Psychology 104 - Review.pdf

PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 LECTURE NOTES CHAPTER ONE - Psychology and Scientific Thinking Confirmation Bias: Seeking out information which supports our beliefs, deny/ignore contradictory evidence. Belief Perseverance: Stick to...

PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 LECTURE NOTES CHAPTER ONE - Psychology and Scientific Thinking Confirmation Bias: Seeking out information which supports our beliefs, deny/ignore contradictory evidence. Belief Perseverance: Stick to initial beliefs even when presented with contradictory evidence. Naïve Realism: Belief we see the world precisely as it is. (“Seeing is believing.”) CHAPTER TWO - Research Methods Naturalistic Observation: Watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation. Case Study: Examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended period of time. Correlational Design: Examines extent to which two variables are associated (does not make causal inferences.) Experiment: Characterized by random assignment of participants to condition and manipulation of an independent variable. Independent Variable: Variable being manipulated. Dependent Variable: Outcome variable, what is being measured. Control Group: Does NOT receive the IV. Not a placebo group. Experimental Group: Receives the independent variable. CHAPTER THREE - Biological Psychology Glutamate: Associated with enhanced memory and learning. Acetylcholine: Associated with arousal, selective attention, memory and sleep. Norepinephrine and Serotonin: Influences consciousness, arousal, and movements. Dopamine: Associated with motivation and rewarding experiences.. Lobes: Frontal- executive functions, motor planning, language, decision-making, Parietal- processes touch, integrates senses, Temporal- processes auditory information, language, long term memory, Occipital- processes visuals. Basal Ganglia: Controls movement, motor planning and skill and habit learning. Limbic System: Four structures, Thalamus - conveys sensory information to the cortex, integrates sentences, Hypothalamus- oversees hormone release and autonomic nervous system, Amygdala- modulates emotional learning and memory, namely fear and aggression, Hippocampus- enables formation of new long term memories, spatial navigation and vivid remembering. Has direct connection to the olfactory cortex, may explain why smells can evoke emotional memory. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Cerebellum: Controls balance and coordinates fine or precise movements. Brainstem: Three structures, Midbrain- tracks visual stimuli and reflexes triggered by sound, regulates sleep/arousal, controls gross and motor movements, Pons- conveys information between cortex and cerebellum, Medulla- regulates reflexes like breathing sneezing and coughing. CHAPTER FOUR - Sensation and Perception Trichromatic Theory: Colour vision based on three primary colors. Cones in our eyes devoted to each color, a lack of one type of cone contributes to color blindness. Opponent- Process Theory: color theory that states that the human visual system interprets information about color by processing signals from photoreceptor cells in an antagonistic manner. CHAPTER FIVE - Consciousness Dissociation Theory: Approach to explaining hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that are normally well integrated. Latent Content: True/hidden meaning of the dream. Manifest Content: Details of the dream itself. Freud Dream Protection Theory. CHAPTER SIX - Learning Pavlov’s Dog Experiment. Stimulus Generalization: Process by which conditioned stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to the original stimulus elicit a conditioned response. Stimulus Discrimination: Process by which organisms display a less conditioned response to conditioned stimuli that differ from the original conditioned stimulus. Fixed Ratio: Reward is provided after a fixed number of responses. Variable Ratio: Reward is given after a certain number of responses on average. Fixed Interval: Reward given after a specified amount of time passes. Variable Interval: Reward given for producing responses after average interval. CHAPTER SEVEN - Memory Implicit Memory: Memory we don’t deliberately remember or reflect on consciously. Explicit Memory: Memories we recall intentionally and of which we have conscious awareness. Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory from the past. Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories from experiences. Method of Loci: Relies on locations to remember. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Keyword Method: Using a keyword to remember. Pegword Method: Rhyming to aid recall. CHAPTER ELEVEN - Emotion and Motivation James-Lange Theory: Proposes that emotions result from our interpretation of our bodily reactions to stimuli. Cannon-Bard: Emotional event simultaneously leads to emotional and bodily reaction. Two Factors: Combination of encounter and attributing emotion to source. Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by internal goals. Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external goals. Manipulator: Gestures in which one body part strokes/presses/bites/touches another body part. Illustrators: Highlight/ accentuate speech. Emblems: Conveys conventional meanings recognized by members of a culture. Display Rules: Societal guidelines for how and when to express emotions. SHORT ANSWER EXAMPLES What are the six scientific principles? Provide examples of each. Replicability: Performing an experiment caffeine intake on exam grades several times to see if you get similar results. Falsifiability: Designing a study analyzing caffeine intake on exam grades. The theory that caffeine intake improves grades can be proven wrong. Ruling out Rival Hypotheses: Crop circles, are they caused by aliens or teens playing pranks? Can you discount it isn’t caused by teens. Correlation vs Causation: Just because murder rates increase as ice cream consumption increases doesn’t mean ice cream causes violence. Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence: Do aliens exist? Is there definitive evidence? Provide examples of positive and negative reinforcement/punishment to get your TA to tell more jokes in class in the future. Positive Reinforcement- Praise the TA when they tell jokes. Negative Reinforcement- Dr. Khan could tell the TA they don’t have to mark exams if they keep telling jokes. Positive Punishment- Scold the TA when they stop telling jokes. Negative Punishment: Stop paying attention to the TA when they do something other than tell jokes. DO NOT FOCUS ON EMOTIONAL CONTEXT. It is about adding or removing stimuli to increase or decrease the probability of a behavior without repeating. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 TEXTBOOK/PERSONAL NOTES CHAPTER ONE: Psychology and Scientific Thinking 1.1a Explain why psychology is more than just common sense. Psychology allows a person more insight into the hows and whys of human behavior. We must consider multiple levels of analysis, and learn when - and when not - to trust our common sense. We often trust our common sense because we are prone to naive realism: The belief that we see the world precisely as it is. “Seeing is believing.” William James (1842-1910) ○ Founder of experimental psychology. ○ Once described psychology as "a nasty little subject." Psychology and level of analysis ○ Psychology is the study of the mind, the brain and behavior. ○ It spans multiple levels of analysis. From molecules to brain structures on the lower rungs; thoughts, feelings and emotions around the middle; to social and cultural influences on the top rungs. ○ Analogy: We can think of levels of analysis as rungs on a ladder, with the lower rungs tied most closely to biological influences and the higher rungs tied most closely to social influences. ○ Lower rungs = "The Brain" ○ Higher rungs = "The Mind" To fully understand psychology, we must consider multiple levels of analysis. ○ Each level tells us something different and we gain knowledge from each perspective. Elevator elevation analogy: Closer to the ground level we can get a deeper understanding for the roads, buildings, bridges etc. but the higher you go the deeper you understand how each roadway, bridge and building fits together and interacts. What makes psychology distinctive - and fascinating? ○ Almost all actions are multiply determined(produced by many factors) which is why we must be skeptical of single-variable explanations of behavior. ○ Most behaviors consist of an enormous array of factors. ○ Psychological influences are rarely independent of each other, making it difficult to pin down which cause or causes is/ are operating. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 ○ Anorexia Analogy: many different contributing factors, it's nearly impossible to determine that anorexia is caused by one singular thing in an individual. ○ Everyone has individual differences; they help to explain why each person responds in a different way to the same objective situations. ○ Individual differences make psychology exciting, because people whom we assume we understand will often surprise us. ○ People often influence each other. ○ Reciprocal determinism - the fact that we mutually influence each other's behavior. ○ People's behavior is often shaped by culture. ○ Cultural differences place further limits on the broad generalizations about human nature that psychologists can draw. Emic Approach: Investigators study the behavior of a culture from the perspective of someone who grew up in the culture. Etic Approach: Studies the behavior of a culture from the perspective of an outsider. 1.1b Explain the importance of science as a set of safeguards against biases. To protect themselves against bias, good scientists adopt procedural safeguards against errors, especially errors that would work in their favor. EX: Confirmation bias, and belief perseverance. Scientific Theory: An explanation for a large number of findings within the natural world. Hypothesis: Testable prediction derived from scientific theory. Some people assume incorrectly that scientists are objective and free of biases. The best scientists are aware of their own biases and try to find ways to compensate for them. Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them. “Once you have a hammer, everything starts to look like a nail.” Belief Perseverance: The tendency to stick to our initial belief even when evidence contradicts them. 1.2a Describe psychological pseudoscience and distinguish it from psychological science. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Pseudoscience is a set of claims that seems scientific but isn't. In particular, pseudoscience lacks the safeguards against confirmation bias and belief perseverance that characterize science. Must be distinguished from metaphysical claims. Metaphysical Claims: Assertions about the world that we are unable to test. SIGN OF PSEUDOSCIENCE EXAMPLE Exaggerated Claims Three simple steps will change your love life forever! Over Reliance on Anecdotes This woman practiced yoga daily for three weeks and hasn’t had a day of depression since! Absence of Connectivity to Other Amazing new innovations in research Research have shown that eye massage results in reading speeds ten times faster than average! Lack of Review by Other Scholars Fifty studies conducted by the company all show overwhelming success! Lack of Self-Correction when Contrary Although some scientists say we use Evidence is Published almost all of our brains, we’ve found a way to harness additional brain power previously undiscovered! Meaningless Psychobabble Sine-wave filtered auditory stimulation is carefully designed to encourage maximal or bito frontal dendritic development. Talk of Proof Instead of Evidence Our new program is proven to reduce social anxiety by 50%. Ad Hoc Immunizing Hypothesis: Escape hatch or loophole defenders of a theory use to protect it from falsification. Lack of Self-Correction: refusal to correct information and stick to belief perseverance. Over Reliance on Anecdotes: “I know a person who.” Basis of claims based on dramatic reports. A short or interesting story about a "real" person or incident. 