Leadership and Personality Development 2019 PDF

LEADERSHIP AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT (FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY) 2019 PROGRAMME COORDINATOR Prof. Vijay Masarkar COURSE DESIGN AND REVIEW COMMITTEE Prof. Vijay Masarkar Prof. Sudhir S. Sant Prof. Dr. Hrishikesh Soman...

LEADERSHIP AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT (FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY) 2019 PROGRAMME COORDINATOR Prof. Vijay Masarkar COURSE DESIGN AND REVIEW COMMITTEE Prof. Vijay Masarkar Prof. Sudhir S. Sant Prof. Dr. Hrishikesh Soman Prof. Dr. Sayalee Gankar Prof. Dr. Ashish Tavkar Prof. Debashish Dutta COURSE WRITER Prof. Dr. Vishwanath Joshi EDITOR Ms. Neha Mule Published by Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning (SCDL), Pune July, 2011 (Revision 03, 2015) Copyright © 2019 Symbiosis Open Education Society All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, transmitted or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system without written permission from the publisher. Acknowledgement Every attempt has been made to trace the copyright holders of materials reproduced in this book. Should any infringement have occurred, SCDL apologises for the same and will be pleased to make necessary corrections in future editions of this book.  PREFACE We are pleased to present to you a comprehensive SLM on ‘Leadership and Personality Development’. Our personality governs our social and professional behavior. Our leadership quality also depends crucially upon our understanding of personality in others and ourselves. This SLM discusses the major psychological aspects of men at work. Proper care has been taken to cover all areas of human behavior and how it has positive and negative impact on communication, attitude, motivation and morale of individual and group. Apart from providing the students with the academic inputs on various topics on leadership and personality development, proper care has also been taken to ensure that the students learn and develop through practical approach especially in the last units related to Techniques of Personality Development & Communication and Interpersonal Skills. This SLM is an attempt to offer the students a perfect blend of soft skills studies and organizational behavior, as it discusses the topics such as conflict management, group dynamics, stress management and decision making in organizational context. Leadership and Personality Development being a vast area of research, efforts are made to incorporate and compile all the necessary aspects so as to give the students a broader insight into the subject with practical orientation. Still, it is requested not to limit the reading on this subject to the SLM only. Best wishes! Prof. Dr. Vishwanath Joshi iii  ABOUT THE AUTHOR Vishwanath Joshi, is a Post Graduate in Human Resource Management from Pune University. Spanning his career of more than 8 years, he has worked with IT consulting organizations like Mahindra Consulting, Patni and KPIT Cummins Infosystems Ltd., Pune. Before taking up the role of Head – Training with Brainvisa Technologies, an e-learning solutions company, he was heading HR with UBICS, a UB group IT consulting and products company in Pune. He has also consulted with Infosys Technologies Ltd., one of the largest and reputed IT consulting organizations in India, as a Certified Trainer on behavioural skills for their software professionals. He is also associated with Corporate Learning Centres like National Insurance Academy, a training institution for all insurance organizations in the country as a trainer-faculty in various HR as well as behavioural areas. His current role at Brainvisa, Pune is largely focused on designing and executing organization wide training processes and interventions in Managerial and behavioural areas. Overall, he has more than five years experience in designing and delivering value based programs like High Impact Communication skills, Customer Orientation and Management, Telephone Communication, Managing Relationships, Mentoring and Coaching etc. for a variety of participant profile. He is also involved in designing and delivering high end Executive Education programs at Wipro, Mphasis, Infosys, Intel, Reliance Infostream, EXL Services, Cognizant Technology Solutions etc. in areas of People Management processes and skills for last five years. His association with Symbiosis is now more than five years old. iv  CONTENTS Unit Page TITLE No. No. 1 Leadership 1-20 1.1. Introduction 1.2 Classic Studies on Leadership 1.3 Leadership Skills 1.4 Leadership Styles 1.4.1 Managerial Grid 1.4.2 Rensis Likert’s Four Systems Management 1.4.3 Leadership Behaviour Continuum 1.5 Theories of Leadership Summary Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading 2 Attitudes 21-42 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Nature of Attitude 2.3 Arousal of Attitude 2.4 Attitudes and Values 2.5 Attitudes and Opinions 2.6 Attitudes, Beliefs and Ideology 2.7 Attitudes and Prejudices 2.8 Characteristics of Attitude 2.9 Attitude Formation 2.10 Measurement of Attitude 2.10.1 Difficulties in Attitude Measurement 2.11 Changing Attitudes 2.12 Attitudes and Behaviour 2.12.1 Sources of Job Satisfaction 2.12.2 Job Satisfaction and Employee Performance 2.12.3 Commitment to Organisation Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading v  Unit Page TITLE No. No. 3 Motivation: The Why’s of Human Behaviour 43-54 