Chapter 1 - General Concepts of Science and Technology - PDF

Chapter 1 General Concepts of Science and Technology and Historical Antecedents Objectives: At the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. discuss the interactions between S&T and society throughout history; 2....

Chapter 1 General Concepts of Science and Technology and Historical Antecedents Objectives: At the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. discuss the interactions between S&T and society throughout history; 2. discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society and the environment; 3. identify the paradigm shifts in history; and 4. discuss the scientific and technological developments in the Philippines. Discussion Science and technology indeed play major roles in everyday life. They make complicated tasks easier and allow people to do more with so little effort and time. The developments in this field are not just products of people’s imagination or a one-time thought process; they are also brought about by gradual improvements to earlier works from different time periods. The driving force behind this continuous progress is the desire to raise the quality of life of the people. Science, Technology, and Society Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is also known as Science and Technology Studies. It is the study of how social, political, and cultural values affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in return, affect society. Science Technology and Society scholars are interested in a variety of problems that include the relationships between scientific and technological innovations and society, and the directions and risks of science and technology. The field of STS is related to the history and philosophy of science although with a much broader emphasis on social aspects of science and technology. Science is an organized and dynamic inquiry (following the scientific method). It is a human activity and a social enterprise that leads to the formation of concepts, methods, principles, theories, laws, and procedures that seek to describe and explain nature and its phenomena that lead to the development of apparatuses, equipment, and technologies. Technology is a material product as the result of scientific inquiry. It is the application of knowledge in solving scientific and practical problems that will help humans to survive and improve their lives. Technology is also a complex system of knowledge, skills, people, methods, tools, materials, and resources applied and allocated to the development, operation and production of a new or improved product, process, or services. Early humans attempted to understand the unknown world, they were curious about their nature. They observed and started to record patterns, cycles, and repetitions of what was happening in their environment and started to look for an answer. With these experiences, they were able to analyze and organize information which led them to understand science. They used the information they acquired to start primitive technology, thus giving way to the birth of technology. Hence, technology has come to reality because of the desire of early humans to survive, which later improved and made their lives easier. Humans (Homo sapiens) are an ingenious species that dreamed up and created some amazing and far-out things. It is from the moment someone bashed a rock on the ground to make the first sharp-edged tool, to the debut of the wheel, to the development of Mars rovers, and the progression of the Internet where several key advancements stand out as particularly revolutionary. Pre-Historic Times Stone Age Ancient humans were able to discover and invent tools from stones: flint, chert, basalt, and sandstones. They developed tools gradually from single to all-purpose tools to a collection of varied and highly specialized kinds of tools, each designed to serve a specific purpose: cutting, chopping, scraping, and sawing. Stone tools were shaped or chipped (flaking) into flakes, blades, hand axes, spears, darts, arrows, and other projectile weapons; wood, bone, shells, antlers, and other materials were operational, as well. Many important inventions appeared, such as needles and thread, skin clothing, the harpoon, the spear thrower, and special fishing equipment. Fire was the most important discovery and invention of man in the Stone Age. The creation of fire led to various ways of preparing and cooking food and the invention of suitable food containers and utensils. Bronze Age This was the period marked by the beginning of mining and metallurgy. Bronze denotes the first period in which metal was used. Man began smelting copper and alloying it with tin or arsenic to make bronze tools and weapons: swords, axes, plows, locks, and chariots. Bronze was harder and more durable than other metals available at the time, thus, providing Bronze Age civilizations to gain a technological advantage. Iron Age This was the period when iron was the dominant tool-making material. Iron Age technology is characterized by the development of tools and weaponry using ferrous metallurgy or ironworking. This distinctive dark metal brought significant changes to daily life in ancient society from the way people grew crops to the way they fought wars. In those days, this iron metal made life a lot easier. Humans had settled into small village life, toiling the soil with Iron farming tools, such as sickles and plow tips, which made the process more efficient and allowed farmers to exploit tougher soils and try new crops. Ancient Times SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION The Sumerians were the people of southern Mesopotamia whose civilization flourished between c. 4100-1750 BCE. They are known for their high degree of cooperation with one another and their desire for great things. They are not even contented with the basics that life can give. Such desire pushed them to invent many things that concerned science and technology. Cuneiform Cuneiform is a system of writing first developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia c. 3500-3000 BCE. It is considered the most significant among the many cultural contributions of the Sumerians and the greatest among those of the Sumerian city of Uruk which advanced the writing of cuneiform c. 3200 BCE. Figure 1.1 Cuneiform https://www.ancient.eu/img/r/p/500x600/5037.jpg?v=1539717923 The name comes from the Latin word cuneus for 'wedge' owing to the wedge- shaped style of writing. In cuneiform, a carefully cut writing implement known as a stylus is pressed into soft clay to produce wedge-like impressions that represent word-signs (pictographs) and, later, phonograms or `word- concepts' (closer to a modern-day understanding of a `word'). Cuneiform allowed the Sumerians to keep records of things with great historical value of their daily life. Uruk City Another important contribution of the Figure 1.2 The excavated ruins of Uruk City https://www.ancientpages.