COGNI_1.pdf

AN INT RODUCT ION: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY The Science of How We Think Prepared by: Lucky Nine R. Perez, MA Lesson Objectives At the end of this lecture, you are expected to: 1. Describe the major historical schools of psychological thought leading up to the development o...

AN INT RODUCT ION: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY The Science of How We Think Prepared by: Lucky Nine R. Perez, MA Lesson Objectives At the end of this lecture, you are expected to: 1. Describe the major historical schools of psychological thought leading up to the development of cognitive psychology. 2. Describe some of the ways in which philosophy, linguistics, and artificial intelligence have con- tributed to the development of cognitive psychology. 3. Compare and contrast the influences of Plato and Aristotle on psychology. 4. Analyze how various research methods in cognitive psychology reflect empiricist and rationalist approaches to gaining knowledge. Chapter questions Here are some of the questions we will explore in this chapter: 1. What is cognitive psychology? 2. How did psychology develop as a science? 3. How did cognitive psychology develop from psychology? 4. How have other disciplines contributed to the development of theory and research in cognitive psychology? 5. What are the current issues and various fields of study within cognitive psychology? BRAIN GAMES  Abigail, Oliver, Rosa, and Blake all attend the same summer camp, where they can cook, kayak, rock climb, and zip-line. Each child has a different favorite activity. Abigail’s favorite activity isn’t rock Can you figure out climbing. who likes what? Oliver is afraid of heights. Rosa can’t do her favorite activity without a harness. Blake likes to keep his feet on the ground at all times.  Answer: Abigail likes to zip-line Can you figure out Oliver likes to kayak who likes what? Rosa likes to rock climb, and Blake likes to cook.  HOW MANY LOGO CAN YOU GUESS?  A doctor and a boy go fishing. The boy is the doctor’s son, but SOLVE THE the doctor isn’t his father. PROBLEM Who is the doctor? ANSWER: His mother On April Fool’s Day, your teenaged son replaces the salt in three of your four saltshakers with sugar. But he also leaves messages on each. If only one of these inscriptions is true, which shaker still contains salt? ANSWER: SHAKER C 1. What is cognitive psychology? At the beginning of the 21st century, cognitive psychology is a broad field concerned with memory, perception, COGNITIVE attention, pattern recognition, consciousness, neuroscience, PSYCHOLOGY representation of knowledge, cog- nitive development, language, thinking, and, human and artificial intelligence. 1. What is cognitive psychology? Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of the mind as an information processor. It concerns how we take in information from the outside world, and how we make sense COGNITIVE of that information. PSYCHOLOGY Cognitive psychology focuses on studying mental processes, including how people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and make decisions.  WHY STUDY THE HISTORY OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY? QUESTIONS TO PONDER If we know where we came from, we may better understand where we are heading. We can learn from past mistakes. 1. What is cognitive psychology? Cognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid-1950s. Several factors were important in this: Dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on external behavior rather than internal processes. The development of better experimental methods. Comparison between human and computer processing of information. Using computers allowed psychologists to try to understand the complexities of human cognition by comparing it with computers and artificial intelligence. 1. What is cognitive psychology? Cognitive psychologists explore a wide variety of topics related to thinking processes. Some of these include: Attention Choice-based behavior Decision-making Forgetting Information processing Language Memory Problem-solving Speech Visual By knowing more about how these processes work, psychologists can develop new ways of helping people with cognitive problems.  1. What is cognitive psychology? ULRIC NEISSER Known as the father of cognitive psychology, Neisser revolutionized the discipline by challenging behaviorist theory and endeavoring to discover how the mind thinks and works. He was particularly interested in memory and perception. Ulric Neisser, a former Emory Woodruff Professor of Psychology and author of the groundbreaking 1967 book "Cognitive Psychology," died on Feb. 17 in Ithaca, N.Y., due to complications from Parkinson's disease. He was 83. Ulric Neisser, cognitive psychology pioneer, dies (emory.edu)  2. How did psychology develop as a science? Cognitive psychology uses Brain imaging fMRI and Cognitive psychologists laboratory experiments that are PET scans map areas of the measure behavior that highly controlled