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Characteristics and Classification of Motives 3.3 Intrapersonal Conflicts 3.3.1 Defence Mechanism 3.4 Money as a Motivator Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading 4 Work Motivation Theories 55-78 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Abraham Maslow’s Theory of Need Hierarchy 4.2.1 Criticism of Maslow’s Theory 4.3 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation 4.3.1 Criticism of Herzberg’s Theory 4.4 Alderfer’s ERG Theory 4.5 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation 4.6 The Porter-Lawler Model 4.7 Equity Theory of Work Motivation 4.8 Attribution Theory 4.9 Theory X and Theory Y 4.10 Pygmalion in Management Case Study Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading 5 Morale 79-94 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Indicators of Morale 5.3 Various Aspects of Morale 5.4 Improving Employee Morale Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading vi Unit Page TITLE No. No. 6 Conflict Management 95-110 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Levels of Conflict in Organisational Behaviour 6.3 Types of Conflict 6.4 Interpersonal Conflict Handling Styles 6.5 Intrapersonal Conflict and ways to Manage Intrapersonal conflicts 6.6 Negotiations in Conflict Management 6.7 Mediation Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading 7 Group Dynamics 111-132 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Classification of Groups 7.3 Teams and Types of Teams 7.4 Developmental Stages of Groups 7.5 Influences on Team Effectiveness 7.6 Team Diversity 7.7 Groupthink and Remedies to Overcome Groupthink 7.8 Group Maturity 7.9 Groups: A Sociological View 7.10 Effective Team Working Case Study Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading 8 Stress Management 133-146 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Types of Stress and Stressors 8.3 Management of Stress 8.4 Ways to Overcome Stress Case Study Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading vii  Unit Page TITLE No. No. 9 Decision-Making 147-168 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Nature of Decision-Making 9.2.1 Making Decisions 9.2.2 Using Decisions for Action Orientation 9.2.3 Connecting Decisions to Values 9.2.4 Keeping Time Factor in Mind 9.2.5 Ease in Handling Decisions 9.2.6 Applying Creativity and Innovation 9.2.7 Posing the Right Problem 9.2.8 Relating Decisions to Resource Availability 9.2.9 Connecting Decisions with Objectives 9.2.10 Taking Risks 9.2.11 Managing Change 9.2.12 Handling Associated Problems 9.2.13 Synchronising Decisions 9.2.14 Choosing between Alternatives 9.2.15 Being Open to Surrounding Issues 9.3 The Process of Decision-Making 9.3.1 Premising 9.3.2 Understanding Limiting Factors 9.3.3 Developing Alternatives 9.3.4 Evaluating Alternatives 9.3.5 Handling Decisions 9.3.6 Taking Feedback, Reviewing and Revising 9.4 Types of Decisions and their Implications for Managing 9.4.1 Proactive and Reactive Decisions 9.4.2 Prescriptive Decisions 9.4.3 Structured and Unstructured Decisions 9.4.4 Policy Decisions 9.4.5 Rules 9.4.6 Procedural Decisions 9.4.7 Strategic Decisions 9.4.8 Normative Decisions 9.4.9 Quantitative and Qualitative Decisions 9.4.10 Group Decisions 9.4.11 Short Term and Long Term Decisions 9.4.12 Technical Decisions viii Unit Page TITLE No. No. 9.5 Assisting Techniques in Decision-Making 9.5.1 Marginal Analysis 9.5.2 Cost Benefit Analysis 9.5.3 Experimentation 9.5.4 Research and Analysis 9.5.5 Risk Analysis 9.5.6 Decision Tree 9.5.7 Preference Theory 9.5.8 Decision Support System 9.5.9 Management Information System Case Study Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading 10 Personality 169-194 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Definition of Personality 10.3 Determinants of Personality 10.4 Personality Theories 10.4.1 Intrapsychic Theory 10.4.2 Type Theories 10.4.3 Trait Theories 10.4.4 Social Learning Theory 10.4.5 Self Theory 10.5 Personality and Organisation 10.6 Personality Structure 10.7 Personality and Behaviour Case Study Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading ix  Unit Page TITLE No. No. 11 Techniques of Personality Development 195-222 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Developing a Winning Personality 11.3 Change Management 11.4 Self Esteem 11.5 Time Management 11.6 Self Analysis 11.7 Goal Setting Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading 12 Communication and Interpersonal Skills 223-252 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Communication 12.3 Listening 12.4 Non-Verbal Communication 12.5 Interpersonal Skills 12.6 Public Speaking Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading References 253-254 x Leadership UNIT Structure: 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Classic Studies on Leadership 1.3 Leadership Skills 1.4 Leadership Styles 1.4.1 Managerial Grid 1.4.2 Rensis Likert’s Four Systems Management 1.4.3 Leadership Behaviour Continuum 1.5 Theories of Leadership Summary keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading Leadership 1  Notes Objectives ---------------------- ---------------------- After going through this unit, you will be able to: State the importance of leadership ---------------------- Present the background and classic studies of leadership ---------------------- Discuss various leadership styles, theories and their implications to the followers as well as to the organization ---------------------- Examine