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/urukruins1.jpg Sumerians is the City of Uruk. It was one of the most important places (at one time, the most important) in ancient Mesopotamia. According to the Sumerian King List, it was founded by King Enmerkar sometime around 4500 BCE. Located in the southern region of Sumer (modern day Warka, Iraq), Uruk was known in the Aramaic language as Erech which, it is believed, gave rise to the modern name for the country of Iraq. It is a great wonder not just because it is considered to be the first true city in the world but also for the way it was built. There were no building stones in the location of said city and lumber was limited, making the construction a huge challenge. The Sumerians were able to build said city by using mud or clay coming from the river, which was mixed with reeds, producing sun-baked bricks. They used the bricks to make houses that secured them from the changing weather and a wall that protected them from the devouring wild animals and attack of the intruders. Uruk could also be credited as the city which first recognized the importance of the individual in the collective community. The city was continuously inhabited from its founding until c. 300 CE when, owing to both natural and man-made influences, people began to desert the area. It lay abandoned and buried until excavated in 1853 CE by William Loftus for the British Museum. The Great Ziggurat of Ur Another engineering and architectural feat of the Sumerians is the Great Ziggurat of Ur. The Great Ziggurat, which is today located in the Dhi Qar Province, in the south of Iraq, is a massive step pyramid measuring 64 m in length, 46 m in width, and 30 m in Figure 1.3 The Great Ziggurat of Ur height. The construction of the Great Ziggurat of Ur The Great Ziggurat of Ur https://www.google.com/maps/uv?hl=en&pb=!1s0x3fde0f04bcb0e269%3A0x3cc2e62923d6aa66!3m1!7e11 began under King Ur-Nammu of the Third Dynasty of 5!4shttps%3A%2F%2Flh5.googleusercontent.com%2Fp%2FAF1QipP3mlwopy4zVT2LcvGe7BbF1SAww7_9d4L fMK3Q%3Dw284-h160-k-no!5sthe%20great%20ziggurat%20of%20ur%20- %20Google%20Search!15sCgIgAQ&imagekey=!1e10!2sAF1QipP3mlwopy4zVT2LcvGe7BbF1SAww7_9d4LfMK 3Q&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjM49TWyMvqAhXlKKYKHbXJA5oQoiowE3oECBoQBg# Ur (about the 21 st century B.C.), and was completed by his son, King Shulgi. The ziggurat, also called the mountain of god, was built in the same way that they constructed the City of Uruk. It was consisted of successively smaller platforms that had a solid core of mud-brick which was covered by burnt brick. This ziggurat served as the sacred place of their chief god, where only their priests were allowed to enter. Said temple exhibits not only the intricate Sumerian architecture but also the remarkable technology used to establish it. As such, even to this day, people still marvel at the preserved Great Ziggurat of Ur. Irrigation and Dikes While the Sumerians set a high value on the individual and his achievement, there was one overriding factor which fostered a strong spirit of cooperation among individuals and communities alike: the complete dependence of Sumer on irrigation for its well-being – indeed, for its very existence. Irrigation is a complicated process requiring communal effort and Figure1.4 Figure 4 Sumerian fieldsfields The Sumerian https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2 organization. Canals had to be dug and kept in constant Fancientmesopotamia5.wordpress.com%2F&psig=AOvV aw1SgAKylVnM2sf4wYaNvdOo&ust=1594783789983000 repair. This was due to the increased in population &source=images&cd=vfe&ved=2ahUKEwiuktHb5svqAhX CI6YKHYL7COoQr4kDegUIARCkAQ which demanded for more food supply but the elements in the environment seemed uncooperative. It was hard to get water from the rivers, thus people could not maintain farmlands. There were some groups which experienced scarcity in water supply, while others had problems with floods brought about by rivers. As a solution to this condition, the Sumerians created irrigation canals and dikes to let the water flow to the farmlands and at the same time control the overflowing of rivers. Such method was considered one of the world’s most beneficial engineering feats. Through these dikes and canals, the Sumerians were able to have year-round farming and harvesting that increased their ability to produce food. Sailboats Sailboats were invented primarily for trade, for war and for transportation. During the ancient times, the wheel was not yet invented; the main scheme of transportation was through rivers and seas. Boats were utilized to carry large amounts of products and covered far distances. However, Sumerians still wanted to discover more far distant lands to inhabit since the population was getting bigger, and boats were not enough to Figure 1.5 The Sumerian sailboat carry more products and people. They needed a https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinglink.com%2Fscene%2F 530058971856240640&psig=AOvVaw3hjowU3VC_WXrk73NmFrTx&ust=159479654140400 mode of transportation that did not require much 0&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCNjvlcTfzeoCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAI resource. Some sources attribute to the Sumerians the invention of sailboats to solve their increasing demands. Wood and papyrus were used to make lightweight sailboats so that it was easy for them to move on water. The sails were given a square shape and were made of linen. For battle, the platforms were raised so that the arrows could be aimed at the enemy with more accuracy. This invention in 1300 BC changed the face of trading and war, and the Sumerians were able to have the following: advance their economy, provide protection for their people, fostering their culture, information and technology. Wheel The oldest existing wheel in Mesopotamia can be dated back to 3500 BC. The Sumerians first used circular sections of logs as wheels to carry heavy objects, joining them together and rolling them along. Subsequently, they invented the sledge and then combined the two. Eventually, they decided to Figure 1.6 Mesopotamian wheel drill a hole through the frame of the cart and make a https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/wp- content/uploads/2018/01/sumerian-inventions-wheel.jpg place for the axle. The Sumerians realized that logs which had worn-out centers were more manageable  and soon these became wheels which could be connected to a chariot. The first wheels were not intended for transportation but for farm work and food processing. Now, with the aid of the wheel and axle, mass production became more feasible. Farmers were able to mill grains with ease in shorter span of time. The Plow Another farm technology made by the Sumerians is the plow. People switched from being food gatherers to farm producers. However, farmers needed a technology that would allow them to cultivate the ground to plant. The plow was invented to cultivate the soil faster. As the plow breaks the land, the Figure 1.7 Mesopotamian plow farmer would just drop the seeds and farm work https://www.history.com/.image/t_share/MTY1ODkzNDI1MD would already be done. With such tool, farmers cyMjUyMjk4/sumerian-gettyimages-55857024.jpg could have the capacity to dig larger parcels of land easily making them to mass produce food without taking so much time and effort. Roads The Sumerians developed the first roads in order to facilitate easier and faster travel. This made the flow of traffic become more organized. In making roads, they utilized the same technology of using sun- baked bricks that were laid down on the ground. After which they poured bitumen, a black sticky substance Figure 1.8 Building of Sumerian roads similar to asphalt, in smoothening the roads. Such endeavor of inventing roads was very beneficial particularly during the rainy season when people travel in soft and muddy roads which was very difficult to traverse. BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION Babylonian civilization emerged near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Hammurabi Law serves as rule and standard which maintains a period of stability in this region. The Babylonians were characterized as great builders, architects, and engineers. One of their major contributions is the hanging gardens of Babylon, which is considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Hanging Gardens of Babylon Figure 1.9 The Hanging Gardens of Babylon https://www.ancient.eu/image/77/hanging-gardens-of-babylon/ The Hanging Gardens of Babylon was said to be a structure made up of layers of gardens that contained varieties of plants, trees, and vines. According to legends, Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II built said gardens for his wife, Queen Amytis. However, there was no physical proof of its existence; even its location is also unknown. Since time immemorial, people have been arguing about the existence of the said mythical place. Many said it was just a product of the creative imagination of the great King because it lacked archaeological evidence. On the other hand, if it really existed, it must have been destroyed by disasters like earthquake, soil erosion or even wars. True or not, learning the descriptions and stories of the place would be enough to put hearers in awe. One can imagine various types of plants and flowers with varying colors and appearances that beautify the complicated infrastructure. Thus, if said stories were true, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon may be considered one of the best engineering and architectural feats of the world that is very difficult to replicate. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION Another early civilization well-known for its legacy is the Egyptian civilization. The ancient Egyptians built their pyramids, tombs, temples, and palaces out of stone, the most durable among all the building materials. Although earthquakes, wars, and the forces of nature have taken their toll, the remains of Egypt's monumental architectural achievements are visible across the land, a tribute to the greatness of this civilization. These building projects took a high degree of architectural and engineering skill and the organization of a large workforce consisting of highly trained craftsmen and laborers. Aside from engineering technology, the Egyptians have contributed other practical things that the world now considers essential.  Papyrus One of the major contributions of Egyptian civilization was the paper or papyrus. This made writing easier for the world after the development of the system of writing by the Sumerians. Before, clay tablets were commonly used by the ancient people in their record keeping and documentation. However, these clay tablets were heavy and fragile, making them difficult to transport from one place Figure 1.10 The Egyptian papyrus paper to another. Thus, the Egyptian invention of paper or https://www.heatoncooper.co.uk/wp- content/uploads/2017/11/papyrus.jpg papyrus was a welcome innovation. Papyrus is a writing material made from the papyrus plant, a reed that grows in the marshy areas around the Nile River. Papyrus was used as a writing material as early as 3,000 BC in ancient Egypt and continued to be used to some extent until around 1100 AD. Egyptians were able to process the plant to come up with thin sheets on which one could write down things. Since papyrus was lighter and thinner than clay tablets, it was easy to store and carry. The sheets were also less breakable as compared to clay tablets. Such invention became a major achievement in Egyptian record-keeping and communications. Having such, people were able to send letters anywhere in the world. Furthermore, record-keeping was no longer a difficulty since documents would not require big storage areas. Thus, it was more convenient to keep them away from intruders who often destroyed records of the nations they invaded.  Ink Upon the Egyptians’ invention of the papyrus or paper, engraving on the clay tablets ceased. As a result, the Egyptians invented ink by combining soot with various chemicals in order to come up with ink of different colors. The ink must withstand the elements of nature since it was utilized to record culture, history, and codified laws. It must be also tamper-proof so that people could not simply alter Figure 1.11 The Egyptian ink those written by authorities. https://live.mrf.io/statics/i/ps/cdn.zmescience.com/wp- content/uploads/2017/11/calligraphy-brush- 2884392_960_720.jpg?width=1200&enable=upscale Hieroglyphics The Egyptians also developed their own system of writing utilizing symbols, known as hieroglyphics. Although some say that hieroglyphics was adapted from the Cuneiform of the Sumerians as a result of trade between civilizations, the Egyptians believed that this writing system was given to them by their gods. This form of writing can Figure 1.12 Egyptian hieroglyphics still be viewed to this date and remains to be https://cdn.britannica.com/s:700x500/18/153418-050- famous as the pyramids. Hieroglyphics was 2975B7F2/Hieroglyphics-temple-wall-Karnak-Egypt.jpg the language that tells the modern world of the history and culture of the ancient Egyptians. Their documentations were well-preserved since they were carved at the walls of the pyramids and other essential Egyptian structures. Cosmetics Cosmetics are an essential part of Egyptian hygiene and health. Men and women in Egypt utilize scented oils and ointments to clean and soften their skin and mask body odor. Oils and creams are used for protection against the hot Egyptian sun and dry winds. Myrrh, thyme, marjoram, chamomile, lavender, lily, peppermint, rosemary, cedar, rose, aloe, olive oil, Figure 1.13 Egyptian woman wearing sesame oil, and almond oil provide the basic cosmetics ingredients of most perfumes Egyptians use in https://cosmeticsinfo.org/Ancient-history-cosmetics religious rituals. Egyptians wore Kohl around the eyes to prevent and even cure eye illnesses. Kohl was created through mixing soot or malachite with mineral galena. Egyptians also believed that wearing make-up can protect a person from evil and that beauty was an indicator of holiness. Thus, cosmetics were used for aesthetic, health and religious purposes. Wig Wig was another cosmetic invention of the ancient Egyptians. Upper-class Egyptian men and women considered wigs an essential part of their wardrobe. Wearing a wig signaled a person's rank in Egyptian society. Although a shaved head was a sign Figure 1.14 Ancient Egyptian wig of nobility during most of the Egyptian https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Lr1lI-JA_XE/WnEQNj- kingdoms, the majority of Egyptians kept DbLI/AAAAAAAAFeg/QvGlq-MLHvAoQ_KpPrilC- YEYnM03gPWgCLcBGAs/s320/Cr-elCrUMAA010Y.jpg their heads covered. Wigs were worn in place of headdresses or, for special occasions, with elaborate headdresses. Egyptian law prohibited slaves and servants from shaving their heads or wearing wigs. Moreover, wigs were worn for health and aesthetic purposes. The wigs were used for the protection of the wealthy peoples’ shaved head against the harmful rays of the sun. Wearing of such was better than putting on a scarf or any head cover since wigs allow the escape of heat. Also, wigs were considered safer and cleaner than the natural hair due to the fact that they prevented the accumulation of head lice. Water Clock/Clepsydra Clepsydra, also called the water clock, was an ancient device used for measuring time by the gradual flow of water. The amount of water or its height remaining in the device tells how much time has elapsed since it is full. In doing such, time is measured. Clepsydra was widely utilized as a timekeeping device during the ancient period. Figure 1.15 Egyptian clepsydra https://i.pinimg.com/originals/77/8f/68/ 778f68fda1041983b25d086d2d7b7610. png GREEK CIVILIZATION Greece is an archipelago located in the southern part of Europe. It is popularly known as the cradle of western philosophy as well as the initiator of in-depth works in mathematics. Also, Greece has contributed the establishments of the coliseums and the Olympics. Aside from the Greeks’ abovementioned major achievements, a lot of inventions were credited to them due to their passion for science and technology.  Alarm Clock Alarm clock was invented in the time of ancient Greece. The idea of an alarm clock was from an engineer called Ctesibus. Time was tracked by a water clock. Ctesibus made a system of dropping pebbles on a gong to make a sound which was the first alarm clock. The droppings of pebbles were set to end a specific time. In Greece, the alarm could be Figure 1.16 Plato’s alarm clock used in many ways. It can alert people when an hour https://brewminate.com/wp- content/uploads/2017/05/AlarmClock05.jpg goes by or when it is time to eat. Then, Plato also made his own version of an alarm clock. His alarm clock utilized four water vessels lined up vertically. The upper vessel supplied which dropped to the vessel below it, which was set to be filled in a given time. After it was full, water was siphoned off at a faster rate into the third vessel which would cause the expulsion of contained air, creating a whistling noise. Afterwards, this vessel would empty towards the bottom vessel for storage and reuse. Water Mill Another great contribution of the Greek civilization to the world is the water mill. A watermill is a structure that uses water wheel or turbine to drive a mechanical process such as flour, lumber or textile production, or metal shaping (rolling, grinding