1.2b Identify reasons we are drawn to pseudoscience. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 We are drawn to pseudoscience because our brains are predisposed to make order out of disorder and find sense in nonsense. Also we believe in the past because we want to believe. Patternicity: Tendency to detect random patterns in meaningless stimuli. Terror Management Theory: Theory proposing that our awareness of our death leaves us with an underlying sense of terror. We cope with this by adopting reassuring cultural worldviews. Logical Fallacies: Traps in thinking that can lead to mistaken conclusions. Scientific thinking often requires us to set aside our beloved intuitions, although doing so can be extremely difficult. EMOTIONAL REASONING FALLACY: The error of using our emotions as guides for evaluating the validity of a claim. BANDWAGON FALLACY: The error of assuming that a claim is correct just because many people believe it. NOT ME FALLACY: The error of believing that we're immune from errors in thinking that afflict other people. BIAS BLIND SPOT: Demonstrates that most people are unaware of their own biases but keenly aware of them in others. This is because we’ve grown accustomed to seeing the world in our own psychological lens. Dangers of Pseudoscience: Opportunity cost, direct harm, inability to think scientifically as citizens. 1.3a Identify the key features of scientific skepticism. Scientific skepticism is the approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them. "To consider carefully." 1.A willingness to keep an open mind to all claims and 2.A willingness to accept claims only after researchers have subjected them to careful scientific tests. ​Unwillingness to accept claims on the basis of authority alone. Critical Thinking: Set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open minded and careful fashion. 1.3b Identify and explain the text's six principles of scientific thinking. The Six Principles of Scientific Thinking PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 1. Ruling out Rival Hypothesis: Whenever we evaluate a psychological claim, we should ask ourselves whether we've excluded other plausible explanations for it. 2. Correlation Isn't Causation: We should remember that a correlation doesn't demonstrate a causal connection between them. 3. Falsifiability: Whenever we evaluate a psychological claim, we should ask ourselves whether one could, in principle, disprove it or whether it's consistent with any conceivable body of evidence. 4. Replicability: Whenever we evaluate a psychological claim, we should ask ourselves whether independent investigators have replicated the findings that support this claim; otherwise, the findings might be a one-time-only fluke. 5. Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence: Whenever we evaluate a psychological claim, we should ask ourselves whether this claim runs counter to many things we know already and, if it does, whether the evidence is as extraordinary as the claim. 6. Occam's Razor: Whenever we evaluate a psychological claim, we should ask ourselves whether the explanation that offends is the simplest explanation that accounts for the data or whether simpler explanations can account for the data equally well. Correlation vs. Causation Fallacy: Error of assuming that because one thing is associated with another, it must cause the other. 1.4a Identify the major theoretical frameworks of psychology. Structuralism: Uses introspection (method by which trained observers carefully reflect and report on their mental experiences) to identify basic elements or "structures" of experience. E.B Titchener (methods of introspection.) Functionalism: To understand the functions or adaptive purposes of our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. William James. Behaviorism: To uncover the general principles of learning that explain all behaviors; focus is largely on observable behavior. John B. Watson founded the school of behaviorism. B.F. Skinner. Cognitivism: To examine the role of mental processes on behavior. Based solely on rewards and punishments never being adequate because our interpretation of rewards and punishments is a crucial determinant of our behavior. Jean Piaget. Psychoanalysis: To uncover the role of unconscious psychological processes and early life experiences in behavior. The goal of the psychoanalyst is to decode things such as Freudian slips, dreams and psychological symptoms. In doing so it's supposed that they can reach the roots of our deepest psychological conflicts. Sigmund Freud. 1.4b Describe different types of psychologists and identify what each of them does. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Clinical Psychologist: Perform assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders/Conduct research on people with mental disorders/Work in colleges and universities, mental health centers, and private practices. Counseling Psychologist: Work with people experiencing temporary or relatively self-contained life problems, like marital conflict, sexual difficulties, occupational stressors, or career uncertainty/Work in counseling centers, hospitals, and private practices (although some work in academic and research settings). School Psychologist: Work with teachers, parents, and children to remedy students' behavioral, emotional and learning difficulties. Developmental Psychologist: Study how and why people change over time/Conduct research on infants, elderly, and sometimes adults' emotional, psychological and cognitive processes and how these change with age. Experimental Psychologist: Use research methods to study memory, language, thinking, and social behaviors of humans/work primarily in research settings. Biological Psychologist: Examine the psychological bases of behavior in animals and humans/Most work in research settings. Forensics Psychologist: Work in prisons, jails, and other settings to assess and diagnose inmates and assist with their rehabilitation and treatment/Others conduct research on eyewitnesses testimony or jury decision making/Typically hold degrees in clinical or counseling psychology Industrial-Organizational Psychologists: Work in companies and businesses to help select productive employees, evaluate performance, examine the effects of different working and living conditions on people's behavior (called environmental psychologists). 1.4c Describe two great debates that have shaped the field of psychology. 1) The Nature vs. Nurture Debate: Are our behaviors attributable mostly to our genes (nature) or our rearing environments (nurture)? Think Locke "Tabula Rasa" Human behavior is attributable not only to the environment but also to our genes. In most modern times, most agree both are crucial factors of human behaviors. 2) The Free-Will-Determinism Debate: To what extent are our behaviors freely selected rather than caused by factors outside our control? Many psychologists maintain that free will is an illusion and some maintain that we all possess free will. Some argue that all behaviors are automatic and some argue that we have conscious control in every behavior. 1.4d Describe how psychological research affects our daily lives. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Basic research examines how the mind works whereas applied research examines how we can use the basic research to solve real-world problems. Psychological research has shown how psychology can be applied to such diverse fields as advertising, public safety, the criminal justice system, and education. CHAPTER TWO: Research Methods 2.1a Identify two modes of thinking and their applications to scientific reasoning. Increasing evidence suggests that there are two major modes of thinking. System 1 thinking, or "intuitive thinking," tends to be rapid and to rely on gut hunches, whereas System 2 thinking, or "analytical thinking," tends to be slow and to rely on a thoughtful examination of issues. Research designs make use of analytical thinking because scientific reasoning often requires us to question and at times override our intuitions about the world. The Prefrontal Lobotomy: The surgeon severs the fibers connecting the brain's frontal lobes from the underlying thalamus. Mental health professionals were convinced that this was an effective treatment for schizophrenia, as well as many other severe mental disorders. It was later proved useless, and in turn created a host of other problems. Heuristics: Mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps us streamline our thinking and make sense of our world. 2.2a Explain the importance of openness and transparency in psychological research. Increased openness allows ideas to disseminate around the research community at pace, and encourages rapid adoption of clear, well- documented methods. No matter how fascinating a discovery is, it must be proved replicable and reproducible. All of the safeguards scientists take are important because the toolbox of science isn’t perfect. 2.2b Describe the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation, case studies, self-report measures and surveys. Naturalistic observation, case studies, self-report measures, and surveys are all important research designs. Naturalistic observation involves recording behaviors in real-world settings but is often not carefully controlled; it's high in external validity, but low in internal. Case studies involve examining one or a few individuals over long PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 periods of time; these designs are often useful in generating hypotheses but are typically limited in testing them rigorously. Self-report measures and surveys ask people about themselves; they can provide a wealth of useful information, but have certain disadvantages, especially response sets. External Validity: The extent to which we can generalize our findings to real-world settings. Internal Validity: The extent to which we can draw cause and effect inferences from a study. Existence Proofs: Demonstrations that a given psychological phenomenon can occur. 2.2c Describe the role of correlational designs and distinguish correlation from causation. Correlational studies allow us to establish the relations among two or more measures but do not allow for causal conclusions. Illusory correlation occurs when we mistakenly perceive a statistical association between two variables where none exists; correlational designs help to compensate for this error. Correlations can be positive, zero, or negative. Positive correlation means that as the value of one variable changes, the other goes in the same direction. A zero correlation means that the variables don’t go together at all. A negative correlation means that as the value of one variable changes, the other goes the opposite direction. Correlation Coefficients: The statistic that psychologists use to measure correlations. Ranges in value from -1.0-1.0. A correlation coefficient of - 1.0 is a perfect negative correlation, and 1.0+ is a perfect positive correlation. To know its strength, find the absolute value. Evaluation measures: 1) Reliability: Consistency of a measurement. For example , a reliable questionnaire has similar scores over time; this is called test-retest reliability. 2) Interrater Reliability: The extent to which people who conduct behavioral observations agree on the characteristics they are measuring. 3) Validity: Is how the concept, conclusion of measurement, is well founded and how likely it is to correspond accurately to the real world. 