the relationships that activities have with successful and ---------------------- effective leaders. ---------------------- Note the current thinking on managers in actual work situations and their leadership styles ---------------------- Indicate a view on a leadership style most suited to Indian ---------------------- organizations ---------------------- 1.1 INTRODUCTION ---------------------- Organizations depend upon capable leadership to guide them through ---------------------- unprecedented changes. Yet, there is ample evidence in the news and in recent research reports that even some of the best and most venerable organizations ---------------------- are failing to adapt to change, implement their strategic plans successfully or ---------------------- prepare for a more uncertain future. More and more people believe the turmoil we are currently observing ---------------------- has something to do with leadership, and that if we do not change our current ---------------------- approach to leadership development, we will see even more of the same. As well-known companies disappear or are taken over (think of Lucent, ---------------------- Chrysler, Lehman Brothers, Northern Rock, Merrill Lynch) and new forces like ---------------------- the economies of China and India rise, surveys of CEOs show that they believe the one factor that will determine their fate is the quality of their leadership talent. ---------------------- Yet many top executives bemoan the lack of leadership bench strength in their companies and wonder what will happen once the baby-boomer generation of ---------------------- leaders finally steps aside. ---------------------- Can we count on the next generation of leaders to step up once they are in position? Alternatively, are we seeing evidence of a talent gap that cannot be ---------------------- closed and will result in even greater numbers of high-profile failures? What can ---------------------- your organization do to avoid the risks associated with inadequate leadership and better prepare its current and future leaders for changes that are yet unforeseen? ---------------------- Successful organizations have one major common attribute that sets them ---------------------- apart from unsuccessful organizations: dynamic and effective leadership. ---------------------- Peter F. Drucker points out that managers (Business leaders) are the most basic and scarcest resources of any business enterprise. Most of the organizational ---------------------- failures can be attributed to ineffective leadership. 2 Leadership and Personality Development  On all sides, there is a continual search for persons who have the necessary Notes abilities to enable them to lead effectively. The shortage of effective leadership is not confined to business but is evident in the lack of able administrators in ---------------------- government, education, foundations and every other form of organization. Thus, when we decry the brain drain from India, we are not talking about the drain of ---------------------- people who could have filled administrative “bodies”. What we are agonizing ---------------------- over is a drain of brains willing to assume significant leadership roles in our society and can get the job done effectively. ---------------------- The significance of leadership arises from the openness of the Organization ---------------------- as a system and from the fact that it operates in a changing environment. There are numerous instances in the history of organizations showing collapse of enterprises ---------------------- that failed to react suitably to the environmental requirements for change. The ---------------------- effective changeover requires effective leadership because there exists no built- in stabilizing devices of organization for coping with such altered requirements. ---------------------- The significance of leadership also stems from the nature of human ---------------------- membership in organizational settings. People who form an organization are members of several institutions – in the sociological sense – at the same time. ---------------------- Numerous extraneous activities and affiliations take up the bulk of an individual’s time and satiate his needs. These extra-organizational activities influence human ---------------------- behavior at work. ---------------------- Moreover, the environment in which an organization operates is full of change agents. In the modern time, no organization can afford to be static. It has ---------------------- to change with the environment. Actually, an organization that refuses to change ---------------------- dies in the long run. Management of change has become challenge before every organization these days. This challenge can be met only with effective leadership. ---------------------- Definition and characteristics of leadership ---------------------- Katz and Kahn have observed: “In the descriptions of organizations, no word is more often used than leadership, and perhaps no word is used with such ---------------------- varied meanings. The word leadership is sometimes used to indicate that it is an attribute of personality; sometimes it is used as if it was a characteristic of ---------------------- certain positions, and sometimes as an attribute of behavior.” ---------------------- Leadership is defined as “the relationship in which one person, influences others to work together willingly on related tasks to attain that which the