Chapter 1 Introduction to Anatomy PDF

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Anatomy I. II. III. Anatomy Defined a. Anatomy: Study of structure (sx) i. = to cut up (‘ana’ = up, ‘tomy’ = to cut) ii. learn parts before function (fx) b. Physiology = study of fx of body parts c. Dissection = cutting apart of body sx’s to study relationships Anatomical...

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Anatomy I. II. III. Anatomy Defined a. Anatomy: Study of structure (sx) i. = to cut up (‘ana’ = up, ‘tomy’ = to cut) ii. learn parts before function (fx) b. Physiology = study of fx of body parts c. Dissection = cutting apart of body sx’s to study relationships Anatomical Analysis a. Microscopic – sx’s too small to be seen with the unaided eye i. Cytology - study of cells ii. Histology - study of tissues b. Gross - can be seen with the unaided eye i. Gross subdisciplines 1. Comparative anatomy – compares across species 2. Developmental anatomy – conception to death (entire life cycle) 3. Embryology – first 8 wks following conception (after that = fetal) 4. Regional anatomy – by body part 5. Systemic anatomy – via systems of the body 6. Surface anatomy – visible/palpable Levels of Body Organization & Systems a. Chemical (letters of alphabet) i. = atoms (smallest units of matter) 1. CHONP + Ca2+ most common elements essential for life ii. = molecules (two or more atoms joined) 1. DNA & glucose common molecules b. Cellular (words) i. Molecules combine to form cells ii. Most basic and functional units of an organism iii. Ie. muscle, nerve, blood and epithelial cells c. Tissues (sentences) i. Groups of similar cells working together ii. 4 types 1. Epithelial: covers body surfaces 2. Connective: supports & protects body organs, distributes blood vessels 3. Muscular: contracts -> movement & heat 4. Nervous: carries information b/n body parts d. Organs (paragraphs) i. Two or more tissues working together to perform a fx ii. Ie. stomach, heart, lungs, and brain iii. Stomach – outer covering = epithelial + connective tissue, smooth ms. contracts to churn food, inner epithelial -> fluid & chemicals di. Organ systems (chapter) i. Related organs with a common fx ii. Digestive system – breaks down (digests) and absorbs food 1. Mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, sm & lg intestine, liver, gall bladder and pancreas iii. Organs can be part of multiple systems (pancreas = digestive and endocrine) iv. 11 Organ Systems (RUN MRS LIDEC) 1. Integumentary: skin & assoc sx (hair, fingernail, toenail, sweat glands, oil glands, subcutaneous layer) 2. Skeletal: bones & joints 3. Muscular: skeletal muscle tissue, body mvmt 4. Cardiovascular – blood, heart, & blood vessels 5. Lymphatic & Immunity: lymphatic fluid, lymphatic vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, B & T cells 6. Nervous: brain, spinal cord, nerves and special sense organs (eyes, ears) 7. Endocrine: hormone producing glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries and testes), regulate body activites 8. Respiratory: lungs, bronchial tubes, trachea, larynx, pharynx; transfers gasses in/out of body, regulates pH, sounds 9. Digestive: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, sm/lg intestine, anus; salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas 10. Urinary: kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra 11. Reproductive: gonads (testes/ovaries); uterine tubes, uterus & vagina; epididymides, seminal vesicles, prostate, ductus deferens and penis v. Organism (book) 1. Any living individual, all the parts in a human being functioning together IV. Life Processes – set apart organisms from non-living things a. Metabolism – sum of all chemical processes b. Responsiveness – ability to detect and respond to changes in environment (nerve, muscle) c. Movement – motions of whole body, individual organs, cells and organelles d. Growth & Development – increase in body size (size of cells, # of cells), stages of change e. Differentiation – unspecialized cells become specialized (egg > entire organism, WBC’s from stem cells f. Reproduction – formation of new cells for growth/repair/replacement, or new individual V. Basic Anatomical Terminology (see lab manual) a. Positions: needed so speak in terms of a shared framework i. Anatomical = standing erect ,facing observer, head level, eyes forward, LE parallel, feet flat on floor facing forward, UE at side with palms forward (supinated) ii. Prone = lying face down iii. Supine = lying face up b. Regional Names (based on Greek or Latin roots) i. Head = skull & face (eyes, nose, mouth, forehead, cheeks & chin) ii. Neck = modified portion of trunk, supports head & attaches to trunk iii. Trunk = neck, thorax, abdomen and pelvis iv. Upper limb/extremity (UE) = shoulder, armpit (axilla), arm (brachial), forearm (antebrachial), wrist, and hand v. Lower limb/extremity (LE) = buttock, thigh, leg, ankle, foot vi. Groin = front surface of body at the crease where trunk attaches to thigh c. Planes & Sections i. Planes 1. Sagittal: vertical plane dividing the body into R & L sides a. Midsagittal (median) plane divides the body into equal R & L sides = Midline is the line dividing the body into equal R & L sides b. Parasagittal – divides the body into unequal R & L sides (para = beside or near) 2. Frontal / Coronal: divides body into front & back portions (corona = crown) 3. Transverse / Horizontal: divides body in upper & lower portions 4. Oblique: passes through the body/organ at an oblique angle (other than 90°) ii. Sections 1. Cuts of the body or organ along one of the planes for viewing ci. Opposing Directional Terms i. Anterior vs. Posterior: front vs. back ii. Superior vs. Inferior: above vs. below iii. Medial vs. Lateral: closer to vs. further from midline iv. Proximal vs. Distal: closer to vs. further from root of limb v. Cranial vs. Caudal: relating to or toward the head vs. tail (sacrum) vi. Dorsal vs. Ventral: back vs. front side of body vii. Superficial vs. Deep: toward vs. away from surface of body viii. Ipsilateral vs. Contralateral: same vs. opposite side of body’s midline as another structure ix. External vs. Internal: toward outside vs. inside of a structure VI. Body Cavities – open spaces a. Posterior i. Cranial: contains the brain ii. Vertebral: contains the spinal cord & beginnings of spinal nerves b. Anterior i. Thoracic: formed by ribs, muscles of chest, sternum, thoracic part of vertebral column 1. Pericardial cavity -heart (surrounded by pericardium) 2. 