4) Self-report Measures: A type of survey, questionnaire, or poll in which respondents reason the question and select a response by themselves without PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 interference. Advantage: Self-report measures are easy to administer. Self-report measures personality traits and behaviors that often work reasonably well together. Disadvantages: They make the assumption that respondents possess enough insight on their personality characteristics to report them accurately. Also the assumption that participants are honest in their responses are made. 5) Malingering: The tendency to make ourselves appear psychologically disturbed with the aim of achieving a personal goal. 6) Rating Data: Instead of asking people about themselves you ask others, who know them, to provide a rating. 7) Halo Effect: When rating others one positive characteristic can influence the ratings of other positive characteristics. 8) Horns Effect: The opposite of the halo effect. The rating of one negative trait can spill over to influence the ratings of other negative traits 9) Scatterplot: Grouping of points on a graph each dot represents a single person 10) Illusory correlations: The thought that there is an association between two variables where none exists. Illusory correlations form the basis for many superstitions. We fall into the trap of illusory correlations because of our confirmation bias. 2.2d Identify the components of an experiment, the potential pitfalls that can lead to faulty conclusions, and how psychologists control for these pitfalls. Experimental designs involve random assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable, and when conducted properly, permit us to draw conclusions about the causes of a psychological intervention. Placebo effects and experimenter expectancy effects are examples of pitfalls in experimental designs that can lead us to draw false conclusions. Experimental Group: This group receives the manipulation. Control Group: This group does not receive manipulation. Between Subjects Design: In an experiment researchers assign different groups to the control or experimental group. Within Subjects Design: In an experiment each subject acts as their own control. Independent Variable: Manipulated Variable. Dependent Variable: The variable that the experimenter measures to see whether the manipulation has had an effect. Blind: Being unaware of whether one is in the experimental or control group. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Double-Blind: Neither the participant or researcher knows which group they are in. Placebo Effect: Improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement. Nocebo Effect: Harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm. Experimenter Expectancy Effect: Researchers hypothesis leads them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study. Demand Characteristics: Cues that participants pick up from a study that allows them to generate guesses regarding the researcher's hypothesis. Confounding variable: is a variable that is different between the experimental and control group other than an independent variable. Cause and effect permission to infer: If the study is done right we can infer cause -and- effect relations. There are two conditions that need to happen a. Ask yourself if a study is an experiment b. If it is not an experiment then do not draw causal conclusions c. The placebo effect is a major flaw in experiments and must be accounted for in an experiment. Placebos are not just in the head. Placebos show many characteristics that real drugs have, such as having a higher effect at higher doses. 2.3a Explain the ethical obligations of researchers toward their research participants. Concerns about ethical treatment of research participants have led research facilities, such as colleges and universities, to establish institutional review boards that review all research involving human participants and require informed consent by participants. In some cases, they may also require a full debriefing at the conclusion of the research session. Informed Consent: Informing research participants of the details of the study before asking them to participate. 2.3b Describe both sides of the debate on the use of animals as research subjects. Animal research has led to clear benefits in our understanding of human learning, brain physiology, and psychological treatment, to mention only a few advances. To answer many critical psychological questions, there are simply no good alternatives to using animals. Nevertheless, many critics have raised useful questions about the treatment of laboratory animals and emphasized the need for adequate housing and feeding conditions. Many protest the large number of laboratory animals killed each year and question whether animal research offers sufficient external validity to justify its use. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 2.4a Identify uses of various measures of central tendency and variability. Three measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode. The mean is the average of all scores. The median is the middle score. The mode is the most frequent score. The mean is the most widely used measure but is the most sensitive to extreme scores. Two measures of variability are the range and standard deviation. The range is a more intuitive measure of variability, but it can yield a deceptive picture of how spread out individual scores are. The standard deviation is a better measure of variability, although it's more difficult to calculate. Statistics: The application of mathematics to describing and analyzing data. Descriptive Statistics: Numerical characterizations that describe data. Central Tendency: Measure of the “central” scores in the data set, or where the groups tend to cluster. Variability: Measure of how loosely or closely bunched a set of scores are. Standard Deviation: Measure of variability that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean. 2.4b Explain how inferential statistics can help us to determine whether we can generalize from our sample to the full population. Inferential statistics allow us to determine how much we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population. Not all statistically significant findings are large enough in magnitude to make a real-world difference, so we must also consider practical significance when evaluating the implications of our results. When using inferential statistics, we ask whether we can draw “inferences” regarding whether the differences we’ve observed in our sample apply to similar samples. Meta-analysis: An analysis of a set of studies on a particular topic that statistically evaluates the strength of patterns across the different studies. Statistical Significance: To see if our study can be generalized to the broader population there are many statics we can use depending on the research design. Regardless of which test we use, we often use a 0.05 level of confidence to see if a finding is trustworthy. The minimum level (5 in 100) that the finding has occurred by chance. If this is the case we say it is statistically significant. 2.4c Show how statistics can be misused for purposes of persuasion. Reporting measures of central tendency that are non representative of most participants, creating visual representations that exaggerate effects, and failing to PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 take base rates into account are all frequent methods of manipulating statistics for the purposes of persuasion. 2.5a Identify flaws in research designs and how to correct them. Good experimental design requires not only random assignment and manipulation of an independent variable but also inclusion of an appropriate control condition to rule out placebo effects. Most importantly, it requires careful attention to the possibility of alternative explanations of observed effects. Peer Review is one way to correct flaws within research designs. 2.5a Identify skills for evaluating psychological claims in their popular media. To evaluate psychological claims in the news and elsewhere in the popular media, we should bear in mind that few reporters have formal psychological training. When considering media claims, we should consider the source, beware of excessive sharpening and leveling, and be on the lookout for pseudosymmetry. 1. We should consider the source. A) We should place more confidence in the findings reported in a science magazine rather than a supermarket tabloid. B) We should place more trust in finding primary sources like the original journal article. 2. We need to look for excessive sharpening and leveling. A) Sharpening - the tendency to exaggerate the central message of the study. B) Leveling - the tendency to minimize the less central details of a study. 3. We can be misled by seemingly coverage of a story A) Balanced coverage can sometimes create pseudosymmetry when there seems to be a scientific controversy where none exists. Pseudosymmetry: The false impression given by the mass media that scientists are equally divided on an issue. 2.5c Analyze the scientific support for and against extrasensory perception(ESP). Many people accept the existence of ESP without the need for scientific evidence, in part because they greatly underestimate how likely it is that a coincidence, such as two people at a gathering sharing a birthday, occurs by chance. The scientific community rejects ESP due to the absence of an evidence base, the lack of a theory which would explain ESP and the lack of positive experimental results; it considers ESP to be pseudoscience. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Esp(Extrasensory Perception): Subdivided into three major types 1) Precognition: acquiring knowledge of future events before they occur through paranormal means, that is, mechanisms that lie outside of traditional science. (You knew we were going to say that, didn’t you?) 2) Telepathy: reading other people’s minds. 3) Clairvoyance: detecting the presence of objects or people that are hidden from view. CHAPTER THREE: Biological Psychology Phrenology: An incorrect map of the mind, one of the first attempts to map. Assumed that enlargements of the skull corresponded to brain enlargements and that these brain enlargements were linked directly to different psychological capacities. 3.1a Identify different brain-stimulating, recording and imaging techniques. Electrical stimulation of the brain can elicit vivid imagery or movement. Methods such as electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) enable researchers to record brain activity. Imaging techniques provide a way to see the brain's structure or function. The first imaging techniques included computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Imagining techniques that allow us to see how the brain's activity changes in response to psychological stimuli include positron emission tomography (PET) and functional MRS (fMRI). Brain Scans and Other Imaging Techniques Hans Berger (1929) developed the Electroencephalogram (EEG), a device-still widely used today-that measures electrical activity generated by the brain. Patterns and sequences in the EEG allow scientists to infer whether a person is awake or asleep, dreaming or not, and to tell which regions of the brain are active during specific tasks. To obtain an EEG record, researchers or clinicians record electrical activity from multiple electrodes, small devices typically made from wire or fine glass tubes, placed on the scalp's surface. It is noninvasive. CT Scans and MRI Images: The CT (cat scan) shows a reconstruction through multiple x-rays and displays far more advanced imaging than a normal x-ray does. The MRI shows structural detail, it measures the release of energy from water in biological tissues following the exposure to a magnetic field, it detects soft tissues such as brain tumors. PET (Positron Emission Tomography): Measures changes in the brain's activity in response to stimuli. It requires the injection of radioactive glucose- like molecules into patients. It measures where in the brain most of these PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 glucose- like molecules are absorbed, allowing neuroscientists to figure out which brain regions are most active. Measures change by the second. FMRI (Functional MRI): Measures the change in blood oxygen levels, an indirect indicator of brain activity. Used to visualize brain activity in response to specific tasks, such as looking at emotional faces or solving math problems. Measures change by the second. MEG (Magnetoencephalography): Detects electrical activity in the brain by measuring tiny magnetic fields. MEG reveals patterns of magnetic fields on the skull's surface, thereby displaying which brain areas are becoming active in response to stimuli. Measures change millisecond by millisecond. 