leader ---------------------- desires.” ---------------------- Keith Davis defines leadership as “the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is the human factor that binds people ---------------------- together and motivates them towards goals.” “Leadership is that outstanding aspect of management which manifests ---------------------- ability, creativeness, initiative and inventiveness, and which gains confidence, ---------------------- co-operation and willing of the people to work by building employee morale.” “It is the process by which an executive or a manager imaginatively directs, ---------------------- guides and influences the work of others in choosing and attaining specified goals ---------------------- by mediating between the individual and the Organization in such a manner that both will obtain the maximum satisfaction.” ---------------------- Leadership 3  Notes “It is an inter-personal influence, exercised in situations and directed, through the communication process, towards the attainment of a specified goal ---------------------- or goals.” ---------------------- “Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group towards the achievement of a goal in a given situation. The leadership ---------------------- process is a function of the leader, the follower and other situational variables.” ---------------------- “Leadership is organizationally useful behaviour by one member of an Organization family toward another member or members of that same ---------------------- organizational family.” ---------------------- “Leadership is one form of dominance, in which the followers more or less willingly accept direction and control by another person.” ---------------------- Leadership is an influence process; the dynamics of which are a function ---------------------- of the personal characteristics of the leader and followers, and of the nature of the specific situations. ---------------------- The importance of leadership being what it is, researchers were interested ---------------------- in knowing what makes a leader and that too what makes a good leader. ---------------------- The phrenological, graphological and demographic studies suffered from the lack of scientific rigour and cannot be given any credence. They are, at best, ---------------------- guesses. The academic community in various universities got interested in the studies of leadership in late 1930s. ---------------------- ---------------------- 1.2 CLASSIC STUDIES ON LEADERSHIP ---------------------- Unlike many other topics in the field of organizational behavior, there are a number of studies and a considerable body of knowledge on leadership. A review ---------------------- of the better- known classic studies can help set the stage for the established and ---------------------- emerging theories of leadership. 1) The Iowa Leadership Studies ---------------------- A series of pioneering leadership studies conducted in the late 1930s by ---------------------- Ronald Lippitt and Ralph K. White under the general direction of Kurt Lewin at the University of Lowa have had a lasting impact: Lewin is ---------------------- recognized as the father of group dynamics and as an important cognitive ---------------------- theorist. In the initial studies, hobby clubs for ten-year-old boys were formed. Each ---------------------- club was submitted to three different styles of leadership – authoritarian, ---------------------- democratic, and laissez faire. ---------------------- The authoritarian leader was very directive and allowed no participation. This leader tended to give individual attention when praising and ---------------------- criticizing but tried to be friendly or impersonal rather than openly hostile. ---------------------- The democratic leader encouraged group discussion and decision-making. He tried to be “objective” in his praise or criticism and to be one of the ---------------------- group spirit. 4 Leadership and Personality Development  The laissez faire leader gave complete freedom to the group; he essentially Notes provided no leadership. ---------------------- Under experimental conditions, the three leadership styles were manipulated to show their effects on variables such as satisfaction and ---------------------- frustration/ aggression. Some of the results were clear-cut and others were not. One definite finding was the boys’ overwhelming preference ---------------------- for the democratic leader. ---------------------- The experiments were designed primarily to examine pattern of aggressive behavior. The researchers found that the boys subjected to the autocratic ---------------------- leaders reacted in one of the two ways: either aggressively or apathetically. ---------------------- Both the aggressive and apathetic behaviors were deemed reactions to the frustration caused by the autocratic leader. The researchers also pointed ---------------------- out that the apathetic groups exhibited outbursts of aggression when the autocratic leader left the room or when a transition was made to a freer ---------------------- leadership atmosphere. ---------------------- The laissez faire leadership climate actually produced the greatest number of aggressive acts from the group. ---------------------- The democratically led group fell between the one extremely aggressive ---------------------- group and the four apathetic groups under the autocratic leaders. ---------------------- Sweeping generalizations based