Unit 1 cognitive psychology terms (1).pdf

Chapter 1 -what is cognitive psychology - study of human mental processes -Donders - time for a cognitive process/mental chronometry -reaction time experiment -Simple RT task (only one light/button) -Choice RT task( 2 lights/buttons) -Choice RT - Simpl...

Chapter 1 -what is cognitive psychology - study of human mental processes -Donders - time for a cognitive process/mental chronometry -reaction time experiment -Simple RT task (only one light/button) -Choice RT task( 2 lights/buttons) -Choice RT - Simple RT = time to make a decision -Important contribution: mental responses not directly measured, inferred by behavior -Ebbinghaus - memory/repetition - nonsense word memorization -Shorter intervals between retrieval= less time it takes to learn -Savings = (initial time learning - relearning time)/initial -Forgetting curve (forget more shit over time idk) -Wundt - founder of psych - structuralism -Structuralism and Analytic Introspection - experience broken into elements (sensations) -Analytic introspection: he trained people to describe experiences in response to stimuli -Didn’t work because different for each person and can’t verify -John Watson -Proved structuralism wrong - behaviorism -Classical conditioning (traumatized a kid to be scared of fluffy things) -Behaviorism - ignore mental processes only study observable behavior - scientific: behavior determined by past conditioning (correct) - philosophical: mind is “black box” not worth studying (wrong) -BF Skinner/Operant Conditioning - consequences shape behavior - radical behaviorism -Rewarded behavior happens more, punished behavior happens less -Children imitate speech they hear, correct speech is rewarded -Chomsky -proved language behaviorism wrong - novel utterances (children say things they’ve never heard and are wrong) - proposed the inborn biological language program (wrong) -Tolman - controlled learning history - proved rats made cognitive map not memorized a behavior -proved behaviorists wrong (behaviorists believe rat will go right because rewarded)  -showed rats follow cognitive map instead -Cognitive revolution - computers as model for humans - death of behaviorism -make inferences about underlying cognitive abilities -Information processing approach - information processed in stages like computers -Structural models - physical, descriptive (brain model) -Process models - explain processes in cognitive mechanisms (flow diagrams) Chapter 2 -Cognitive neuroscience - study of physiological base of cognition - understanding of nervous system - probable mechanisms -levels of analysis - many angles leads to greater understanding -Nervous Systems - central nervous system (brain + spine) - peripheral nervous system (everything else) -Neuron parts - axon (transmit electrical signals, tubes filled with fluid) - dendrites (branches that receive information from other neurons) - cell body (keeps cell alive) -Sensory receptors -neurons that receive info from physical sensations (light, sound) -Action Potential - electrical signal through neuron -goes through axon and then goes through dendrites of next neuron -Threshold: not all signals are passed on, need to pass threshold -Measure Action potential rate by speed, not size -Low intensities = slow firing, high intensities = fast firing -Synapse and neurotransmitters - cleft between one neurons axon and anothers dendrites - chemical communication - action potential signals release of neurotransmitters -Types of neurotransmitters: -Excitatory (increases chance neuron will fire) -Inhibitory (decreases chance neuron will fire) -Representation  - how information is stored in the brain -Hubel and Wisel neurons (Simple and Complex cells and Feature detectors) - simple: respond best to specific stimuli (only one direction, horizontal or vertical) - complex: respond best to a specific combination of stimuli (direction and length) -Complex cells activated by simple cells - feature detectors: respond best to highly specific stimuli -Hierarchical processing - build up pieces to complex concepts - happens from bottom to top of brain -Knowledge coding (Specificity, Sparse, population) - specificity: neuron for one stimuli (grandma cell-there’s not a cell for every grandma, wrong) - sparse: small pattern of firing neurons fire at different rates to represent stimulus - population: large pattern of firing neurons fire at different rates to represent stimulus -Localization of function - whole sets of knowledge - certain areas of brain are used for certain functions -Lobes of cerebral cortex (Frontal, Occipital, Temporal, Parietal) -Cerebral cortex: 3mm thick cover over brain, has lobes - frontal: coordination of information to action - occipital: visual processing - temporal: audial processing, language, form perception, smell - parietal: physical processing and perception (touch, temperature, pain) -Limbic system (hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus) - “lizard brain” - physically below cerebral cortex (lower brain) - hippocampus: forming memory - amygdala: emotion, emotional memory - thalamus: processing sensory information from 5 senses (not smell tho) -Localization of function: Perception (FFA, PPA, EBA) -Localization of function: Language (Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area) - broca: language production, frontal lobe - wernickes: language comprehension, temporal lobe -Distributed processing - damage to one area may impair whole process - many processes and areas needed for one function -Brain lesions - destroying certain parts of brain - used to study which part is which function -Brain imaging (PET, fMRI, DTI) - pet: positron emission tomography (brain blood flow, use radiation) - fmri: functional magnetic resonance imaging (oxygen levels in brain area) -based on magnetic properties of hemoglobin - dti: diffusion tensor imaging (water molecules white matter)  -good for neural networks -Event related potential - measured brain response of direct result to stimuli -good for temporal resolution (when brain activity is happening) but NOT spatial resolution (where it’s happening) Chapter 3 -Definitions (sensation, transduction, attention, perception) - sensation: absorbing raw sensory data from sensory organs - transduction: conversion of that energy to neural signals - attention: concentration of mental energy on processing incoming information - perception: selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory information and signals -Sensation process - energy has information about world (incomplete, distorted) - accessory structures focus and interpret energy (ears eyes sensory nerves etc) - receptors transduce energy into neural response - sensory nerve transmits coded activity to cns - thalamus processes and relays information to proper cortex area - Perception - recognizing, organizing, interpreting sensory information - not exact copy of world - based on personal life and experiences -Bottom-up processing/ direct perception theory - information built up from components/sensory data -Recognition by components theory (geons bullshit) - i hate geons - 36 geons - geons are 3d objects - all objects are made of geons - enough geons and you can recognize anything - geons are stupid -Top-down processing/ constructive perception theories - starts with brain - inferences guide perception of objects -Perceiving size - distance topdown and bottomup -Helmholtz theory of Unconscious Inference\ - assumptions about environment affect perception - conclusion from prior knowledge -Likelihood principle - perceive world in way that is “most likely” -Gestalt laws of perceptual organization -Law of Good Continuation: lines tend to be seen as following simplest path  -Law of Good figure/Simplicity/Pragnanz: every stimulus structure is seen so the resulting structure is as simple as possible -Law of Similarity: similar things are grouped together -Law of Familiarity: groups tend to be made of things that are familiar -law of Proximity: things near each other appear grouped together -Law of Common fate: things that move together appear to be a group -Heuristics and Algorithms - heuristic: rule of thumb (fast, often correct) - algorithm: procedure guaranteed to solve problem (slower, always correct) -Oblique effect - verticals and horizontals easier to pay attention to/notice -Occlusal heuristic - an object covered by a smaller object is thought to continue to exist behind the object in front -Greeble study/Experiment dependent plasticity - i love greebles - neurons become adapted to recognize things the more they are exposed to them -What pathway/Perception - identifying object - temporal -Where pathway/Action - identifying location - parietal -Brain ablation - damaged areas cause function deficit -Single dissociation - one function lost to damage, other remains -Double dissociation - two individuals with different damage and opposite deficits Chapter 4 part 1 -Attention traits/Selective attention -Selective attention: can focus on one message and ignore others, filter out stuff -Limited: in capacity and timing -Both overt and covert: some attention is conscious, some in unconscious -Cherry’s Dichotic Listening Study and Results -different message presented in each ear, told to “shadow” one message (repeat out loud) -heard physical characteristics of other message (tone, gender, etc.) but not meaning -Cocktail party effect -you can hear your name at a loud party, so you can process/attend to other info to some extent -Early Selection model/Broadbent’s filter model -basically you filter out information early in the attention process -Sensory memory: holds all info for a fraction of a second -Filter: identifies attended message through physical characteristics (tone, gender), only identifies what needed, filters out rest -Detector: identifies meaning and higher level characteristics -Short term memory: holds info for 10-15 seconds, may transfer to long term memory -Evidence against Broadbent’s Filter model -Cocktail party effect: you can