3.1b Evaluate results demonstrating the brain's localization of function. Stimulating, recording, and imaging techniques have shown that specific brain areas correspond to specific functions. Although these results provide valuable insight into how our brains delegate the many tasks we perform, many parts of the brain contribute to each specific task. Because individual brain areas participate in multiple functions, many cognitive functions cannot be neatly localized. Deep Brain Stimulation: A neurosurgical procedure that implants battery powered electrodes within the brain to provide electrical stimulation directly to specific areas. Was created based on the idea that brain stimulation could influence brain function. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: Applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the surface of the skull to create electric fields in the brain that can either enhance or interrupt brain function. Adds useful insight regarding which brain areas are involved in different psychological processes. It's the only noninvasive brain imaging technique that allows us to infer causation - all other techniques can only correlate brain activation with psychological processing. ALL BRAIN AREAS BECOME ACTIVE ON BRAIN SCANS AT ONE TIME OR ANOTHER - WE THINK, FEEL, AND PERCEIVE. 10% claim is in fact, a myth. Localization of Function: Identifying brain areas that are particularly active during a specific psychological task. However, we can’t always dissect higher brain functions into narrower components because most brain regions work in concert, so we have to be cautious. 3.2a Distinguish the parts of neurons and what they do. Neuron: Nerve cells specialized for communication with each other. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Our brain contains roughly 86 billion neurons. Neurons come in a variety of shapes and sizes deepening on their function and locations. Its electrified membrane enables it to exchange electrical and chemical signals with other neurons. Neurons receive chemical messages from other neurons by way of synaptic contacts with dendrites. Next, neurons send action potentials down along their axons, some of which are coated with myelin to make the electrical signal travel faster. The Cell Body (SOMA): Central region of the neuron, it manufactures new cell components. Consists of small and large molecules. Dendrites: Neurons contain multiple branch-like extensions for receiving information from other neurons. Axons & Axon Terminals: Specialized for sending messages to other neurons. It releases neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers that neurons use to communicate with each other. Synaptic Vesicles: Spherical sac containing neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters: The chemical messengers specialized for communication from neuron to neuron. Synapses: Information is exchanged between cells in the nervous system at the synapse, between two neurons, or between a neuron and another cell. The synapse consists of a synaptic cleft (a gap into which neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal). As neurotransmitters are released from the axon of a cell into the synapse, they're picked up quickly by receptors on the dendrites of nearby neurons. Glial Cells: Astrocytes are shaped like stars, a singular astrocyte interacts with as many as 300,000 to 1,000,000 neurons. Astrocytes communicate closely with neurons, increase their accuracy of transmission, help to control blood flow in the brain, and play a vital role in the development of the embryo. They're intimately involved in thought, memory, and the immune system. They are abundantly supplied in the blood brain barrier, a protective shield of blood vessels that insulates the brain from infection. Each neuron acquires unique functions and connections based on our experiences. The blood brain barrier protects these. Oligodendrocyte promotes new connections among nerve cells and releases chemicals to aid in healing. It produces a wrapper around axons called the myelin sheath. Glial cells also clear away debris, acting as the brain's cellular garbage disposals. 3.2b Describe the electrical responses of neurons and what makes them possible. Neurons exhibit excitatory and inhibitory responses to inputs from other neurons. When excitation is strong enough, the neuron generates an action potential, which travels all the way down the axon to the axon terminal. Charged particles crossing the neuronal membrane are responsible for these events. Neurons fire when they PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 send electrical signals, much in the same way that fire can spread, these electrical signals are called action potentials. Resting Potential: Electrical charge difference (-60 millivolts) across the neuronal membrane when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited. Threshold of Excitation: membrane potential necessary to trigger an action potential. Action Potentials: Electrical impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of neurotransmitters. Absolute Refractory Period: Time during which another action potential is impossible; limiting maximal firing rate. 3.2c Explain how neurons Use neurotransmitters to communicate with each other. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers neurons use to communicate with each other or to cause muscle contraction. The axon terminal releases neurotransmitters at the synapse. This process produces excitatory or inhibitory responses in the receiving neuron. After they're released into the synapse, they bind with receptor sites. Different receptor sites recognize different types of neurotransmitters. We can think of each as a key that only unlocks its own type of receptor. Different neurotransmitters send different messages. Some excite the nervous system, increasing it's activity, whereas others inhibit the nervous system, decreasing it's activity. Some play a role in movement, others in perception, thinking or emotion. Receptor Sites: Location that uniquely recognizes and binds with neurotransmitters. Ruptake: Means of recycling neurotransmitters. Glutamate and GABA: Most common in the CNS, Glutamate rapidly excites neurons, its release is associated with enhanced learning and memory. GABA, in contrast, inhibits neurons, thereby dampening neural activity. It plays critical roles in learning, memory, and sleep. Acetylcholine: Plays an important role in arousal, selective attention, memory and sleep. Neurons connected directly to muscle cells release acetylcholine, allowing them to trigger movement. Monoamines (Norepinephrine, Dopamine, and Serotonin): Contains only one amino acid, dopamine plays a critical role in motivation and in the rewarding experiences that occur when we seek out or anticipate goals, norepinephrine and PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 serotonin activate or deactivate various parts of the brain, influencing consciousness, arousal, movements, and our readiness to respond to stimuli. Anandamide: Cells in our body including neurons, manufacture anandamide, which binds to the same receptors as THC. Anandamide plays an important role in sleep, memory, eating, and motivation. Neuropeptides: Short strings of amino acids in the nervous system. Act somewhat like neurotransmitters, but they are more specialized. Endorphins are a type of neuropeptide that play specific roles in pain reduction. Some neuropeptides regulate hunger and fullness, and others, can alter learning and memory. Psychoactive Drugs: Drugs that interact with neurotransmitter systems. They affect mood, thinking, arousal, or observable behavior. Knowing how psychoactive drugs interact with neurotransmitter systems often allows us to predict how they'll affect us psychologically. Opiates, such as codeine and morphine, function as agonists, meaning they increase or mimic the effect of a neurotransmitter. They reduce our emotional response to painful stimuli by binding with opioid receptors and mimicking endorphins Still other drugs block the reuptake of neurotransmitters. Many antidepressants inhibit the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, from the synapse. By allowing these neurotransmitters to remain in the synapse longer than usual, they enhance these neurotransmitters' effects on receptor sites-much as we can heighten the pleasurable sensations of a delicious food by keeping it in our mouths for a bit longer than usual. Some drugs work in the opposite way. They function as antagonists, meaning they block or decrease the effect of a neurotransmitter (think of the word antagonistic). In essence, antagonists act as "fake neurotransmitters," fooling receptors into thinking they're dopamine without exerting the effects of this neurotransmitter. 3.2d Describe how the brain changes as a result of development, learning, and injury. The brain changes the most before birth and during early development. Throughout the life span the brain demonstrates some degree of plasticity, which plays a role in learning and memory. Later in life, healthy brain plasticity decreases and neurons can show signs of degeneration. Plasticity: The ability of the nervous system to change. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 The network of neurons in the brain changes over the course of development in four primary ways: Growth: of dendrites and axons. Synaptogenesis: the formation of new synapses. Pruning: consisting of the death of certain neurons and the retraction of axons to remove connections that aren't useful. Myelination: the insulation of axons with a myelin sheath. Our brains change as we learn, these changes can result from a formation of new synapses, generating increased connections and communication among neurons. They can also result from the strengthening of existing synaptic connections, the neurotransmitters released into synapses produce a stronger and more prolonged response from neighboring neurons. This is called potentiation. Neurogenesis: is the creation of new neurons in the adult brain. May play a useful role in learning. Stem Cells: A cell, often originating in embryos, having the capacity to differentiate into a more specialized cell. Not committed to a specific function. Their change is dependent on the growth factors to which they are exposed. 