or wire drawing). There are two basic types of watermills, one powered by a vertical waterwheel through a gearing mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal waterwheel without such a mechanism. Watermills were commonly used in agricultural processes like milling of grains which was a must in food processing during that time. And through the aid of milling, mass Figure 1.17 Greek water mill production of rice, flours and the like became common. These watermills were considered better https://i2.wp.com/greekerthanthegreeks.com/wp- content/uploads/2017/10/Tech0022a.jpg?resize=640%2 than mills powered by farm animals due because they C538&ssl=1 required less time and effort to operate. They only requirement for their operation was a large wheel with small “buckets” of water attached to it. ROMAN CIVILIZATION Ancient Rome is undoubtedly one of the most well-known civilizations for inventions that changed the course of human development. However, in many cases, Roman invention was more accurately innovation, bringing about changes to existing technology. Arches Even though the first use of this incredible architectural invention predates even the earliest years of the Roman civilization, the arch truly became an essential structure in the general architecture paradigm once the Romans adapted it to their own designs. It was the Romans who first found a way to set an arch on top of two tall pedestals such that Figure 1.18 Roman arches it would span a walkway (and in many https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/wp- content/uploads/2015/05/Ancient-rome-invention-Sewers-and- cases, even highways). These arches sanitation.jpg went on to become pivotal engineering constructions that laid the foundation for many of the subsequent structural highlights of ancient Rome. Many bridges were built upon these arches, and so were the aqueducts, sewers, amphitheaters, and even the great Colosseum. Roman arches were later used in the Middle Ages when some of the most magnificent cathedrals in history were built. In fact, it was the only known method for putting a roof on a building without the use of support beams.  Sewers and Sanitation The ancient Roman Empire in many ways boasted the highest level of sewage and sanitation management in contemporary times. The Romans established a number of public baths, latrines, and an interlinked Figure 1.19 Roman sewers and sanitation sewage line binding them all together in a https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/wp- complex and efficient feat of engineering. content/uploads/2015/05/Ancient-rome-invention-Sewers-and- sanitation.jpg Rome and other major cities had an extensive network of sewers and drains that ran along the sides of the streets. The abundance of water in Roman aqueducts along with runoff water from local streams was regularly used to flush these drains and sewers. The flush would then dump all the waste into the nearest river (usually the Tiber), which does not sound the best sanitary solution but was far better than leaving the sewage lying around in the streets. The ancient Romans also excelled in the use of covered gutters and sewer lines to which the majority of houses in the city were connected. Without a doubt, their sewage and sanitation system made the ancient Romans forerunners for subsequent practices in sanitation throughout the world. Roman Architecture Roman architecture is one of the most visual achievements of the ancient Roman civilization to the world. Such architecture was considered a continuation of Greek architecture, hence, the resemblance. However, Roman architecture was still considered as pioneering since Romans were able to adapt new building and engineering technology on architectural Figure 1.20 Ancient Roman coliseum designs made in the past. In this manner, they https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1 /Roma06%28js%29.jpg/1200px-Roma06%28js%29.jpg were able to preserve the architectural integrity  and designs of their infrastructures. The Romans were also able to creatively redesign the old architectural patterns to adapt to new trends at that period. Such development in the field of engineering and architecture was fully funded by the Roman government so they were able to implement major projects such as large cathedrals and basilicas, aqueducts, coliseums, amphitheaters, and even residential houses. Such innovation withstood time and the harsh elements of the environment. To this date, many people are still in awe to said structures and that this just proves the ingenuity of the ancient Roman technology. Roman Numerals As the name already suggests, Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome. Constituting one of the most popular numbering systems still in use today, the first use of these numbers dates back to somewhere between 900 and 800 BC. Back then, the existing counting systems could not keep up with the need for ever complex calculation requirements. Roman Figure 1.21 Roman Numerals numerals were developed to serve the purpose of https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Roman- Numerals-table-rome-invention.jpg delivering a standard counting method that could be efficiently used in communication and trade. However, these Roman numbers came with their flaws such as the absence of the number zero and the inability to calculate fractions, among others. Despite this, these numbers survived even after the fall of the Roman Empire. Their use in movie titles, books, and many other popular and cultural spheres today shows the long-lasting legacy of this ancient numerical notation. Newspaper One of the major contributions of the Romans is the newspaper. The very first newspapers, gazettes, contained important announcements of the Roman government to the people. Made before the invention of paper, these gazettes were engraved in metal or stone tablets and then publicly displayed. When paper was invented, it Figure 1.22 The Ancient Roman newspaper became easier for the Romans to “publish” https://www.history.com/.image/t_share/MTU3ODc4Njg5NDE0MTk 0OTEx/image-placeholder-title.jpg matters that required Roman citizens’ attention. As a matter of fact, with the advent of paper, minutes of the proceedings of the Roman senate were made in shorthand. Such documents were then edited and published on the same day that they were recorded. This way, Roman citizens enjoyed easy access to government information. Bound Books or Codex A codex was an early form of what we now know as a book. It is distinguished by handwritten, sequential pages bound together and enclosed between a case (that is, cover) to form a single, portable unit of reading material. These early books replaced scrolls but pre-date the invention of the mechanical Figure 1.23 Bound books or Codexes printing press. The term "codex" is often used https://www.ancientpages.com/wp- content/uploads/2017/09/boundbooks.jpg to refer to any ancient, hand-written text. Codex was developed because right after the invention of paper, Romans became very fond of documenting their legislated laws and historical events. Also, their literature also changed form from clay tablets to parchments of paper. According to sources, it was the Emperor Julius Caesar who started the tradition of stacking up of papyrus to form pages of a book. Later on, Romans were able to come up with covers of the piled pages to protect them from getting wet and against any other possible source of damages. The earlier covers were made of wax but were later on substituted by animal skin which proved to be longer-lasting. This paved the way for the production of the first books or codex. CHINESE CIVILIZATION China, also known as the middle kingdom, is located on the far east of Asia. Its civilization is considered to be the oldest in the said continent, if not in the world. It was famous among other ancient civilizations because of its silk trade. Due to its distance from other civilizations, not a great amount of information was written about ancient China. However, its significant contribution to the civilization of the world is undeniable. Silk Silk is a thin, but strong fiber that silkworms produce when they are making