2 pleural cavities – lungs (surrounded by parietal & visceral pleura) 3. Mediastinum – b/n pleural cavities, from sternum to vertebral column, 1st rib > diaphragm, all thoracic organs x lungs a. Heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, several large blood vessels ii. Abdominopelvic – diaphragm to groin 1. Abdominal cavity – superior portion: kidneys, adrenal glands, stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, and most of large intestine. 2. Pelvic cavity – lower portion: urinary bladder, portions of large intestine, internal organs of reproductive system c. Regional Cavities i. Oral – mouth ii. Nasal – in nose iii. Orbital – contains eyes iv. Middle ear v. Synovial – within joints d. Cavity Membranes i. Membranes = thin pliable tissue that covers, lines, partitions or connects structures ii. Serous membrane – covers viscera within thoracic & abdominal cavities and lines the walls of those cavities 1. Parietal layer – thin epithelium lining body cavity walls 2. Visceral layer – thin epithelium lining the viscera 3. Serous cavity – area b/n parietal and visceral layers containing lubricating serous fluid iii. Examples of parietal & visceral serous membranes 1. Pleura – surrounds lungs (parietal on chest wall & diaphragm, visceral on lung surface) 2. Pericardium – around the heart (parietal lines the fibrous pericardium, visceral on heart surface (epicardium)) 3. Peritoneum – abdominal cavity (parietal lines abdominal wall & inferior diaphragm, visceral on visceral organs) a. Intraperitoneal = stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, jejunum, ileum, cecum appendix & transverse colon b. Retroperitoneal = kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, duodenum, ascending/descending colon, abdominal aorta/IVC VII. VIII. IX. Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants a. Quadrants – divides abdominopelvic region into 4 sections: midsagittal (median) & transverse lines through umbilicus i. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) ii. Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) iii. Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) iv. Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) b. 9 region divisions – for anatomical study to determine organ location i. Tic-tac-toe grid 1. Two vertical lines – midclavicular, midpoint of clavicle just medial of nipple 2. Two horizontal lines – subcostal at 10th rib, transtubercular (iliac crest) ii. R & L hypochondriac: below the ribs – L= spleen, part of stomach: R = liver iii. Epigastric: above the stomach - gall bladder, transverse colon, stomach, liver iv. R & L lumbar: R ascending colon - L descending colon v. Umbilical: center area around belly button - small intestine (jejunum, ileum) vi. R & L inguinal/iliac: R = cecum, appendix; L = sigmoid colon vii. Hypogastric: below the stomach - urinary bladder, rectum The Human Body & Disease a. Homeostasis - the body's ability to maintain a relatively stable environment / set of conditions through a state of dynamic consistency b. Disorder – any abnormality in sx or fx c. Disease (dz) – recognizable signs and symptoms (s/sx’s) i. Signs – objective & observable changes ii. Symptoms – subjective changes not apparent to an observer iii. Lesion – anatomical sign of disease d. Aging – normal process characterized by a progressive decline in body’s ability to restore homeostasis (dynamic constancy of body conditions) Medical imaging a. Radiography: X-Ray, 2-D image b. Computed Tomography (CT or CAT) scan: x-ray beam at multiple angles. Good for soft tissue with differing density. 3D image. Often torso. c. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): high energy magnetic field rearranging protons > 2 or 3-D color image, good for tumors, fatty plaques, brain abnormality blood flow, musculoskeletal/liver/kidney disorders. Can’t be used on someone with metal implants (pacemaker, joint replacement) d. Ultrasound: high-frequency sound waves reflect off body tissues. Noninvasive, still/moving images. Used to see fetus, detect blood flow through vessels (doppler ultrasound to detect DVT) e. Endoscopy: visual examination using a lightened scope (endoscope) f. Coronary (Cardiac) Computer Tomography Angiography (CCTA): iodine injected into a vein, pt given beta-blocker (slows HR), multiple x-rays around heart sent to computer, generates 3D image in 20 sec. Great for coronary artery blockages. g. Radionuclide Scanning: radioactive substance injected (IV) and carried to body part observed. Gamma rays given off are detected. Color coated image indicates high and low areas of tissue activity. Good for searching for tumors or scar tissue. h. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan: positron emitting substance injected into body. Collision of positrons with e- in body tissues produces gamma rays that are detected by gamma cameras. (blue lowest activity, red>white highest). Study physiological body sx’s (brain/heart).