3.3a Identify what roles different parts of the central nervous system play in behavior. The cerebral cortex consists of the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. Cortex involved with vision lies in the occipital lobe, cortex involved with hearing in the temporal lobe, and cortex involved with touch in the parietal lobe. Association areas throughout the cortex analyze and reanalyze sensory inputs to build up our perceptions. The motor cortex in the frontal lobe, and basal ganglia, and the spinal cord work together with the somatic nervous system to bring about movement and action. The somatic nervous system has a sensory well as a motor component, which enables touch and feedback from the muscles to guide our actions. The Brain - Behavior Network Sensory information comes into - and decisions to act come out of - the Central Nervous System. Which is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. Whereas the Peripheral Nervous System is composed of all of the nerves outside of the CNS. The PNS is further divided into the Somatic Nervous System, which controls behavior and interacts with the external environment, and the Autonomic Nervous System, which controls involuntary functions of the body and internal environment. The Central Nervous System PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 The CNS is divided into six distinct sections or systems. (Cortex, Basal Ganglia, Limbic System, Cerebellum, BrainStem and Spinal Cord.) The brain and the spinal cord are protected by meninges, three thin layers of membranes. Furtherly protected by the cerebral ventricles. THE CEREBRAL CORTEX Outermost part of cerebrum. Gives the human brain its characteristic appearance. We use its bumpy landmarks to divide the cortex into four regions called lobes each associated with somewhat different functions. (Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Occipital lobe, Temporal lobe.) Analyzes sensory information. Gives us advanced intellectual abilities. Consists of two cerebral hemispheres (Left and right) which are connected by the corpus callosum which allows them to communicate with each other. Laterization basically states that even though the two hemispheres are connected, each hemisphere serves somewhat different cognitive functions and are therefore lateralized to some extent. FRONTAL LOBES Lies in the forward part of the cerebral cortex. They assist us in movement, language, decision making and certain types of memory. They also organize most other brain functions which are called executive functioning. The central sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the rest of the cortex. The motor cortex is the part of the frontal lobe that lies just in front of the central sulcus. Each part of the motor cortex controls a specific region of the body, you can essentially condition the amount of cortex assigned to a body part by practicing. In front of the motor cortex lies a vast expanse of the frontal lobe called the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for thinking, planning, and language. It also contributes to mood, personality and self- awareness. *Phineas Gage One region in the prefrontal cortex is the Broca's Area which is vital for the formation of speech. Executive functions, motor cortex. PARIETAL LOBE The upper middle part of the cerebral cortex lies behind the central sulcus. It helps us track objects, locations, shapes, and orientations. It also guides our attention, especially where to look when it's time to act, and it helps us process others' actions and represents numbers. The parietal lobe relays visual and touch information to the motor cortex. Spatial perception, somatosensory cortex. TEMPORAL LOBE PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 The temporal lobe is the prime site of hearing, understanding language, and forming new, conscious long term memories, such as those for facts and events. The lobe is separated from the rest of the cortex by a horizontal groove called the lateral fissure. Auditory processing, speech comprehension, facial recognition. The top of the temporal lobe contains the auditory cortex, the part of the cortex devoted to hearing. Next to it is the language area in the temporal lobe called Wernicke's Area. Damage to this area results in severe difficulties with understanding speech. On the bottom of the temporal lobe is an area called the fusiform face area, which is associated with our ability to recognize faces more in depth; it extends to recognizing the configuration of features that make up objects. Brain areas can often serve both specific and more general functions. OCCIPITAL LOBE This is located at the back of your brain, containing the visual cortex which is dedicated to seeing. Visual processing. CORTICAL HIERARCHIES When information from the outside world is transmitted by a specific sense such as, sight, hearing, or touch, it's first funneled into the thalamus and then is relayed to the primary cortex specific to that sense. The only exception is smell, which is sent directly to our limbic system, which is involved in emotion, motivation, and memory. After the ear, eye or skin relays information to the primary sensory cortex, it passes it on to another area for that sense called the association cortex, which is spread throughout all four of the brain's lobes. The association cortex synthesizes sensory information to perform more complex functions, such as pulling together size, shape, color, and location information to identify an object. The overall organization of the cortex is hierarchical because processing becomes increasingly complex as information is passed up the network. People with damage to these areas may experience difficulties recognizing familiar faces or answering questions about people just by looking at their faces. THE BASAL GANGLIA Structures buried deep inside the cortex that help to control movements. After sensory information reaches primary and association areas, it's transmitted to the basal ganglia. Which calculates a course of action and sends the blueprint of the movement to the motor cortex. It helps to control our emotions, language, learning, decision making and memory. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 THE LIMBIC SYSTEM Often thought of as the emotional center of the brain. It's closely tied to our autonomic nervous system, which regulates our internal organs, including our lungs , heart and gut. It evolved out of. The primitive olfactory system which controlled various survival behaviors in early mammals. It is a complex interconnected set of structures that lie just below your cortex. Some parts are actually considered part of the cortex; others are considered subcortical and include the hippocampus and the amygdala. Thalamus: contains many nuclei, or distinct collections of cell bodies; each connects to a specific region of the cerebral cortex. Hypothalamus: located on the floor of the brain, regulates and maintains internal bodily state largely by influencing hormone levels. Different areas of the hypothalamus play various roles in emotion and motivation. Some are intimately involved with key psychological drives, helping to regulate hunger, thirst, sexual motivation, or other motivated behaviors. It also assists with controlling our body temperature, acting much like a thermostat. Amygdala: modulates our memories based on how we feel. It also plays a key role in fear conditioning (learning to predict something is about to happen.)Aside from fear, positive emotions can trigger the amygdala. It helps us to pay attention to emotionally impactful stimuli, to remember what triggered our emotions, and to make sense of ambiguous faces and other social cues. Hippocampus: plays crucial roles in memory, especially conscious memory for facts and events, and spatial memory - the memory of the physical layout for things in our environment. Cerebellum: plays a predominant role in our sense of balance and enables us to coordinate movement and learn motor skills. Among other things it helps prevent us from falling down. It also contributes to executive, memory, spatial, and linguistic abilities. Brain stem: housed inside the cortex and located at the very bottom of our brains, contains the midbrain, pons and the medulla. The brain stem performs some of the basic bodily functions that keep us alive. The midbrain in turn plays an important role in movement. It also controls the tracking of visual stimuli and reflexes triggered by sound. RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM Connects with the forebrain and cerebral cortex. Plays a key role in arousal. PONS AND MEDULLA Lies below the midbrain in the region called the hindbrain. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 The pons play a crucial role in triggering dreams, connecting the cortex to the cerebellum. The medulla regulates breathing, heartbeat and other vital functions. It also controls nausea and vomiting. SPINAL CORD Extends from our brain stem and runs down the middle of our backs, conveying information between the brain and the rest of the body. Nerves are projections of neurons to and from other body parts. Sensory information is carried from the brain to the rest of the body by way of motor nerves, whereas motor commands are carried from the brain to the rest of the body by way of motor nerves. It also contains sensory neurons that contact interneurons, which send messages to other neurons located nearby Interneurons connect sensory nerves with motor nerves within the spinal cord without having to report back to the brain. Reflexes are automatic motor responses to sensory stimuli. Interneurons explain how reflexes can occur. 3.3b Clarify how the somatic and autonomic nervous systems work in emergency and everyday situations. The somatic nervous system carries messages from the central nervous system to the body's muscles. The autonomic nervous system consists of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions. Whereas the parasympathetic nervous system is active during rest and digestion, the sympathetic division propels the body into action during an emergency or crisis. Sympathetic arousal also occurs in response to everyday stressors. THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Carries messages from the CNS to muscles throughout the body, controlling movement. Whenever we stabilize or move our many joints, the CNS cooperates with the somatic nervous system to regulate our posture and bodily movements. THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM The brain and spinal cord interact with our somatic nervous system to bring about sensation and behavior. The limbic system especially interacts with this system to control our internal organs. This system is part of the nervous system that controls the involuntary actions of our organs and glands. It regulates our emotions. TWO DIVISIONS: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic. These two divisions work in opposing directions, one is active the other is passive. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Sympathetic: active during emotional arousal. Mobilizes flight or fight. Triggers a variety of responses helpful for reacting in a crisis, included in increases heart rate, respiration and perspiration. Parasympathetic: active during rest and digestion. When there is no threat on our mental radar screens this is triggered. Contrasts sympathetic. 3.4a Describe what hormones are and how they affect behavior. Hormones are chemicals released into the bloodstream that trigger specific effects in the body. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system stimulates the release of adrenaline and cortisol by the adrenal glands, which energize our bodies. Sex hormones control sexual responses. Endocrine System: A network of glands that releases hormones into the bloodstream. THE PITUITARY GLAND AND PITUITARY HORMONES Controls the other glands in the body, however is controlled by the hypothalamus. Releases a variety of hormones that serve numerous functions. Ranges from regulating physical growth, controlling blood pressure, to determining how much water we retain in our kidneys. Oxytocin is responsible for reproductive functions and also plays essential roles in maternal and romantic love. It also seems to influence how much we trust others and coordinate social behaviors. THE ADRENAL GLANDS AND ADRENALINE Located atop of the kidneys, they manufacture the hormones adrenaline and cortisol. Adrenaline boots energy production in the muscle cells while conserving as much energy as possible. Adrenaline and Cortisol are released during times of emotional arousal. Nerves of the sympathetic nervous system signal the adrenaline glands to release adrenaline. It triggers many actions including contraction of the heart and constriction of the blood vessels, etc. It also inhibits gastrointestinal secretions explaining why we often lose our appetites or experience dry mouths when we get nervous or excited. Adrenaline allows people to over perform in crisis situations obviously still limited to physical limitations. Cortisol increases response to physical and psychological stressors. It regulates blood pressure and cardiovascular function, as well as the body's use of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE GLANDS AND SEX HORMONES PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 The sexual reproductive glands are the testes (testosterone) in biological males and ovaries (estrogen) in females. However both produce the same hormones but it's divided differently. 3.5a Describe genes and how they influence psychological traits. Genes are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is arranged on chromosomes. We inherit this genetic material from our parents. Each gene carries a code to manufacture a specific protein. These proteins influence our observable physical and psychological traits. Chromosomes: Slender thread inside the nucleus that carry genes. Genes: Genetic material composed of DNA. Genotype: Our Genetic makeup. Phenotype: Our observable traits. Dominant: Gene that masks other genes' effects. Recessive: Gene that is only expressed in the absence of a dominant gene. Fitness: Organisms capacity to pass on its genes. 3.5b Explain the concept of heritability and the misconceptions surrounding it. Heritability refers to how differences in a trait across people are influenced by their genes as opposed to their environments. The heritability of traits can sometimes change within individuals and over time within a population. BEHAVIOURAL GENETICS Heritability: is the extent to which genes contribute to differences in a trait among individuals. It's often expressed as a percentage. Heritability is a fixed number. It can differ dramatically across different time periods and populations. Heritability tells us whether a trait can be changed. It says nothing about how malleable a trait is. Heritability applies to a single individual rather than to differences among Applies only to groups of people, it tells about the causes of difference among people, not genetic contributions to a trait within a person. Behavioral genetics are studied in different ways; twin studies, family studies and adoption studies. Epigenetics: A field that examines how environmental factors affect the expression of genes and how such expression influences our behavior and mental health. CHAPTER FOUR: Sensation and Perception 4.1a Identify the basic principles that apply to all senses. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Transduction is the process of converting an external energy, such as light or sound vibration, into electrical activity within neurons. The doctrine of specific nerve energies refers to how each of the sensory modalities is handled by specific regions of the brain. Even though most connections in the brain are faithful to one sense modality, brain regions often respond to information from a different sense. Transduction: The process by which the nervous system converts an external stimulus, like light or sound, into electrical signals within neurons. Sense Receptor: Specialized cell responsible for converting external stimuli into neural activity for a specific sensory system. Sensory Adaptation: Process in which activation is greatest when stimuli is first detected. Psychophysics: The study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on their physical characteristics. Absolute Threshold: Lowest level of a stimulus needed for the nervous system to detect a change 50% of the time. Just Noticeable Difference: The smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can detect. Weber’s Law: Law that states there’s a constant proportional relationship between the JND and the original stimulus intensity. Signal Detection Theory: Theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions. Synesthesia: Condition in which people experience cross-modal sensations, like hearing sounds when they see colors or even tasting color. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SYNESTHESIA EXAMPLES Mirror-touch synesthesia A person experiences the same sensation that another person experiences, such as touch. Lexical-gustatory synesthesia Words are associated with specific tastes or textures. Chromesthesia Sounds trigger the experience of color in cases of misophonia, sounds trigger strong emotions such as anger or fear. Personification Numbers, letters, or days of the week take on personality characteristics and sometimes have a characteristic appearance. For example, the number PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 six might be experienced as a king, or the number eight a sorcerer. Number-form synesthesia Numbers are imagined as mental maps. Spatial sequence synesthesia Certain sequences of numbers, dates, or months are perceived as closer or farther in space. 4.1b Discuss the role of attention and the nature of the binding problem. To adapt to the challenges of an ever-changing environment, flexible attention is critical to survival and well-being. Yet attention must also be selective so that we're not overwhelmed by sensory inputs. One of the great mysteries of psychology is how we are able to bind different pieces of sensory information and cues together into a unified whole. Selective Attention: Process of selecting one channel and ignoring or minimizing others. Inattentional Blindness: Failure to detect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focused elsewhere. 4.2a Explain how the eye starts the visual process. The lens in the eye accommodates to focus on images both near and far by changing from "fat" to "flat." The lens optimally focuses light on the retina, which lies at the rear of the eye. The retina contains rods and cones filled with pigments. Additional cells in the retina transmit information about light to ganglion cells, and the axons of these cells combine to form the optic nerve. Hue: Color of light. Pupil: Circular hole through which light enters the eye. Sclera: White part of the eye. Iris: The coloured part of the eye that controls how much light enters the eye. Cornea: Part of the eye containing transparent cells that focus light on the retina. Lens: Part of the eye that changes curvature to keep image in focus. Accommodation: Changing the shape of the lens to focus on objects near or far. Retina: Membrane at the back of the eye responsible for converting light into neural activity. Fovea: Central portion of the retina. Acuity: Sharpness of vision. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Rods: Receptor cells in the retina allowing us to see lower levels of light. Dark Adaptation: Time in dark before rods regain maximum light sensitivity. Cones: Receptor cells in the retina allowing us to see color. Optic Nerve: Nerve that travels from the retina to the brain. Blind Spot: Region of the retina containing no rods and completely void of sense receptors. 4.2b Identify the different kinds of visual perception. Our visual system is sensitive to shape and color. We use different parts of the visual cortex to process these different aspects of visual perception. V1 cells are sensitive to lines of a particular orientation. Color perception involves a mixture of trichromatic and opponent processing. Feature Detector Cells: Cells that detect lines and edges. Trichromatic Theory: Idea that color vision is based on our sensitivity to three primary colors. Color Blindness: Inability to see some or all colors. Opponent Process Theory: Theory that we perceive colors in terms of three pairs of opponent colors, either red or green, blue or yellow, and black or white. 4.2c Describe different visual problems. Blindness is a worldwide problem, especially in underdeveloped countries. There are several types of color blindness, the most common being red-green. The phenomenon of blindsight demonstrates that some blind people can make decent guesses about the location of objects in their environments. Blindness is a dramatic reduction in the ability to see, or more specifically, the presence of vision less than or equal to 20/200 on the familiar Snellen eye chart. Visual Agnosia: A deficit in perceiving objects. A person with this could name the shape and color of an object but can’t recognize or name it. 4.3a Explain how the ear starts the auditory process. Sound waves created by vibration of air molecules are funneled into the outer ear. These vibrations perturb the eardrum, causing the three small bones in the middle ear to vibrate. This process creates pressure in the cochlea, which contains the basilar membrane and organ of Corti, in which hair cells are embedded. The hair cells then bend, thereby exciting them. The message is relayed through the auditory nerve. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 4.3b Identify the different kinds of auditory perception. Place theory is pitch perception based on where along the basilar membrane hair cells are maximally excited. Frequency theory is based on hair cells reproducing the frequency of the pitch in their firing rates. In volley theory, groups of neurons stagger their responses to follow a pitch. Audition: Our sense of hearing. Timbre: Refers to the quality or complexity of sound that makes musical instruments, human voices, or other sources sound unique. Cochlea: Bony, spiral shaped sense organ used to convert vibrations into neural activity. Organ of Corti: Tissue containing the hair cells necessary for hearing Basilar Membrane: Membrane supporting the organ of Corti and hair cells in the cochlea. Place Theory: A specific place along the basilar membrane that matches tone with a specific pitch. Frequency Theory: Rate at which neurons fire the action potentials that reproduce the pitch. 4.4a Identify how we sense and perceive odors and tastes. The tongue contains taste receptors for sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami, and perhaps fat and starchy. Our ability to taste foods relies largely on smell. Olfactory receptors in our noses are sensitive to hundreds of different airborne molecules. We react to extremely sour tastes, which may be due to food spoilage, with disgust. We also appear sensitive to pheromones, odorless molecules that can affect sexual responses. Olfaction: Our sense of smell. Gustation: Our sense of taste. Taste Buds: Sense receptors in the tongue that respond to sweet, salty, unami, sour, bitter, and perhaps fat. Pheromones: Odorless chemicals that serve as social signals to members of one’s species - that alter our sexual behavior. 