on the Lippitt and White studies are dangerous. Nevertheless, these leadership studies have extremely ---------------------- important historical significance. Like the Hawthorne studies, the Lowa studies are too often discounted or at least de- emphasized because they ---------------------- were experimentally crude. The values of the studies were that they ---------------------- were the first to analyze leadership from the standpoint of scientific methodology, and, more important, they showed that different styles of ---------------------- leadership could produce different, complex reactions from the same or similar groups. ---------------------- 2) The Ohio State Leadership Studies ---------------------- In 1945, the Bureau of Business Research at Ohio State University ---------------------- initiated a series of studies on leadership. An interdisciplinary team of researchers from psychology, sociology and economics developed ---------------------- and used the Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) to ---------------------- analyze leadership in numerous types of groups and situations. Studies were made of Air Force commanders and members of bomber crews, ---------------------- officers, noncommissioned personnel and civilian administrators in the Navy Department, manufacturing supervisors, executives of regional ---------------------- cooperatives, college administrators, teachers, principals and school ---------------------- superintendents, and leaders of various student and civilian groups. In the first step, the LBDQ was administered in a wide variety of situations. ---------------------- In order to examine how the leader was described, the answers to the ---------------------- questionnaire were then subjected to factor analysis. The outcome was amazingly consistent. The same two dimensions of leadership continually ---------------------- Leadership 5  Notes emerged from the questionnaire data. They were ‘consideration’ and ‘initiating structure.’ These two factors were found in a wide variety of ---------------------- studies encompassing many kinds of leadership positions and contexts. Initiating structure and consideration are very similar to the time honored ---------------------- military commander’s functions of mission and concern with the welfare ---------------------- of the troops. In simple terms, the Ohio State factors are task or goal orientation (initiating structure) and recognition of individual needs and ---------------------- relationships (consideration). ---------------------- The Ohio State studies were the first to point out and emphasis the importance of both task and human dimensions in assessing leadership. ---------------------- This two-dimensional approach lessened the gap between the strict task orientation of the scientific management movement and the human ---------------------- relations emphasis. ---------------------- 3) The Early Michigan Leadership Studies ---------------------- At about the same time that the Ohio State studies were being conducted, a group of researchers from the Survey Research Center at the University ---------------------- of Michigan USA began their studies of leadership. ---------------------- Twelve high-low productivity pairs were selected for examination. Each pair represented a high-producing section and a low-producing section, ---------------------- with other variables, such as type of work, conditions and methods, being ---------------------- the same in each pair. Non-directive interviews were conducted with the 24 section supervisors and 419 clerical workers. Results showed that ---------------------- supervisors of high producing sections were significantly more likely to be general rather than close in their supervisory styles and the employee ---------------------- centered (have a genuine concern for their people). ---------------------- The low producing section supervisors had essentially opposite characteristics and techniques. They were found to be close, production- ---------------------- centered supervisors. ---------------------- Check your Progress 1 ---------------------- ---------------------- Fill in the blanks. ---------------------- 1. The word leadership is sometimes used to indicate that it is an attribute of _______________; sometimes it is used as if it was a characteristic ---------------------- of certain __________, and sometimes as an attribute of __________. ---------------------- 2. A democratic leader encourages ________ and ____________. ---------------------- 3. The _____________ leader essentially provided no leadership. ---------------------- 4. The authoritarian leader was very ______ and allowed no participation. ---------------------- ---------------------- 6 Leadership and Personality Development  Notes Activity 1 ---------------------- Analyse the yearly survey report on ‘Best Place to work with’ available on ---------------------- the internet. Try to analyse the critical factors affecting the leadership and Management practices of these organization. ---------------------- ---------------------- 1.3 LEADERSHIP SKILLS ---------------------- Leaders use three different types of skills – technical, human and conceptual. Although these skills are interrelated in practice, they can be ---------------------- considered separately. ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- Fig 1.1: The three different types of Leadership skills ---------------------- 1. Technical skills Technical skills relate to person’s knowledge and ability in any ---------------------- organizational functional area. Examples are the skills learned by ---------------------- accountants, typists. This skill is the distinguishing feature of job performance at the operating level. ---------------------- 2. Human skills ---------------------- Human skill is the ability to work effectively with people and to build ---------------------- teamwork. No leader at any organizational level escapes the requirement for effective human skill. It is a major part of leadership behaviour. ---------------------- 3. Conceptual skills ---------------------- Conceptual skill is the ability to think in terms of models, frameworks and broad relationships, such as long-range plans. Conceptual skills deal ---------------------- with ideas while human skill concerns people and technical skill is with ---------------------- things. It will be seen from the above diagram that a mix of these three skills ---------------------- changes as one rises in the organizational hierarchy. At the supervisory ---------------------- Leadership 7  Notes level, the requirement of technical skills is the highest. But as the person moves up the hierarchy to the top management, it is conceptual skills ---------------------- that are more in demands rather than technical skills. However, the requirement of human skills at all the hierarchical levels continues to be ---------------------- the same. ---------------------- 1.4 LEADERSHIP STYLES ---------------------- Leadership is practiced by leadership style, which is the total pattern of ---------------------- leaders’ actions in relation to followers. It represents their philosophy, skills and attitudes. The styles that are discussed hereunder are used in combination, not ---------------------- separately; but they are discussed separately to clarify differences among them. ---------------------- Negative leadership gets acceptable performance in many situations, but it has high human costs. Negative leaders act domineering and superior with people. ---------------------- To get work done, they hold over their personnel such penalties as loss of job, ---------------------- reprimand in the presence of others, etc. They display authority in the false belief that it frightens everyone into productivity. They are bosses more than leaders. ---------------------- Even the most competent leaders will at times have to fall back upon ---------------------- negative leadership. Perfection can never be achieved, but the historical trend is that managers need more and more positive leadership skills in order to be ---------------------- rated “satisfactory”. Better employee education, greater independence, and other factors have made satisfactory employee motivation more dependent on positive ---------------------- leadership. ---------------------- The way a leader uses power establishes the type of style. Each style has ---------------------- its benefits and limitations. Leader behavior is the mixture of all three styles over some time, but one style tends to be the dominant one. Autocratic, Participative ---------------------- and Free rein are the major types of leadership style. ---------------------- 1. Autocratic leadership style Autocratic leaders centralize power and decision making in them. They ---------------------- structure the complete work situation for their employees, who are ---------------------- supposed to do what they are told. The leaders take full authority and assume full responsibility. Leadership behavior typically, is negative, ---------------------- based on threats and punishment; but it can be positive, because an autocratic leader can choose to give rewards to employees, in which ---------------------- the style becomes “benevolent- autocratic”. Some employees have ---------------------- expectations of autocratic leadership. The result is that they feel a certain amount of security and satisfaction with this type of leader. ---------------------- Some advantages of autocratic leadership style are that it provides ---------------------- strong motivation and reward for the leader. It permits quick decisions, because only one person decides for the entire group. It is the best style ---------------------- in emergencies. Furthermore, this style gives good results when one is dealing with unskilled employees doing repetitive tasks. ---------------------- The main disadvantage of autocratic leadership style is that most people ---------------------- dislike it. Frustration, dissatisfaction, fear and conflict develop easily 8 Leadership and Personality Development  in autocratic situations. Employees do not involve their “self” in the Notes organizational activities because their drives and creativity are suppressed. ---------------------- 2. Participative leadership style Participative leadership style is expression of leader’s trust in the abilities ---------------------- of his subordinates. The leader believes that his people are as desirous of ---------------------- contributing to the organizational efforts as well as they have requisite capacities. Participative leaders decentralize authority. Participative ---------------------- decisions are not unilateral, as with the autocrat, because they arise from consultation with followers and participation by them. The leader and ---------------------- group are acting as one unit. Employees are informed about conditions ---------------------- requiring decisions, which encourage them to express their ideas and suggestions. Whereas autocratic leaders control through the authority ---------------------- they possess, participative leaders exercise control mostly by using forces within the group. ---------------------- Participative style is supposed to be a better style of managing people. ---------------------- However, it is not without its own drawbacks. This style is useless when the leader is dealing with an emergency. Furthermore, the basic ---------------------- assumption of this style that the people have the skill and will to help ---------------------- organizational effort may not be correct. 