so they avoid brain to cognitive function, provides information about the influence of extraneous allowing the processing of cognitive processes (e.g., variables. This allows the information by centers in verbal protocols of thinking researcher to establish a causal the brain to be seen aloud). They also measure relationship between the directly. Such processing physiological indicators of independent and dependent causes the area of the brain brain activity, such as variables. involved to increase neuroimages (PET and metabolism and “light up” fMRI). on the scan.  3. How did cognitive psychology develop from psychology? The behaviorist approach dominated psychology. The behaviorists only studied external behavior that could be measured. Cognitive psychology gained popularity in the 1950s to 1970s as researchers became more interested in how thinking affects behavior. This period is called the "cognitive revolution" and represented a shift in thinking and focus for psychologists.  3. How did cognitive psychology develop from psychology? COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORISM A behaviorist uses feedback (reinforcement) to modify behavior in the desired direction, while cognitivists make use of feedback (knowledge of results) to guide and support accurate mental connections (Thompson, Simonson, & Hargrave, 1992).  3. How did cognitive psychology develop from psychology? Behaviorists believed it was pointless to try to study the mind because there was no way to see or objectively measure what happened in someone's thoughts. The mind was seen as a black box that couldn't be measured.  TO EXEMPLIFY... The cognitive approach suggests that problem gambling is a result of maladaptive thinking and faulty cognitions. These both result in illogical errors being drawn.  3. How did cognitive psychology develop from psychology? The cognitive approach gave rise to the idea that internal mental behavior could be studied using experiments. Cognitive psychology assumes that there is an internal process that occurs between when a stimulus happens and when you respond to it.  3. How did cognitive psychology develop from psychology? Psychology should be seen as a science: The cognitive approach believes that internal mental behavior can be scientifically studied using controlled experiments. They use the results of their investigations as the basis for making inferences about mental processes. 10 Cognitive Psychology Examples (Most Famous Experiments) (2023) (helpfulprofessor.com)  4. How have other disciplines contributed to the development of theory and research in cognitive psychology? ANTECEDENTS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY  Plato and Aristotle disagreed regarding how to investigate ideas. Historians of psychology usually trace the earliest roots of psychology to two approaches to understanding the human mind: Philosophy seeks to understand the general nature of many aspects of the world, in part through introspection, the examination of inner ideas and experiences (from intro-, “inward, within,” and -spect, “look”); Physiology seeks a scientific study of life- Two Greek philosophers, Plato (ca. 428–348 sustaining functions in living matter, primarily B.C.) and his student Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), through empirical (observation-based) have profoundly affected modern thinking in psychology and many other fields. methods. Rationalism is important in theory development. Plato was a rationalist. A rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis. That is, a rationalist does not need any experiments to develop new knowledge. Rationalist theories without any connection to observations gained through empiricist methods may not be valid; but mountains of observational data without an organizing A rationalist who is interested in cognitive theoretical framework may not be meaningful. processes would appeal to reason as a source of knowledge or justification. Empiricism therefore leads directly to empirical investigations of psychology. In contrast, Aristotle (a naturalist and biologist as well as a philosopher) was an empiricist. An empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical evidence— that is, we obtain evidence through experience and observation According to the rationalist, the only route to truth is reasoned contemplation; according to the empiricist, the only route to truth is In order to explore how the human mind meticulous observation. Cognitive psychology, works, empiricists would design experiments and conduct studies in which they could like other sciences, depends on the work of observe the behavior and processes of interest both rationalists and empiricists. to them.  