4.5a Describe the three different body senses. The three body senses are called "somatosensory" for body sensation, "proprioception" for muscle position sense, and "vestibular sense" for the sense of balance and equilibrium. The somatosensory system responds to light touch, deep pressure, hot and cold temperature, and tissue damage. Our muscles contain sense PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 receptors that detect stretch and others that detect force. We calculate where our bodies are located from this information. We're typically unaware of our sense of equilibrium. Somatosensory: Our sense of touch, temperature, and pain. Proprioception: Kinesthetic sense or sense of body position. Vestibular Sense: Sense of equilibrium and balance. Gate Control Model: Idea that pain is blocked or gated from consciousness by neural mechanisms in the spinal cord. Semicircular Canals: Three fluid filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance. 4.5b Explain how pain perception differs from touch perception. There's a large emotional component to pain perception that's not present with touch. This is because pain information activates parts of the limbic system in addition to the somatosensory cortex. Phantom Pain: Pain or discomfort felt in an amputated limb. 4.5c Describe the field of psychology called human factors. The field of human factors starts with what psychologists have learned about sensation and perception, and then designs user-friendly devices, like computer keyboards and airplane cockpits, with this knowledge in mind. 4.6a Track how our minds build up perceptions. Information travels from primary sensory to secondary sensory cortex and then on to association cortex. Along the way, perception becomes increasingly complex. We also process many different inputs simultaneously, a phenomenon called parallel processing. In addition to sensory inputs, our perceptual sets and expectations influence our perceptions. Perceptual constancy allows us to perceive stimuli across varied conditions. Parallel Processing: Ability to attend to many sense modalities simultaneously. Bottom-up Processing: Process in which a whole is constricted from parts. Top-down Processing: Conceptually driven processing influenced by beliefs and expectancies. 4.6b Describe how we perceive people, objects, and sounds in our environments. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Many neurons assembled in vast neural networks are probably responsible for face recognition. We perceive motion based on comparing visual frames like those in a movie, and we perceive depth by using both monocular and binocular cues. Cues also play an important role in locating sounds. Sometimes perception deceives us and we experience illusions. Perceptual Set: Set formed when expectations influence perceptions. Perceptual Constancy: The process by which we receive stimuli consistently across varied conditions. Gestalt Principles: Rules governing how we perceive objects as whole within their overall context. Helps to explain why we see much of our world as consisting of unified figures or forms rather than confusing jumbles of lines and curves. 1)Proximity, 2) Similarity, 3) Continuity, 4) Closure, 5) Symmetry, 6) Figure-ground. Depth Perception: The ability to see spatial relations in three dimensions; it enables us to reach for a glass and grasp it rather than knock it over and spill its contents. Monocular Depth Cues: Stimuli that enables us to judge depth only using one eye. Binocular Depth Cues: Stimuli that enables us to judge depth using both eyes. 4.6c Distinguish subliminal perception from subliminal persuasion. Subliminal perception refers to the processing of sensory information that occurs below the limen or threshold of conscious awareness. Subliminal persuasion refers to subthreshold influences over our attitudes, choices, or behaviors. Subliminal Perception: Perception below the limen or threshold of consciousness awareness. CHAPTER FIVE: Consciousness 5.1a Explain the role of the circadian rhythm and how our bodies react to disruption in our biological clocks. The circadian rhythm is responsible for our daily biological processes such as hormone release, brain waves. body temperature, and drowsiness. Factors such as jet lag and working late shifts disrupt our biological clocks allowing us to not feel rested. This can lead to fatal accidents, health problems, diabetes, high blood pressure and other risks of injuries. Losing one night of sleep: irritability, edginess, and poor concentration. Multiple nights: Depression, difficulties in learning,and slowed reaction times. More than 4: Delusional, hear voices, and see things. Sleep Paralysis: Being unable to move before falling asleep or waking up. Consciousness: Our subjective experience of the world, our bodies, and our mental perspectives. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Lucid Dreaming: Experience of becoming aware that one is dreaming. Many lucid dreamers become aware they're dreaming when they see something so bizarre or improbable they conclude (correctly) that they're having a dream. It opens up the possibility of controlling our dreams and will usually improve their outcomes. Circadian Rhythm: Cyclical changes that occur roughly on a 24-hour basis in many of our biological processes, including hormone release, brain waves, body temperature, and drowsiness. The circadian rhythm essentially is a clock in our brains which regulates cycles of alertness and sleepiness; it does so by paying attention to the light changes in our environment. Biological Clock: Term for the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus, which controls our alertness levels. The biological clock helps you feel alert during the day, hungry at mealtime and sleepy at night. It regulates your circadian rhythm by keeping track of the 24-hour timeline. A disruption in the biological clock increases the risk of injuries, fatal accidents, health problems and a higher likelihood of dying sooner. 5.1b Identify the different stages of sleep and the neural activity dreaming behaviors that occur in each. Five stages- 90 minute cycles. Stages 1-4: Non-REM: No eye movement, less dreams-shorter, more thought-like. Stage 5: Quick eye movements, vivid dreams. Stage 1: Very drowsy, transition into stage 2. Stage 2: Brain and heart waves slow down, body temperature decreases, muscles relax; Sleep spindles, K-Complexes. Stage 3 and 4: Large amplitude waves become more frequent. REM Sleep (Paradoxical stage): The brain is most active. Vivid dreaming most often occurs-more dreams, emotional, illogical,biologically crucial Rapid Eye Movement (REM): darting of the eyes underneath closed eyelids during sleep. Non-REM (NREM) Sleep: Stages 1-4 of the sleep cycle, during which eye movement does not occur, and dreaming is less vivid and frequent. We repeatedly pass through five stages every night; each is distinguishable and lasts about 90 minutes. STAGE ONE: In the light stage of sleep, which lasts 5-10 minutes, the brain activity powers down by 50% or more, producing THETA WAVES, which occur 4-7 times per second. In this stage, it is expected to experience HYPNAGOGIC IMAGERY PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 (scrambled, bizarre, dream-like images that fit into our consciousness) and sudden jerks like startling or falling. STAGE TWO: Brain waves are slowed down even more in this stage; SLEEP SPINDLES (sudden intense bursts of electrical activity) happen about 12-14 times per second and sometimes K COMPLEXES (occasionally sharply rising and falling waves.) About 65% of our slumber occurs in this stage; the brain decelerates, the heart slows, temperature decreases, muscles relax, and eye movements cease. STAGE THREE & STAGE FOUR: After 10-30 minutes, we fall into a deeper slow-wave sleep; we can see DELTA WAVES. In stage three, these waves appear 20-50% of the time, and in stage four, the percentage is over 50. To feel fully rested in the morning, we must experience these deeper stages of sleep. STAGE FIVE: After 15-30 minutes, we return to stage two before the brain changes into high-frequency, low-amplitude waves (REM.) In this 20 - 25 % of our sleep, we experience high blood pressure, irregular breathing, and increased heart rates. REM only lasts about 10-20 minutes before the cycle starts again. Typically, we'll experience REM 5-6 times in one night. **The later REM periods toward our time of getting up usually last for 30 minutes or more, not 10-20. We do not dream only in REM sleep; we dream MORE in REM sleep. When humans are deprived of REM sleep, we experience a REM REBOUND (the amount and intensity of REM sleep increases, suggesting that it serves a critical biological function.) 5.1c Identify the features and causes of sleep disorders. Insomnia is the most common sleep disorder and is costly to society in terms of fatigue, missed work, and accidents. Episodes of narcolepsy, which can last as long as an hour, are marked by the rapid onset of sleep. Sleep apnea is also related to daytime fatigues and is caused by a blockage of the airways during sleep. Night Terrors and sleepwalking, both associated with deep sleep, are typically harmless and are not recalled by the person on awakening. High rates with people who have depression, pain, medical conditions. Affects 9-15% of people. Usually due to stress, relationship problems, illness, and working late. REM Behaviour Disorder (RBD): The brain stem structures (locus coeruleus) that ordinarily prevent us from moving during REM sleep don't function properly; you may "act out" your dreams. This condition is rare, and although the cause is unknown in 55% of people, 45% is linked with several things, such as alcohol, sedative-hypnotic withdrawal, antidepressants, or a serotonin reuptake inhibitor. Insomnia: The most common sleep disorder is difficulty falling or staying asleep. Insomnia can happen in multiple forms, such as having trouble falling asleep, waking too early in the morning, waking during the night and being unable to return to sleep. The cause of insomnia is unclear. However, it is often triggered by anxiety PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 and stress. Many everyday factors contribute to brief bouts of insomnia; the higher rates typically come from those who suffer from continual pain, depression and anxiety. Narcolepsy: A disorder in which people experience sudden sleep lasting anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes and, less frequently, as long as an hour. It is characterized by the rapid and often unexpected onset of sleep. It typically interferes with day-to-day functioning and can be disturbing. Some symptoms include drowsiness during the day and challenges staying awake for long periods. People with narcolepsy drift into REM sleep immediately, suggesting that it results from a sleep-wake cycle that’s badly off-kilter. This disorder is often caused by a lack of orexin (hypocretin), which regulates wakefulness. Sometimes, it causes loss of muscle tone (CATAPLEXY.) Strong emotions trigger this. Sleep Apnea: A disorder caused by a blockage of the airway during sleep, resulting in multiple awakenings during the night and daytime fatigue. It also causes people to snore loudly, gasp, and sometimes stop breaking for over 20 seconds. Some cases of sleep apnea are associated with being overweight, alcohol, allergies, nasal congestion and your sleeping position. Night Terrors: This disorder, although dramatic, is typically harmless. Night terrors are sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming and confusion followed by a return to a deep sleep. Episodes only last for a few minutes. Sleep Walking: Walking while fully asleep. Typically, it involves little activity; however, some sleepwalkers have been known to drive cars or turn on a computer, and there were a few incidents where even murder occurred. SEXSOMNIA - People engage in sexual acts while asleep and don't remember what happened after waking up. Scientists still don't know why we dream, but evidence suggests that dreams are involved in the following: Processing emotional memories. Integrating new experiences with established memories creates a virtual reality model of the world. Learning new strategies and ways of doing things. Stimulating threatening events so we can better cope with them in everyday life. Reorganizing and consolidating memories. 