their cocoons. It can be woven into a very soft and smooth fabric. Silk fabric was invented in Ancient China through the development of its technology. Silk trade connected China to the rest of the world allowing cultural, economic and scientific exchanges. This also bridged the gap between the western world and the middle kingdom. Figure 1.24 Women checking silk, Song China https://www.ancient.eu/img/r/p/500x600/6920.jpg.webp? v=1569517040 Tea Production The history of tea dates back to ancient China, almost 5,000 years ago. According to legend, in 2732 B.C. Emperor Shen Nung discovered tea when leaves from a wild tree blew into his pot of boiling water. He was immediately interested in the pleasant scent of the resulting brew, and drank some. Legend says the Emperor described a warm feeling as he drank the intriguing brew, as if the liquid was Figure 1.25 Chinese tea investigating every part of his body. https://data.chinatravel.com/images/userupload/meimeili/201 320230920261.jpg Shen Nung named the brew "ch'a", the Chinese character meaning to check or investigate. In 200 B.C. a Han Dynasty Emperor ruled that when referring to tea, a special written character must be used illustrating wooden branches, grass, and a man between the two. This written character, also pronounced "ch'a" symbolized the way tea brought humankind into balance with nature for the Chinese culture. Tea production was developed when an unknown Chinese inventor created a machine that was able to shred tea leaves into strips. Such machine made used of a wheel-based mechanism with sharp edges attached to a wooden or ceramic pot. This invention made the production of tea to increase and trade with other nations. Thus, China became popular for its tea exports aside from its silk products. Great Wall of China Figure 1.26 The Great Wall of China https://www.toptenz.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/wall-got.jpg The Great Wall of China is an ancient series of walls and fortifications, totaling more than 13,000 miles in length, located in northern China. It was made with stone, brick, wood, earth, and other materials that exhibited the Chinese engineering feat. The structure was so massive and strong that it is considered as the only man-made structure that could be seen from the outer space. The wall’s construction put the China to be one of the powerful civilizations during the ancient period. This continues to be this nation’s pride and crowning glory due to its historical significance and architectural grandeur. Gunpowder In Chinese, gunpowder is called huo yao, meaning flaming medicine. Unlike paper and printing, the birth of gunpowder was quite accidental. It was first invented inadvertently by alchemists while attempting to make an elixir of immortality. It was a mixture of Sulphur, saltpeter, and charcoal. Such mixture generated big amounts of heat and gas in Figure 1.27 Chinese Gun Powder https://assets.sutori.com/user-uploads/image/dee6b2a5- an instant. At the end of the Tang Dynasty, 96dd-4299-bfad- 43bf39f11eee/1e7f8988f10a994daac3e6f78db98f07.jpeg gunpowder was being used in military affairs. During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, frequent wars spurred the development of cannons, and fire-arrows shot from bamboo tubes. Ironically, instead of prolonging life, gunpowder is widely used to propel bullets from guns and cannons which cause countless casualties. In the 12th and 13th centuries, gunpowder spread to the Arab countries, then Greece, other European countries, and finally all over the world. On the other hand, gunpowder is also used in fireworks during significant occasions in China. MEDIEVAL/ MIDDLE AGES Middle Ages, Medieval Times, and Dark Ages generally pertain to the same period from 500 to 1500 AD. It covers the time from the fall of the Roman Empire to the rise of the Ottoman Empire. Europe experienced an intellectual revitalization, especially concerning the investigation of the natural world and major technological advances. Agricultural innovations consisted of the heavy-wheeled plow, three-field crop rotation system, horse collar, stirrup, horseshoe, Artesian well, and wheelbarrow. Military technology includes the counterweight trebuchet for hurling huge stones to very long distances; longbow and steel crossbow for hunting and weapon; complete full plate armor for body protection and the skills involved in working metal. Other inventions consisted of vertical windmills, spectacles, mirrors, mechanical clocks, hourglasses, greatly improved water mills, spinning wheels, and blast furnaces. Emergence of the first universities that trained the middle class in theology, medicine, and law later on modern universities such as Oxford and Cambridge were established during this time in England. In the 14th century, there was the crisis of the Late Middle Ages with the Black Death that wiped out so many lives and affected the entire system. It brought a sudden end to the previous period of massive scientific change. The plague killed 25-50% of the people in Europe, especially in the crowded conditions of the towns, where the heart of innovations lay. The quarantine technique was established, initially 40 days. The Republic of Ragusa introduced the quarantine to prevent the spreading of diseases like the Black Death. Venice adopted quarantines, and then the practice spread around Europe. Microscope Microscope was another invention during the Middle Ages. Because of massive migration and urbanization during this period, population kept on growing. This made the people to live in polluted and populated areas that brought them various illnesses. In order to develop the appropriate solutions, experts must first understand the cause of sicknesses through proper investigations. Hence, they needed a device that could magnify very minute objects. Guided by the principles used for the invention of eye glasses in Figure 1.28 The early microscope https://i0.wp.com/forumsmix.com/blog/wp- earlier years, Zacharias Janssen was able to invent the content/uploads/2013/02/invention-of-microscope- 32134.jpg?resize=1000%2C600 first ever compound microscope. Through this device, people were given the idea of the microorganisms that were not seen by the naked eye. This device was considered to be one of the main keys in the discovery of new schemes in the prevention and cure of various diseases (Davidson, 2015). Telescope Since the Middles Ages was also known as the Age of Exploration, the need for nautical inventions was high. Considering the vast and empty oceans that separated lands, ship captains needed to see far and wide for them to navigate or to avoid dangers at sea. This paved the way for the invention of telescope. This Figure 1.29 Galilean telescope telescope helped the navigators to observe very https://cdn.britannica.com/52/752-050-CA91D3CB/Two- Galileo-telescopes-Institute-and-Museum-of.jpg remote objects during this period. Sea travelling then became somehow easier and faster because of the telescope along with other inventions like oars, compass and rudders (Helden, 1989). War Weapons Due to widespread invasions and wars during the Middle Ages, great development in the area of weaponry technology also happened. Instruments and tools intended for wars were invented both for offensive and defensive purposes. For open-area battles, people were able to come up with cross bows and long bows for attacking the Figure 1.30 War weapons enemies at long ranges. https://www.anatomynote.com/wp- content/uploads/2019/05/6320/Middle-ages-weapons-different- Another invention that helped the types.jpg soldiers was the creation of iron body armors. But since, metal body armors are really heavy, this made the movements of the soldiers limited. However, they were also able to address such issue through the creation of chainmail. Also, fortified walls and fortresses made people safe from harm and danger. Renaissance Times The Renaissance was a time of creativity and rebirth of cultural and intellectual pursuits centered in Italy during the 1300s before spreading throughout Europe. The Renaissance produced a golden age with great advances in art, literature, science, geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, manufacturing, anatomy, and