Locke believed that there are no innate ideas. He believed that humans are born without knowledge and therefore must seek knowledge through empirical observation. Descartes' theory of dualism suggests that there are two realms to existence - Physical and Mental realms. The contrasting ideas of rationalism and empiricism became prominent with the French rationalist René Descartes (1596–1650) and the British empiricist John Locke (1632–1704). Descartes felt that one could not rely on one’s senses because those very senses have often proven to be deceptive.  In the 18th century, German philosopher, Immanuel Kant synthesized the views of Descartes and Locke, arguing that both rationalism and empiricism have their place. Both must work together in the quest for truth.  Understanding the Structure of the Mind: Structuralism Wundt used a variety of methods in his research. One of these methods was Introspection is a deliberate looking inward at introspection. pieces of information passing through consciousness. The aim of introspection is to look at the elementary components of an object or process. The introduction of introspection as an experimental method was an important change in the field because the main emphasis in the study of the mind shifted from a rationalist approach to the empiricist approach of trying to observe Titchener’s experiments relied solely on the behavior in order to draw conclusions about the subject of use of introspection, exploring psychology study. from the vantage point of the experiencing individual.  Understanding the Processes of the Mind: Functionalism An alternative that developed to counter A leader in guiding functionalism toward pragmatism was William James (1842–1910). structuralism, functionalism suggested that psychologists should focus on the processes of thought rather than on its contents. Pragmatism. A believe that knowledge is validated by its usefulness: What can you do with it? Pragmatists are concerned not only with knowing what people do; they also want to know what we can do with our knowledge of John Dewey (1859–1952) is remembered what people do. primarily for his pragmatic approach to Functionalism seeks to understand what people do and thinking and schooling. why they do it.  An Integrative Synthesis: Associationism Associationism examines how elements of the Hermann Ebbinghaus worked on his research at home in Berlin and published a book called mind, like events and ideas, can become On Memory: An Investigation in associated with one another in the mind to Experimental Psychology in 1885. result in a form of learning. Contiguity. Things or events that occur close to each other in space or time tend to get linked together in the mind. Frequency. The more often two things or events are linked, the more powerful will be that association. Similarity. If two things are similar, the thought of Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949), held that one will tend to trigger the thought of the other. the role of “satisfaction” is the key to forming Contrast. Seeing or recalling something may also associations. trigger the recollection of something completely opposite. Associate this! WHAT COMES INTO YOUR MIND? BLACK  READ THE PHRASES Der schnelle Braunfuchs springt über den faulen Hund Snachala ya molchal, dazhe yesli ty menya ne zastavlyal Hej bästis om du stöter på den här läsningen är det här för dig. Ta det som resonerar, lämna det som inte gör det  READ THE PHRASES Der schnelle Braunfuchs springt über den faulen Hund German. (translation) the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog Snachala ya molchal, dazhe yesli ty menya ne zastavlyal Russian. (translation) Ako ay tahimik lang sa umpisa kahit hindi mo ako pilitin Hej bästis om du stöter på den här läsningen är det här för dig. Ta det som resonerar, lämna det som inte gör det (translation) Hello bestie if your come across this reading, this is for your. Take what resonate, leave what does not Swedish.  It’s Only What You Can See That Counts: From Associationism to Behaviorism Classical conditioning involves more than just an association based on temporal contiguity Ivan Pavlov’s (1849– 1936) Classical (e.g., the food and the conditioned stimulus Conditioning occurring at about the same time). Effective conditioning requires contingency. Contingencies in the form of reward and B. F. Skinner’s (1904– punishment are still used today, for example, in 1990) Operant the treatment of substance abuse. Conditioning The idea was to make physical whatever others might John Watson (1878–1958) have called “mental”. The Father of Radical Behaviorism  It’s Only What You Can See That Counts: From Associationism to Behaviorism One problem with using nonhuman animals, however, is determining whether the research critics of can be generalized to humans (i.e., applied more generally to humans instead of just to the BEHAVIORISM kinds of nonhuman animals that were studied). Behaviorism was challenged on many fronts like language acquisition, production, and comprehension. Some psychologists wanted to know what went on inside the head. It often proved easier to use the techniques of behaviorism in studying nonhuman animals than in studying human ones. