine Source: Derived from coca leaves. Amphetamines Historical Use: Previously used in tonics Definition: Stimulants that enhance and as a Coca-Cola ingredient until 1905. wakefulness, focus, and reduce appetite. Effects: Increased energy, reduced fatigue, Uses: Prescribed for attention deficit adverse effects include increased heart disorder (ADD) and narcolepsy. rate, blood pressure, and appetite Brand Names: Adderall, Benzedrine, suppression. Dexedrine, Vyvanse. Safety Ratio: 15 (highly dangerous). Safety Ratio: Methamphetamine (meth) has a Method of Use: Faster absorption ratio of 10, indicating significant danger. (injecting/smoking) leads to a more intense but shorter high.  Depressants: Slowing Opioids: Pain Relievers with Down the Brain High Addiction Potential Definition: Psychoactive drugs that reduce CNS activity, affecting consciousness. Definition: Chemicals that mimic endorphins, providing euphoria Common Depressants: and pain relief. Common Opioids: o Alcohol: The most widely used depressant, can impair o Opium: Dried juice from the opium poppy; historically judgment and lead to aggressive significant. behavior and addiction. o Morphine: Strong painkiller, o Barbiturates: Prescribed for highly addictive. o Heroin: More addictive sleep and pain relief; can than morphine, with severe cause severe impairment and withdrawal symptoms and overdose. health risks. o Benzodiazepines: Treat anxiety and insomnia; widely prescribed but can lead to dependence. o Toxic Inhalants: Easily accessible and dangerous; can cause permanent brain damage. Hallucinogens: Altering Perception Definition: Psychoactive drugs that significantly Reasons for Drug Use alter sensation and perception. Pleasure and Enjoyment: Many people use drugs for the immediate pleasure they Common Hallucinogens: provide. o Cannabis (Marijuana): Produces Social Influences: Peer mild euphoria and altered sensory pressure and social norms perceptions; has therapeutic uses. play significant roles in drug experimentation, particularly o LSD and Mescaline: Powerful among youth. drugs that cause intense Personal Values and perceptual changes; not physically Expectations: Individuals with addictive but can lead to unsafe strong academic values tend to use drugs less than those behaviors. without. Risk Perception: A decrease in perceived risks associated with drug use can lead to increased consumption. Altering Consciousness without Drugs Susceptibility: Individual suggestibility varies; about 15% are highly Consciousness can be altered through susceptible, while 20% are resistant to various safe, non- drug-induced methods hypnosis. such as hypnosis, sensory deprivation, and meditation. These methods can lead to Common Misconceptions: profound changes in awareness and perception. o Hypnotists do not control subjects against their will; hypnotized individuals retain awareness and control. Hypnosis o Hypnosis does not reliably retrieve repressed memories; instead, it can History: Hypnosis originated from Franz Anton Mesmer's ideas about magnetic lead to false memories. energy and has evolved into a therapeutic technique that utilizes suggestion. Applications: While its effectiveness in changing behaviours (e.g., smoking Mechanism: Hypnosis is induced through hypnotic induction, which is characterized cessation, anxiety management) is by heightened suggestibility, relaxation, debated, some studies suggest and focus. hypnosis can enhance therapeutic outcomes.  Sensory Deprivation Meditation Definition: This technique involves Definition: Meditation involves focusing reducing sensory input to alter on a specific object, thought, or breathing consciousness, often used in to enhance relaxation and internal relaxation or therapeutic contexts. awareness. Methods: Simple methods include Benefits: Research shows that using blindfolds or earmuffs, while meditation can lead to physiological more advanced methods involve changes, such as lower heart rates and sensory deprivation tanks, (John Lilly), reduced stress. Regular meditation has been linked to improved mental health a dark, soundproof environment that and brain function, including increased minimizes sensory stimuli. brain activity and coordination between Effects: Short sessions can lead to hemispheres. relaxation and health benefits, such Alternatives: Activities like watching TV or as pain relief and reduced insomnia. engaging in hobbies can also promote However, prolonged sensory relaxation, suggesting that any calming deprivation can result in confusion activity may yield positive outcomes. and hallucinations.  Understanding the Unconscious Historical Context Key Ideas: 18th Century: Introduction of o Limited capacity of consciousness "unconscious" by philosopher Platner. suggests more happens unconsciously. Socrates (490–399 BC): Limited free will o Conscious experiences are often (akrasia); actions may not align with preceded by unconscious processes. desires. Plotinus (AD 205–270): Proposed that absence For example, impulse buying: of conscious perception doesn’t negate Example: Purchasing items not on the mental activity. shopping list (e.g., candy bars). Mind-Body Dualism: Key Question: What drives these decisions if not conscious thought? Focus: Unconscious influences on Descartes’ view (1641) Strict separation of choices and behaviours. body and mind; all mental processes are conscious. Critique: This dualism led to a lack of recognition of unconscious processes (Cartesian catastrophe).  Philosophical Dispute John Norris & Immanuel Kant: Argued for the existence of unconscious ideas. Core Argument: The mind processes far more information than we are consciously aware of. Sigmund Freud’s Contributions Freud’s Theories: Importance of unconscious processes; repression, hidden desires, dreams. Key Insight: Human behaviour often starts unconsciously before reaching conscious awareness. Experimental Evidence Watt's Experiment: Participants could only report answers, not the thinking process (introspectively blank). Kornhuber & Deecke (1965): EEG studies showed that unconscious preparation for actions precedes conscious decision-making. Libet’s Experiment: Conscious awareness of decision lags behind unconscious preparation by 200 milliseconds. Later Research: Brain activity can predict choices up to 10 seconds before conscious awareness. Unconscious Processes in Social Psychology Attitude Formation: Mere exposure effects do not require conscious awareness (Zajonc, 1968). Priming Effects: Exposure to stereotypes can influence behaviour without conscious realization (e.g., elderly stereotype study). Creativity and Unconscious Thought Decision-Making and Unconscious Processing