engineering, and most importantly, it produced a new concept of how people thought of themselves, each other, and the world around them. Printing Press This invention then evolved to become a mechanical printing press which was eventually utilized all over the world. This printing press was invented to meet the need for book publication that would immediate disseminate information to a lot of people. Also, such an invention made works accessible to individuals who could not even write (Streissguth, 1997). Figure 1.31 The Mechanical Printing Press Source: Daniel Chodowiecki/Wikimedia Commons The most important technological innovation during this time was the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg which began printing the Bible in everyday language. This invention led to a higher literacy rate among people and helped spread Renaissance ideas which gave birth to the invention of the newspaper. Some important Renaissance technologies include both innovations and improvements on existing techniques and branches of science: mining and metallurgy: blast furnace, finery forge, slitting mill, arquebus, firearms, musket; the inventions of the nautical compass, mariner's astrolabe, dry dock and floating dock. Moreover, Alchemy was also recognized during this period. Alchemy refers to the transformation of other base substances such as sulphur or copper into gold and the discovery of a cure for diseases and ways of extending life. In medicine, there was an increase in experimental investigation, principally in the field of dissection and body examination, thus, advancing the knowledge of human anatomy. Andreas Vesalius who described the anatomy of the brain and other organs gave birth to Neurology. William Harvey provided a refined and complete description of the circulatory system. MODERN TIMES Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution was the occurrence of modern science during the early modern period when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry took place during the 16th and 17th centuries which transformed views of society and nature. The scientific revolution began in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance period, influencing the intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment or Age of Reason. Many revolutionary developments occurred in this period, using scientific methods that sought to investigate or answer certain questions implied in the framework of certain theories. Using experiment and observation to uncover phenomena, discover new ideas, and new inventions that began to disprove inadequate old beliefs or hypotheses. Moreover, there’s also a gradual acceptance of systematic experimentation by the scientific community. Scientific Revolution led to the inventions of microscope, barometer, thermometer, and telescope. These instruments helped in the creation of new intellectual knowledge such as magnetism, electricity, heliocentric theory, elliptical orbit of celestial body, discovery of planets and moons. The Scientific Revolution emphasized the following theories: 1. Heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus 2. The planets travel around the Sun in elliptical orbits, one focus of the ellipse being occupied by the Sun of Kepler 3. There are innumerable stars invisible to the naked eye, sunspots, phases of Venus and Moons of Jupiter of Galileo 4. The observation of minute living things that cannot be seen by naked eye of Leeuwenhoek 5. The Law of Inertia states that if the vector sum of the forces acting on an object is zero, then the object will remain at rest or remain moving at constant velocity of Newton 6. The Law of acceleration states that a net force on an object will accelerate it—that is, change its velocity. The acceleration will be proportional to the magnitude of the force and in the same direction as the force of Newton 7. The law of Interaction states that an object experiences a force because it is interacting with some other object. The force that object 1 exerts on object 2 must be of the same magnitude but in the opposite direction as the force that object 2 exerts on object 1 of Newton 8. The law of Universal Gravitation states that the pull of the Earth on objects at its surface is its pull of gravity of Newton Industrial Revolution Industrial Revolution was the transition to new technological processes in Europe Britain and the United States that took place during 1750-to 1900. It is a historical period where the pace of change and innovation appeared to speed up and the merger of technology with industry occurred. The acceleration in the processes of technical innovation produces an array of new tools and machines. An outstanding feature of the Industrial Revolution has been the advances in power technology. The Industrial Revolution was the most profound revolution in human history because of its sweeping impact on people's daily lives.  The following are some key inventions and innovations that served to shape virtually every existing sector of human activity along industrial lines: 1. There is the utilization of energy and the power of wind and water during the early period of the Industrial Revolution. Most industrial powers were supplied by water and wind using waterwheels, windmills, and water turbines. The most popular energy source was water power. It was used for grinding grain and other types of millwork during preindustrial Europe. 2. Steam power or Steam engine was first installed to pump water out of coal mines but now high-pressure engines had high power making it suitable for transportation. A Watt steam engine became widely used in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution. 3. The discovery of Petroleum and natural gases enhanced internal- combustion engines lay in the need for a light locomotive engine. 4. The internal combustion engine - the combustion of a fuel releases a high-temperature gas, which, as it expands, applies a force to a piston, moving it. Thus, combustion engines convert chemical energy into mechanical work. The engine was steered in the Industrial Age, which enabled the invention of a huge variety of machines, including modern cars and aircraft. 5. The development of electricity as a source of power preceded this conjunction with steam power late in the 19th century. 6. Agriculture technology such as seed drill and plow, crop rotation system, and animal husbandry bring about a substantial increase in agricultural productivity capable of feeding a rapidly growing population with improved nutrition. 7. The textile industry was the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, especially in producing fabrics and cotton. The boom in productivity began with a few technical devices, including the spinning jenny, spinning mule, power loom, and cotton gin. Steam power was applied to operate these machines and other specialized equipment. 8. To efficiently deliver agricultural products, overland roads were improved, canals were dug to create maritime corridors between existing waterways, and railroads were constructed. Wagons, automobiles, rail transit, and the early  airplane were manufactured. 9. Manufacturing of chemicals such as sulphuric acid used for pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, explosives, bleaching solutions, sodium carbonate, solvents, fertilizers, and medicines, including pharmaceuticals, were established. 10. Metallurgy: there were more changes in the metal industries during the Industrial Revolution era, there was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given amount of heat, coal required much less labor to mine than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal, and coal was more abundant than wood. 11. Machine tools: screw cutting lathe, cylinder boring machine, and the milling machine created a demand for metal parts used in machinery which led to the development of several machine tools. 12. The invention of cement by heating a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400°C, which is then mixed with water, sand, and gravel to produce concrete. Cement is used on a large scale in the construction of buildings. 