hear meaning (name) in other messages -Moray (1959): you can hear your name in unattended message -Treisman (1960): you can switch attending message from one ear to other -Corteen & Wood (1960): traumatized a bunch of people by shocking them when they hear city names, then put city names in unattended message -Intermediate selection model/Treisman’s Attenuation theory -Attended and unattended message are separated in the middle of the process -Attenuator: all messages go through and are identified by physical characteristics (gender, tone) -Attended message goes to next step much stronger than unattended -Dictionary unit: basically have a threshold for every word and low threshold means you pay attention, high threshold means you ignore it -High threshold for words you never use, low threshold for common words (your name) -Late selection model/McKay experiment -Selection for attended message happens after meaning is processed for both -McKay (1973): basically had a sentence with the ambiguous word “bank”, unattended message had “river” or “money” and people didn’t hear it but chose the meaning of “bank” based on it -Stroop effect -name color of color words that are not that color -automatically reading words interferes with the bottom-up processing of colors, harder -Overt Attention -When you actually look at what you’re paying attention to -Saccades: rapid eye movements from one place to another -Fixation: pausing to actually look at things -Studied using eye tracker -Bottom-up Determinants of eye movement ( Stimulus salience) -Stimulus salience: pay attention to things that stand out (colorful, moving) -Top-down determinants of eye movement( Scene schema, task demands) -Scene schema: have a mental idea of what would generally be in a scene, pay more attention to things that don’t belong -Task demand: eyes proceed action by fraction of a second -Covert attention (pre-cueing) and Study -Pre-cueing: directing attention without actually looking at it  -Study: participants saw light faster in expected place than unexpected, even if not looking at it -Object-based visual attention and Study -object-based visual attention: attention on on place on an object -Study: when target was not on expected place, but still on the same object, participants saw it faster than if it was not on the same object Chapter 4 part 2 -Divided attention -ability to pay attention to two or more tasks at the same time -Spelke et. al. study -practice makes it easier to do two difficult things at once (like read and categorize words) -Capacity theory of Attention -Humans have limited amount of attention, so can only do certain amount of tasks simultaneously -Capacity theory of Attention model (Arousal and Allocation (Enduring dispositions, Evaluation of effort, Momentary intentions)) -Arousal: capacity of attention based on physiological response -Allocation: based on your personality, what’s more important right now, and how much effort it’ll take -Divided attention 100 car naturalistic driving study and results -put cameras in people’s cars -risk of accident 4x more when use cell phones -Strayer and Johnson cell phone study and results -simulated driving task -participants missed 2x red lights and took longer to brake on phone (hand held or not, doesn’t matter) -Inattentional blindness -when you don’t see something even if you’re looking right at it -Mack and Rock study (Inattentional blindness) -participants told to say whether horizontal or vertical line of cross longer, did not see shapes in front of them -Change blindness -if shown 2 versions of a picture, hard to see changes, requires concentrated effort -Action slips -Storage failures: doing things again that you already did -Test failures: forgetting the goal of what you’re doing and changing to something else -Sub-routine failure: forgetting or changing order of steps in a task -Discrimination failures: not being able to differentiate between 2 things -Program assembly failures: all other issues idk -Treisman’s feature Integration theory -Pre-attentive stage: analyze objects by their features, unconscious, no effort -Focused attention stage: combine features that make up object, aware -Illusory conjunctions -Mix up features of different objects with each other -pre attentive stage -Treisman and Schmidt study (1982) -told to look at numbers and ignore shapes of different colors/sizes, mixed up the features of them -when told to pay attention to the shapes, they could identify features correctly -Visual Search Task Variables -Feature present/feature absent effect: easier to find if something is present than if it’s absent -Similarity of target to distractors: if the target is similar, harder to find -Set size: the more distractors, the harder it is to find target -Isolated feature/combined feature effect: -Parallel Processing/”Pop-out” effect: when target does not share features with distractors, set size doesn’t matter -Serial Processing: when target shares features with distractors it’s harder to find, set size does matter