Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience PDF

Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5e Chapter 1: Introduction to...

Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5e Chapter 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Chapter Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 01.01: Explain how cognitive psychology defines the “mind.” 01.02: Describe the different approaches used by Wundt, James, Donders, and Ebbinghaus in their early attempts to study the mind. 01.03: Contrast Watson and Skinner’s motivation for focusing on observable behaviors in their research with Tolman’s motivation for measuring behavior in his experiments. 01.04: Identify the major historical events occurring in the 1950s and 1960s that ultimately led to the “cognitive revolution.” 01.05: Identify three ways in which the scope of contemporary cognitive psychology has grown since its beginnings in the 1950s and 1960s. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Section 1.1 Cognitive Psychology: Studying the Mind Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Some Questions to Consider How is cognitive psychology relevant to everyday experience? Are there practical applications of cognitive psychology? How is it possible to study the inner workings of the mind when we can’t really see the mind directly? What was the cognitive revolution? Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Complexity of Cognition (1 of 2) Cognition involves – Perception – Paying attention – Remembering – Distinguishing items in a category – Visualizing – Understanding and production of language – Problem solving – Reasoning and decision making  All include “hidden” processes of which we may not be aware Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Complexity of Cognition (2 of 2) Cognitive Psychology – The branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind – Cognition refers to the mental processes, such as perception, attention, and memory, that are what the mind creates Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Thinking About the Mind The mind … – is involved in forming and recalling memories – solves problems, considers possibilities, makes decisions – helps us to survive and function normally – is a symbol of creativity and intelligence – creates representations of the world so we can act in it Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Early Work in Cognitive Psychology Donders (1868) measured how long it takes a person to make a decision Reaction time (RT) experiment – Measures interval between stimulus presentation and person’s response to stimulus – Simple RT task: participant pushes a button quickly after a light appears – Choice RT task: participant pushes one button if light is on right side, another if light is on left side Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Donders’s Study of Reaction Time (1 of 3) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Donders’s Study of Reaction Time (2 of 3) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Donders’s Study of Reaction Time (3 of 3) Choice RT − Simple RT = time to make a decision – Choice RT = 1/10th second longer than Simple RT – 1/10th second to make decision – Mental responses cannot be measured directly but can be inferred from the participant’s behavior Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Wundt: Structuralism and Sensations Wundt (1879) established first scientific psychology lab at University of Leipzig, Germany Developed approach called structuralism: – overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of experience called sensations Used method of analytic introspection: – participants trained to describe experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Ebbinghaus: Memory and Forgetting (1 of 2) Ebbinghaus (1885/1913) read list of nonsense syllables aloud to determine number of repetitions necessary to repeat list without errors After taking a break, he relearned the list – Short-break intervals = fewer repetitions necessary to relearn list – Learned many different lists at many different retention intervals Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Ebbinghaus: Memory and Forgetting (2 of 2) Savings = (Original time to learn list) − (Time to relearn list after delay) Savings curve shows savings as a function of retention interval Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Ebbinghaus: Memory and Forgetting Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  William James’s Principles of Psychology James was an early American psychologist who taught the first psychology course at Harvard University Observations based on the functions of his own mind, not experiments Considered many topics in cognition, including thinking, consciousness, attention, memory, perception, imagination, and reasoning Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Optional Written Reflection Activity According to cognitive psychology, what is the “mind”? Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Section 1.2 Abandoning the Study of the Mind Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Watson and Behaviorism John Watson noted two problems with analytic introspection method: – Extremely variable results per person – Results difficult to verify due to focus on invisible inner mental processes Proposed a new approach called behaviorism – Eliminate the mind as a topic of study – Instead, study directly observable behavior Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Watson’s “Little Albert” Experiment Watson and Rayner (1920) – 9-month-old Albert became frightened by a rat after a loud noise was paired with every presentation of the rat – Examined how pairing one stimulus with another affected behavior – Demonstrated that behavior can be analyzed without any reference to the mind Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Classical Conditioning “Little Albert” experiment used classical conditioning methods Pair a neutral event with an event that naturally produces some outcome After many pairings, the “neutral” event now also produces the outcome Watson’s experiment was inspired by Pavlov’s research with dogs Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Pavlov’s Discovery: Classical Conditioning Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Skinner: Conditioning and Behaviorism B. F. Skinner interested in determining the relationship between stimuli and response Operant conditioning – Shape behavior by rewards or punishments – Rewarded behavior more likely to be repeated – Punished behavior that less likely to be repeated Behaviorism approach was dominant from the 1940s through the 1960s Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Rise of Behaviorism Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology Tolman (1938) trained rats to find food in a four-armed maze When a rat was placed in a different arm of the maze, it went to the specific arm where it previously found food Tolman believed the rat had created a cognitive map, a representation of the maze in its mind – The map helped the rat navigate to a specific arm despite starting the maze from a different spot – Rejected the behaviorist perspective for the rat’s actions Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Tolman’s Maze and Cognitive Mapping Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Knowledge Check Activity Try to answer these questions on your own before moving to the next slide. Writing out the answers before checking your work will help you determine whether you know the material (and can reproduce it for an exam) or just recognize the material! 