3. Free-rein leadership style ---------------------- On the continuum of leadership style, free rein style is the extreme. Free ---------------------- rein leaders avoid power and responsibility. They depend largely upon the group to establish its own goals and work out its own problems. A free rein ---------------------- leader is the one who abdicates all his decision-making responsibilities ---------------------- and prerogative in favor of his follower. The leader plays only a minor role. In an organizational setting, such a leader happens to be a bystander, ---------------------- he happens to be there because of his organizational appointment. He fails to guide, motivate and develop his subordinates. ---------------------- This style tends to permit different units of an Organization to proceed ---------------------- at cross-purposes, and it can degenerate into chaos. For these reasons, normally it is not used as a dominant style but is useful in those situations ---------------------- where a leader can leave a choice entirely to the group. This style is also ---------------------- good when one is dealing with scientific and professional employees, who require more job-freedom. ---------------------- 1.4.1 Managerial Grid ---------------------- One very popular approach to identifying leadership styles of practicing ---------------------- managers is Blake and Mouton’s managerial grid. The following figure shows that the two dimensions of the grid are concern for people along ---------------------- the vertical axis and concern for production along the horizontal axis. ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- Leadership 9  Notes ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- Fig 1.2: The Managerial Grid ---------------------- [Source: R. Blake and J. Mouton, Managerial Façade, Advanced Management Journal, July ---------------------- 1966, 31] The five basic styles identified in the grid represent varying combinations ---------------------- of concern for people and production. ---------------------- The 1.1 manager has minimum concern for people and production; this style is sometimes called “impoverished” style. ---------------------- The opposite is the 9.9 manager, who has maximum concern for both ---------------------- people and production. The implication is that the 9.9 is the best style of ---------------------- leadership and Blake and Mouton have stated so in clear terms. The 5.5 manager is the “middle-of-the-roader” and the other two styles ---------------------- represent the extreme concerns of people (1.9 country club manager) and ---------------------- production (9.1 “task” manager). The accommodating (previously, country club) style (1.9): yield and ---------------------- comply. This style has a high concern for people and a low concern for ---------------------- production. Managers using this style pay much attention to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes that this will increase performance. ---------------------- The resulting atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily very productive. ---------------------- The dictatorial (previously, produce or perish) style (9.1): control and ---------------------- dominate. With a high concern for production and a low concern for people, managers using this style find employee needs unimportant; they ---------------------- provide their employees with money and expect performance in return. ---------------------- Managers using this style also pressurise their employees through rules 10 Leadership and Personality Development  and punishments to achieve the company goals. This dictatorial style is Notes based on Theory X of Douglas McGregor and is commonly applied by companies on the edge of real or perceived failure. This style is often used ---------------------- in case of crisis management. ---------------------- 1.4.2 Rensis Likert’s Four Systems Management ---------------------- Rensis Likert, the one-time director of the Institute for Social Research of the University of Michigan, presented the results of years of similar research ---------------------- in his books and is known for his “System 4” leadership styles. Three types of variables characterize the same: ---------------------- a) Casual variables are the leadership styles of management in formal ---------------------- organizations. They include the variables under the control of management, e.g. organization structure and management’s policies, and decisions and ---------------------- their leadership styles, skills and behaviour. ---------------------- b) Intervening variables reflect the internal climate of the organization, such as loyalty and motivation, attitudes, perceptions, performance goals ---------------------- etc. ---------------------- c) End-result variables reflect the objectives