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY TIMELINE YEAR 1925 Kohler (1925) published a book called, The Mentality of Apes. In it, he reported observations which suggested that animals could show insightful behavior. He rejected behaviorism in favor of an approach which became known as Gestalt psychology. 1948 Norbert Wiener (1948) published Cybernetics: or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, introducing terms such as input and output. Tolman (1948) work on cognitive maps – training rats in mazes, showed that animals had an internal representation of behavior. 1956 Birth of Cognitive Psychology often dated back to George Miller’s (1956) “ The Magical Number 7 Plus or Minus 2: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information.” Milner argued that short-term memory could only hold about seven pieces of information, called chunks. 1967 Ulric Neisser (1967) publishes “ Cognitive Psychology”, which marks the official beginning of the cognitive approach  5. What are the current issues and various fields of study within cognitive psychology? Humans are information processors. Information processing in humans resembles that in computers, and is based on transforming information, storing information and retrieving information from memory. § Input processes are concerned with the analysis of the stimuli. § Storage processes cover everything that happens to stimuli internally in the brain and can include coding and manipulation of the stimuli. § Output processes are responsible for preparing an appropriate response to a stimulus. 10 Cognitive Psychology Examples (Most Famous Experiments) (2023) (helpfulprofessor.com)  5. What are the current issues and various fields of study within cognitive psychology? Add a Dash of Technology: Engineering, Computation, and Applied Cognitive Psychology By the end of the 1950s, some psychologists were intrigued by the tantalizing notion that machines could be programmed to demonstrate the intelligent processing of in- formation (Rychlak & Struckman, 2000). By 1956 a new phrase had entered our vocabulary. Artificial intelligence (AI) is the attempt by humans to construct systems that show intelligence and, particularly, the intelligent processing of information 10 Cognitive Psychology Examples (Most Famous Experiments) (2023) (helpfulprofessor.com)  5. What are the current issues and various fields of study within cognitive psychology? Computer Simulations and Artificial Intelligence Digital computers played a fundamental role in the emergence of the study of cognitive psychology. One kind of influence is indirect— through models of human cognition based on models of how computers process information. In computer simulations, researchers program computers to imitate a given human function or process. 10 Cognitive Psychology Examples (Most Famous Experiments) (2023) (helpfulprofessor.com)  THOUGHT BUBBLE can Artificial Intelligence made by humans replace the role of a therapist in psychotherapy? THOUGHT BUBBLE can Artificial Intelligence made by humans replace the role of a therapist in psychotherapy? The Dialectical Process is a developmental process whereby ideas evolve overtime through a back-and-forth exchange of ideas; in a way, it is like a discussion spread out over an extended period of time. The approaches and ways scientists use to study issues in cognitive psychology change overtime.  1. A THESIS IS PROPOSED. A thesis is a statement of belief. The Dialectical Ex. Some people believe that human nature influences many aspects of human behavior (e.g. Process intelligence or personality; Sternberg, 1999). After a while, however, certain individuals notice apparent flaws in the thesis.  2. AN ANTITHESIS EMERGES. Eventually, or perhaps even quite soon, an antithesis emerges. An The antithesis is a statement that counters a thesis. Dialectical Ex. An alternative view is that our environment Process almost entirely determines many aspects of human behavior.  3. A SYNTHESIS INTEGRATES THE VIEWPOINTS. Sooner or later, the debate between the thesis and The antithesis leads to a synthesis, which integrates the most credible features of each of two (or more) views. Dialectical Process Ex. In the debate over nature versus nurture, the interaction between our innate (inborn) nature and environmental nurture may govern human nature.  