1. Describe Tolman’s experiment. 2. What would behaviorists predict would happen? 3. What did happen? Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Knowledge Check Activity: Answer 1. Describe Tolman’s experiment. Tolman put rats in a four-armed maze, where they learned to turn right for food. He then placed them in the opposite arm to see where they went to get food. 2. What would behaviorists predict would happen? Behaviorists would predict that the rat would turn right because they learned that right turns = food. 3. What did happen? The rats went left to the arm that had food, indicating they had formed a cognitive map of the maze. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Decline of Behaviorism (1 of 2) A controversy over language acquisition Skinner (1957)—Verbal Behavior – Argued children learn language through operant conditioning  Children imitate speech they hear  Correct speech is rewarded Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Decline of Behaviorism (2 of 2) Chomsky (1959) – Argued that children do not only learn language through imitation and reinforcement Children say things they have never heard and cannot be imitating Children say things that are incorrect and have not been rewarded for – Language must be determined by inborn biological program Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Section 1.3 The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts Thomas Kuhn (1962), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Scientific revolution is the result of paradigm shifts Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Introduction of the Digital Computer Shift from behaviorist’s stimulus–response relationships to an approach that attempts to explain behavior in terms of the mind Information-processing approach – Way to study the mind based on insights associated with the digital computer – States that operation of the mind occurs in stages Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Attention and Flow Diagrams Cherry (1953) built on James’s idea of attention – Present message A in left ear and message B in right ear – Subjects could understand details of message A despite also hearing message B Broadbent (1958) developed flow diagram to show what occurs as a person directs attention to one stimulus – Unattended information does not pass through the filter Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Flow Diagrams Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Cognitive Revolution Figure 1.9 Time line showing events associated with the decline of the influence of behaviorism (above the line) and events that led to the development of the information-processing approach to cognitive psychology (below the line). Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory Artificial Intelligence – “making a machine behave in ways that would be called intelligent if a human were so behaving” (McCarthy et al., 1955) – Newell and Simon created the logic theorist program that could create proofs of mathematical theorems involving logic principles Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Optional Written Reflection Activity (2 of 2) What do you believe are the most important three events that contributed to the “cognitive revolution”? List each event and explain why you believe it was important. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Section 1.4 The Evolution of Cognitive Psychology Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Memory: A Higher Mental Process (1 of 3) Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) developed a three-stage model of memory: – sensory memory (less than 1 second) – short-term memory (a few seconds, limited capacity) – long-term memory (long duration, high capacity) Information we remember is brought from long-term memory into short-term memory Tulving (1972, 1985) divided long-term memory into three components Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Memory: A Higher Mental Process (2 of 3) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Memory: A Higher Mental Process (3 of 3) Long-term memory – Episodic  Life events – Semantic  Facts – Procedural  Physical actions Figure 1.11 Endel Tulving (1972) divided long-term memory into three components. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Physiology of Cognition Neuropsychology studies behavior of people with brain damage Electrophysiology studies electrical responses of the nervous system including brain neurons Brain imaging – positron emission tomography (PET) – functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) – both technologies show which brain areas are active during specific episodes of cognition Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Optional Self-Assessment What are your “muddiest points” in this chapter? What were the most interesting things you learned in this chapter? What does Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve suggest about studying and retaining information through “cramming”? What cognitive processes will you engage when you study for this class? Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Summary Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to: 1.1: Explain how cognitive psychology defines the “mind.” 1.2: Describe the different approaches used by Wundt, James, Donders, and Ebbinghaus in their early attempts to study the mind. 1.3: Contrast Watson and Skinner’s motivation for focusing on observable behaviors in their research with Tolman’s motivation for measuring behavior in his experiments. 1.4: Identify the major historical events occurring in the 1950s and 1960s that ultimately led to the “cognitive revolution.” 1.5: Identify three ways in which the scope of contemporary cognitive psychology has grown since its beginnings in the 1950s and 1960s. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Reminder of Chapter Quiz Assignment Don’t forget to complete the required Chapter 1 Quiz through MindTap, which is available for completion between January 13 @ 12:00am-11:59pm Central Time Zone Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.