13. In glass making, a new method of producing glass known as the cylinder-blown sheet was invented to make window pane glass and plate glass. 14. The discovery of the atomic nucleus in 1911 and the numerous subatomic particles including electrons opened up the field of atomic and nuclear physics. 15. The development of biochemistry and molecular biology paved the way for the recognition of important biological processes at the molecular level and the discovery of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a molecule that carries the genetic material of the living things. 16. Modern medicine has profited from this explosion of knowledge in biology and biochemistry which led to the development of penicillin, insulin, and a vast array of drugs to pacemakers for new methods of treating diseases ranging from the production of weak hearts and implantation of artificial or donated organs. 17. In astronomy, ever larger telescopes were invented and used to study the sun and the huge collection of stars called the Milky Way. Through space travel, astronomers were able to study and discover the nature of the universe beyond Earth. The space age began with the launch of the first artificial satellites in 1957, and astronauts have ventured into space for further study. A human first went into space in 1961. Since then cosmonauts and astronauts have ventured into space for further study of the universe. 20th Century There are heaps of developments of science and technology during this century and it keeps on upgrading. The following are some of the remarkable inventions that had a major impact on human beings: 1. The electronics industry was introduced in the early 20th century and has greatly advanced. Complex devices like computers before could fill an entire room, but now they can be carried in an attaché case, and it is even included in the cell phone. The electronic computer has become one of the important tools of the modern industry. A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it, processes it according to the instructions provided by a user, and then returns the result. 2. Electronics have been fundamental in developing innovative communication devices such as radio, intercoms, television, headphones, microphones, and laser. 3. The airplane was invented by the Wright brothers, Wilbur and Orville. It is a powered fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller. Commercial airlines are a massive industry involving the flying of tens of thousands of passengers daily. The extensive uses of airplanes include recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. 4. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive medical test that physicians use to diagnose medical conditions or the presence of certain diseases and abnormalities or monitor treatment for a variety of conditions within the body. It uses a powerful magnetic field, radio waves or pulses, and a computer to produce detailed pictures of the inside of your body such as organs, soft tissues, bone, and virtually all other internal body structures. 5. The Internet was the work of dozens of pioneering scientists, programmers, and engineers. This technology paved the way for wireless communication, which helps users to communicate with their relatives and friends and also learn news and information both locally and globally. This technology, with its new features eventually merged to become the "information superhighway" we know today. 6. Optic fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone  signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals. Today, Optic fiber is present in virtually every nation on the Earth, forming the absolute strength of the modern communications infrastructure. 7. Air Conditioning system - in 1902, an engineer from New York named Willis Carrier invented the first modern air- conditioning system, which sent air through water-cooled coils, it was designed to control humidity. In 1922, he followed up with the invention of the centrifugal chiller. Carrier's innovation shaped 20th-century America. 8. 3D Metal Printing is one of the advances in technology that provide instant metal fabrication. This innovation enables the ability to create large, intricate metal structures on demand and therefore could revolutionize manufacturing. 9. Genetic engineering or genetic modification is a process of modifying the genetic material of a certain organism by inserting new genes into it. The resulting new organism is called a genetically modified organism (GMO) that shows changes in it according to the gene's function in the body. GMOs are produced using recombinant DNA technology and cloning technology. 10. Artificial Embryos are made from stem cells alone without using egg or sperm cells. It is a breakthrough that will open new possibilities for understanding how life comes into existence- but also raises vital ethical and even philosophical problems. PHILIPPINE INVENTIONS Despite being categorized as a third-world country, the Philippines also gives its contribution to the global advancement of science and technology. It is remarkable to emphasize the ingenuity and creativity of the Filipinos despite the lack in resources. The following are just some of the many achievements of Filipino scientists and inventors. SALt lamp Since, the Philippines constitute the 7, 107 islands where majority are rural areas, electrification is one of its major needs. As a matter of fact, activities in said localities would cease when it gets dark. Also, travelling at night becomes dangerous. In such cases, Filipinos have resorted to the utilization of candles and kerosene lamps but these however, may pose greater risks because they are fire Figure 1.32 SALt lamp with its inventor, Engr. Aisa Mijeno hazards. Solar power is also a welcoming alternative https://sa.kapamilya.com/absnews/abscbnnews/media/ 2015/nation/12/22/saltlamp-1.jpg but like the rechargeable batteries, these solar panels are very expensive for the common Filipinos. Fortunately, Aisa Mijeno, a young Filipina inventor, was able to invent a lighting system that makes use of a material that is abundant in the Philippines-saltwater. She came up with the Sustainable Alternative Lighting (SALt) lamp, which is an environment-friendly light sources that operates on saltwater. This SALt lamp is safer as it brings no risk of fire and emits no harmful gases. And not just those folks who live nearby coastal areas who may benefit from this, it may also benefit those from very remote barrios because they can also make their own saltwater by just mixing two tablespoons of salt and a glass of tap water. Salamander Amphibious Tricycle Converting transport vehicles into something more useful has become ordinary for Filipinos. A very good example is the conversion of American jeeps which were used during the World War II into jeepneys. Another innovation is the addition of a sidecar to a motorcycle that is Figure 1.33 The Salamander Amphibious Tricycle https://images.summitmedia- transformed into a tricycle to accommodate more digital.com/topgear/images/articleImages/news/0_2015/0 1/23/salamander_price/salamander-price-main.jpg passengers. Since, the Philippines is prone to flooding during the rainy season, said tricycles find it very hard to traverse the streets. To address such issue, H20 technologies headed by Dominic N. Chung and Lamberto Armada, together with Chief Designer Victor “Atoy” Llave, was able to come up with Salamander, an amphibious tricycle that can cross not only flooded streets but also lakes and rivers. This can also be used to do island to island travel. Salamander can fully maximize its potential and use because of the fact that the Philippines is an archipelago. Medical Incubator One of the common problems in the Philippines is the high mortality rate of new born babies. This was due to the lack of available incubators particularly in the remote areas where no electricity is experienced. Fortunately, Dr. Fe Del Mundo, a Filipino pediatrician and the first Asian woman admitted into Harvard Medical School, invented a medical incubator which was made form cheap and indigenous Fig. 1.34 Dr. Fe Del Mundo's incubator materials which did not operate on electricity. Her incubator was made by placing a native laundry basket within a bigger one. Inserted between these baskets are the hot bottles that provide warmth and a makeshift hood to permit oxygen circulation. The incubator’s main purpose was to maintain conditions suitable for the newborns, particularly the pre-matured ones. Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System Dengue, a mosquito-borne viral disease, is endemic in tropical and subtropical areas like the Philippines. This is usually brought by this mosquito species, Aedes aegypti which are dominating during the rainy season. Previously, Figure 1.35 OL trap https://files.pia.gov.ph/source/2018/08/17/39182334_79289 insecticides were already used to mortify said 9781090885_6811884170873143296_n_5b763b50786cd4_25 946718.jpg antics. However, recent studies show that insecticide resistance has evolved in some populations of mosquitos. Also, the utilization of insecticides poses great harm both to humans and even to the environment. And to resolve the issue, in 2010, the Department of Science and Technology-Industrial Technology Development Institute (DOST-ITDI), was able to introduce the Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System, which was also known as OL Trap. Said trap system is composed of natural ingredients that are lethal to dengue-carrying mosquitoes but really safe for humans and the environment. Ejeepney The development of the jeepney is one of the major innovations that changed the transportation industry in the Philippines. The jeepney was built using the military jeeps which were left by the Americans after the Second World War. The chassis and body of the military jeeps were extended to accommodate more load and passengers. Jeepney is considered as the Figure 1.36 eJeepney primary mode of transportation on Philippine https://eco- business.imgix.net/ebmedia/fileuploads/GP01G2X_PressMed streets because of its usefulness. However, this ia_1.jpg?auto=format&dpr=2&fit=max&ixlib=django- jeepney also faces some challenges. Since it is 1.2.0&q=45&w=340 engine-powered, it emits black smoke that contribute to air pollution. It is also one of the major contributors of noise pollution due to old exhaust system. And to resolve said issues, the electric jeepney (eJeepney) was invented. This modern type of transportation uses electricity instead of the more expensive and air-polluting diesel. It is environment-friendly since it does not give off any black smoke and noise. Science Fact Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to rapidly make many copies of a specific DNA to study in detail. Often regarded as one of the most important scientific advances in molecular biology, it was invented by Kary B. Mullis in the 1980s. PCR revolutionized the study of DNA sometimes called "molecular photocopying," which is a fast and inexpensive technique used to amplify/copy small segments of DNA. PCR can be used in many different laboratory procedures such as most mapping techniques in the Human Genome Project (HGP), for a valuable number of laboratory and clinical techniques, including DNA fingerprinting, detection of bacteria or viruses (AIDS, Covid-19), and diagnosis of genetic disorders. Test for Covid 19 https://lirp.cdn-website.com/69c0b277/dms3rep/multi/opt/Difference+between+RT-PCR+and+Rapid+Antigen+Test-640w.jpg The RT-PCR test is a real-time Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction Test to directly detect the actual presence of an antigen of the COVID-19 virus (RNA) if someone is actively infected. It uses nasopharyngeal swabs; this test can tell whether or not someone has the virus as early on so they can be quarantined just in case. Rapid antibody testing is used to detect the presence of antibodies as produced by the body if someone is positive and uses blood. The body produces antibodies in response to an infection, however generally arise after 4 days to more than a week after infection, so they are not used to diagnose current disease. Guide Questions Answer the following. 1. Can you give five other major scientific and technological developments in the world (or in the Philippines) that made a great impact on your everyday life? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 2. What historical antecedents paved the way for the inventions that you mentioned in question number 1? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ Learning Activity Standing on the Shoulder of the Giants You are going to be divided into four groups. The three groups will be assigned to each of the three time periods (ancient, middle, modern), and the last group to Philippine inventions. Each member of the group should search for one great achievement during their assigned time period aside from those discussed in this module. Afterward, accomplish the following: 1. Draw or print a picture of your chosen achievement. As a group, collect and paste these inventions on a ¼ illustration board. Design the board with a theme appropriate to the assigned time period. 2. Explain in your own words how each invention works. Also identify their use and purpose. Paste the information at the back of the illustration board. 3. Present your project in class. Conclude your report by discussing how these inventions impacted the people and the society during the time period when they were made. Rubric: Criterion Exemplary Comments Points Performance Relevance to the The presentation is Theme (40%) centered around the assigned tasks and showing awareness on the content/concept of the topic given Creativity (20%) The presentation is creatively and effectively delivered in  conveying the ideas Resourcefulness The presentation (20%) observes appropriate improvisation of readily available materials that adds up to the over-all quality of the work. Teamwork (20%) The presentation reflects complementation of roles/tasks between and among of the group. Total Points Summary The items presented in this chapter are just some of the many great inventions and achievements made during the different time periods. There are still more innovations and accomplishments that were done in the course of history that greatly changed the world. The Philippines has also made its way in contributing to the development of science and technology. From the desire to meet the basic needs, humans learned to for look their desires’ fulfillment through developing specific technology. Indeed, the continuous evolution of science and technology has made the areas of communication, transportation, weaponry, education, business, etc to greatly develop for the benefit of humanity.. References Aldea, K., Caronan, H.P., & Candido, M.B. Science, Technology and Society. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp., Barangka Drive, Mandaluyong City. 2022. Caoli, Olivia. “A History of Science and Technology of the Philippines,” in Analysis of Conditions for National Scientific and Technological Self-Reliance: The Philippine Situation, Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1986. Davidson, M. (2015). Zacharias Janssen. Retrieved from https:// micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/janssen.html Floridi, Luciano. 2014. The Fourth Revolution, Oxford University Press Helden V. (1989). Introduction to Sidereus Nuncius. Illinois: University of Chicago Press. Kuhn, Structure of Scientific Revolution (http://projektintegracija.pravo.hr/_download/repository/Kuhn_Structure_of_Scientific _Revolutions.pdf) McNamara, Daniel Joseph (2018). Science, Technology, and Society. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc. Philosophy of Science (Encyclopedia). Scientific Progress, Scientific Revolutions (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific- progress/#SciPro) (http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Philosophy_of_science.aspx#3) (http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Scientific_Revolutions.aspx#3) Serafica, Janice Patria J. (et. al). (2018). Science, Technology, and Society. Manila : Rex Book Store. Streissguth, T. (1997). Chapter one: Johann Gutenberg and the printing press. Olive Press. 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