5.2a Describe Freud's theory of dreams. Freud theorized that dreams represent disguised wishes. However, many dreams involve unpleasant or undesirable experiences, and many involve uninteresting reviews of routine daily events. Thus, Freud’s dream theory hasn’t received much empirical support. The Interpretation of Dreams - Freud described Indigenous peoples as the guardians of sleep. During sleep, the ego, which acts as a sort of mental censor, is less able than when awake to keep sexual and aggressive instincts at bay by repressing them. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 According to Freud, dreams don't surrender their secrets easily; they require interpretation to reveal their true meaning. Dreams represent unconscious desire, thoughts, wish fulfillment and motivations. Manifest Content: The details of the dream itself. Latent Content: The dream's true hidden meaning. 5.2b Explain the three major modern theories of dreaming. According to activation synthesis theory, the forebrain attempts to interpret meaningless signals from the brain stem (pons). Another theory of dreaming suggests that reduction of activity on the prefrontal cortex results in vivid and emotional, but logically disjointed dreams. Neurocognitive theories hold that our dreams depend in large part on our cognitive and visuospatial abilities. Activation - Synthesis Theory: As Freud claimed, a theory developed by Alan Hobson and Robert McCarley proposes that dreams reflect brain activation in sleep rather than a repressed unconscious wish. In a more technical look at this theory, dreams reflect inputs from brain activation in the Pons, which the forebrain attempts to weave into a story. According to Hobson and McCarley, dreams reflect the activated brain's attempt to make sense of random and internally generated neural signals during REM sleep. Neurocognitive Theory: A theory developed by William Domhoff states that the brain's default network supports dreams and is a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities, which shape what we dream about. He says that dreams are simulations in which we imagine ourselves in different mental scenarios and explore possible outcomes. They also reflect more than random neural impulses activated by the brain stem. Dream Continuity Hypothesis: The hypothesis that there is continuity between sleeping and waking experiences and that dreams can mirror life circumstances. It suggests that dream content is psychologically meaningful; it reflects the dreamers' current thoughts, concerns, and experiences. 5.3a Determine how scientists explain unusual and seemingly "mystical" alterations in consciousness. Hallucinations and mystical experiences are associated with fasting, sensory deprivation, hallucinogenic drugs, prayer, and near-death experiences and vary considerably in content across cultures. During out-of-body experiences, people's consciousness doesn’t actually exit their bodies, some NDE’s are experienced by people who aren’t near death. Deja vu experiences don’t represent a memory from a past life, but may be triggered by small seizures in the temporal lobe when a present experience resembles an earlier one that’s forgotten. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Out of Body Experiences (OBE): Sense of our consciousness leaving our bodies. Near Death Experiences (NDE): An OBE reported by people who've nearly died or thought they would die. Mystical Experience: feelings of unity or oneness with the world, often with strong spiritual overtones. Studies are conducted on people who report a history of mystical experiences. Some induce mystical experiences and examine their consequences. Typically, most studies for mystical experiences occur under tightly controlled and supportive laboratory conditions. Social-Cognitive Theory: An approach to explaining hypnosis through people's attitudes, beliefs, motivations, and expectations. Dissociation Theory: An approach to explaining hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that are usually well integrated. This theory does an excellent job of describing what people experience during hypnosis; it fits nicely with Social Cognitive theories that emphasize the unconscious, automatic nature of most behaviors within and apart from the context of hypnosis. 5.3b Distinguish myths from realities concerning hypnosis. Contrary to popular belief, hypnosis isn’t a sleep-like state, participants generally don’t report having been in a “trance,” people are aware of their surroundings and don’t forget what happened during hypnosis, the type of induction has little impact, and hypnosis doesn’t improve memory. In fact, hypnosis can lead to more false memories that are held with confidence, regardless of their accuracy. According to the sociocognitive model of hypnosis, the often dramatic effects associated with hypnosis may be attributable largely to pre-existing expectations and beliefs about hypnosis. This dissociation model is another influential explanation for hypnosis. This model emphasizes divisions of consciousness during hypnosis or the automatic triggering of responses by hypnotic suggestion. Hypnosis: An interpersonal situation in which a person in the role of "hypnotist" administers imaginative suggestions to produce changes in consciousness in a person designated as the "patient." Suggestions are typically alterations in perceptions, sensations, thoughts, feelings, memories and behaviors. It enhances the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral psychotherapies and can also be used to treat pain, medical conditions, obesity, anxiety and habit disorders. There is no evidence that hypnosis is an effective treatment for conditions like depression and anxiety; we should be skeptical of those who claim to cure these things using only hypnosis. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 There is no "trance state where amazing things happen," "sleep-like state," "unawareness of your surroundings," "forgetting what happened while in hypnosis," or "memory enhancers." Hypnosis has been widely misused. 5.4a Identify possible influences on substance use. Substance use disorder is associated with recurrent problems related to the drug and may be associated with symptoms of tolerance and withdrawal. Cultures that prohibit drinking, such as Muslim cultures, generally exhibit low rates of alcoholism. Many people take drugs and alcohol in part to reduce tension and anxiety. Psychoactive Drugs: Substance that contains chemicals similar to those naturally found in our brains that alter consciousness by changing chemical processes in neurons. Tolerance: Reduction in the effect of a drug as a result of repeated use, then requiring users to consume more significant quantities to achieve the same product. Withdrawal: Unpleasant effects of reducing or stopping substance use of a drug that a user had consumed habitually. Physical Dependence: Dependence on a drug people use to avoid withdrawal symptoms. Psychological Dependence: Non-physiological dependence on a drug that occurs when continued use of the drug is motivated by intense cravings. Contact with substance-dependent parents, impulse control issues, favorable attitudes towards substances, availability of substances, frequent interactions with people who use substances, and desire to deviate from social norms. Illegal drug use typically starts in adolescence, peaks in early adulthood and declines sharply afterward. Later in life, pressures to be employed and establish a family often counteract earlier forces and attitudes associated with drug use. 5.4b Distinguish among different types of drugs and their effects on consciousness. The effects of drugs are associated with the dose of the drug as well as with users’ expectancies, personality, and culture. Nicotine, a powerful stimulant, is responsible for the effects of tobacco on consciousness. Smokers often report feeling stimulated as well as tranquil, relaxed, and alert. Cocaine is the most powerful natural stimulant, with effects similar to those of amphetamines. Cocaine is highly addictive. Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant, as are sedative-hypnotic drugs such as Valium. Sedative-hypnotic drugs reduce anxiety at low doses and induce sleep at moderate doses. Expectancies influence how people react to alcohol. Heroin and other opiates PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 are highly addictive. Heroin withdrawal symptoms range from mild to severe. The effects of marijuana, sometimes classified as a mild hallucinogen, include mood changes, alterations in perception, and disturbances in short term memory. LSD is a potent hallucinogen. Although flashbacks are rare, LSD can elicit a wide range of positive and negative reactions. Depressants: Reduce arousal and stimulation, affect the CNS, slowing down the messages between the brain and body. It can affect concentration and coordination. EX: Alcohol. Stimulants: Speeding up messages traveling between the brain and body can make a person feel more alert, confident, or energetic—EX, Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine. Narcotics: Drug that relieves pain and reduces sleep. They produce euphoria and analgesia by increasing activity in opioid receptor neurons—EX, The opiate drugs heroin, morphine, and codeine. Psychedelics: Drug (Hallucinogenic) that changes perception, mood and cognitive process. They affect all the senses, altering a person's thinking and understanding of time and emotions; they can also cause hallucinations. EX: Marijuana, LSD. CHAPTER SIX: Learning 6.1a Describe Pavlov's model of classical conditioning and distinguish the difference between conditioned stimuli and responses from unconditioned stimuli and responses. In classical conditioning, animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus (The conditioned stimulus) that elicits a reflexive, automatic response. After repeated pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, which elicits an automatic, reflexive response (The UCR) from the organism, the CS comes to elicit a CR. Learning: A change in an organism's actions, behavior, thoughts, or emotions as a result of experience. Habituation: The process by which we respond less strongly over time to repeated stimuli. Sensitization: The process by which we respond more strongly over time to repeated stimuli. Conditioning: Forming connections or associations among stimuli, once these connections are formed we need only recall one element of the pair to retrieve the other. Classical Conditioning: Is a form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response. PSYCHOLOGY 104 REVIEW 2023 Neutral Stimulus: Doesn't elicit a particular response. Unconditioned Stimulus: Elicits an automatic response without any previous conditioning. Unconditioned Response: Automatic response to a non neutral stimulus that doesn't need to be learned. Conditioned Response: A response previously associated with a nonneutral stimulus that comes to be elicited by a neutral stimulus. Conditioned Stimulus: A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response as a result of its association with an unconditioned stimulus. Classical Conditioning occurs in three phases - acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. 6.1b Explain the major principles and terminology associated with classical conditioning. Acquisition is the process by which we gradually learn the CR. Extinction is the process whereby following repeated presentation of the CS alone, the CR decreases in magnitude and eventually disappears. Extinction appears to involve an “overwriting” of the CR by new information rather than a forgetting of this information. Acquisition: Learning phase during which a conditioned response is established. Backward conditioning- The unconditioned stimulus is presented before the conditioned stimulus. Not effective, the CS must forecast the appearance of the UCS: a stimulus that came after a second stimulus cannot have caused it. Extinction: Gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus. (Similar to forgetting.) Spontaneous Recovery: Sudden