IN A NUTSHELL The Dialectical Process TRY THIS Why are many people more afraid of traveling in planes than in automobiles? Why does Apple, for example, spend so much money on advertisements for its iPhone? After all, how many people remember the functional details of the iPhone, or this function distinguish it from the functions of other phones? When we think about an issue and certain examples immediately come to mind, we are using “availability heuristic” (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973) The availability heuristic, also known as availability bias, is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. The term was first coined in 1973 by Nobel-prize winning psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. They suggested that the availability heuristic occurs unconsciously and operates under the principle that "if you can think of it, it must be important." Things that come to mind more easily are believed to be far more common and more accurate reflections of the real world. As Tversky and Kahneman explained, one of the most obvious examples of the availability heuristic in action is the impact of readily available examples. Plus, the longer you stay preoccupied with the event, the more available it will be in your mind and the more probable you will believe it to be. However, it can lead to problems and errors. Excessive media coverage can cause this to happen, but sometimes the novelty or drama surrounding an event can cause it to become more available in your memory.  Nature versus Rationalism versus Structures versus Nurture Empiricism Processes We may emphasize The truth about Psychologist may nature, that is, innate ourselves and about study the structures characteristics of the world around us of the human mind or human cognition or may be approached human thinking nurture, that is, the through applying processes. environment in the reason and logic or by study of cognition. observing and testing our observations.  Biological versus Applied versus Basic Validity of Causal Behavioral Methods Research Inferences versus The brain and its functions Ecological Validity Some research may be may be studied directly during inclined towards practical the performance of cognitive Psychologists may use applications and yet others tasks or people’s behavior in controlled experiments for may be conducted into basic cognitive tasks may be valid inferences regarding cognitive processes. emphasized. It may be noted causality or they may use that any of the extreme more naturalistic techniques positions mentioned above are for ecological validity. generally not taken rather both types of questions, are posed.  5. What are the current issues and various fields of study within cognitive psychology? Top New Trends in Cognitive Sciences for the Future Cognitive Computing Will Be Integrated in the Healthcare Industry Cognitive computing refers to the systems that replicate human brain functions. Advances in the healthcare industry have given rise to cognitive computing applications. Through cognitive computing methods, a vast amount of data can be processed, generating intelligent recommendations that can prove helpful for disease control. Cognitive Technology Will Become More Popular Cognitive technology is becoming more popular because of technological advancements and the increasing complexity of human life. Finding new ways to utilize robotics, automation, machine learning, and natural language processing (NLP) is a common item on the agenda for most large tech firms. Artificial Intelligence Will Continue to Evolve AI is a discipline that replicates human cognition and integrates it with machines. Some popular AI products are self- driving cars, smart assistants, and manufacturing robots. New AI creations will continue to emerge as technology and innovation advance with new trends in cognitive sciences. The Effects of Social Isolation Will Be Investigated Quarantines and lockdowns affect cognitive function, especially in children. Since most schools are conducting online classes, children do not get the chance to interact with their classmates in person. However, students will have to gradually return to school, but some of them may develop problems in interpersonal interactions, social cognition, and social interactions. Thank you End of discussion for QUESTIONS? listening Reference links https://edtechbooks.org/lidtfoundations/behaviorism_cognitivism_constructivism#:~:text=A%20behaviorist%20uses%20f eedback%20(reinforcement,%2C%20%26%20Hargrave%2C%201992). http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cognitive_psychology https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.html https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/what-is-cognitive-psychology https://www.verywellmind.com/cognitive-psychology-4157181 https://news.emory.edu/stories/2012/02/er_ulric_neisser_psychology/campus.html#:~:text=Known%20as%20the%20fath er%20of,interested%20in%20memory%20and%20perception. https://helpfulprofessor.com/cognitive-psychology-examples/ https://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/psychbeginnings.html#:~:text=The%20law%20of%20contiguity.,think%20of%20drinkin g%20that%20coffee. https://www.owlgen.in/what-athe-key-issues-in-the-study-of-cognitive-psychology/ https://studymat.in/key-issues-in-the-study-of-cognitive-psychology/ https://careerkarma.com/blog/trends-in-cognitive-science/ Classroom Activity Find a partner. Come up with a topic related in cognitive science. Maximize your classroom resources. Create a thesis statement regarding the topic chosen. Create an antithesis statement that counters the thesis statement. Each statements need 1 RS/RL as supporting evidence.