of an organization and are the joint product of the casual variables and the intervening variables, such as ---------------------- productivity, service costs, quality and earnings. ---------------------- Likert’s styles of leadership are classified into four distinct types: ---------------------- 1. System 1: Exploitative, Authoritative ---------------------- The leader has no trust or confidence in his subordinates. Communication is entirely formal. Coercion and occasional reward accomplish motivation. ---------------------- The leader is mostly production oriented, and has virtually no concern for his followers except as an instrument of production. The leader under ---------------------- System 1 has a strong Theory X philosophy and is highly committed to ---------------------- initiating structure as a means of exercising influence. Power and position authority is the basis of this type of leadership. ---------------------- 2. System 2: Benevolent-Authoritative ---------------------- The leader has confidence and trust in his subordinates. Communication is mostly formal. Reward and some coercion accomplish motivation. ---------------------- The leader has a limited concern for his subordinates, but is still heavily ---------------------- oriented towards production; System 2 is philosophically committed to Theory X, but occasionally shows consideration within the initiating ---------------------- structure. Power and positional authority are the primary means of enforcing compliance, although personal authority may be used to ---------------------- supplement legitimacy, reward and coercion. There is some delegation of ---------------------- authority, but control still resides in the top management. 3. System 3: Consultative ---------------------- The leader has a lot of confidence in his subordinates, but still wishes ---------------------- to retain control of his decision making power. Communication is less ---------------------- Leadership 11  Notes formal. Motivation is by reward and coercion, with some involvement in decision making on the part of subordinates. The leader in system 3 is less ---------------------- committed to Theory X and will, as the situation demands, move towards Theory Y. Both positional authority and personal authority are used to ---------------------- gain the acceptance of the subordinates and to enforce their compliance. ---------------------- 4. System 4: Democratic ---------------------- The leader has complete trust and confidence in his subordinates. Communication is both formal and informal, and is open in all direction. ---------------------- Motivation is accomplished by a system of rewards developed with the participation of leader and followers. The leader has a balanced concern ---------------------- for both people and production, and relies primarily on teamwork ---------------------- to progress in both directions. System 4 has a strong commitment to Theory Y. The position of power is de-emphasized, and personal ---------------------- authority is predominant. Recourse to positional authority is infrequent. The responsibility for result still lies with the management; but there is ---------------------- minimal emphasis on control. Participation is used to obtain results. ---------------------- On the basis of the responses received from the managers, Likert found that “quite consistently, the high producing units fall under system 3 and ---------------------- 4, and the low-producing units fall under system 1 and 2”. ---------------------- 1.4.3 Leadership Behaviour Continuum ---------------------- The originators of this theory are Tannenbaum and Schmidt. They postulate that managers often have difficulty in deciding what type of action is ---------------------- most appropriate for handling a situation/particular problem. They are not sure whether to make the decision or to delegate the decision-making authority to ---------------------- subordinates. To provide insight into the meaning of leadership behavior with regard to decision-making these authors suggest a continuum. ---------------------- Leadership actions are related to the degree of authority used by managers ---------------------- and to the amount of freedom available to the subordinates in reaching decisions. The managerial actions depicted on the left of the continuum characterize ---------------------- managers who maintain a high degree of control, while these on the right designate ---------------------- managers who delegate decision-making authority. It will be observed that at the one extreme end, the manager makes ---------------------- decision, tells his subordinates and expects them to carry out that decision. At ---------------------- the other extreme, the manager fully shares his decision-making power with his subordinates, allowing each member of the group to carry an equal voice – one ---------------------- man, one vote. Between these two extremes fall a number of leadership styles. The selection of a particular style is dependent upon forces in the manager himself, ---------------------- his operating group and the situation. ---------------------- There is a relationship between the degree of authority used and the amount of freedom available to subordinates in reaching decision. This continuum is ---------------------- seen as a zero-sum game; as one gains, the other loses, and vice versa. The authors of the theory imply that leaders should not choose a strict “autocratic” or ---------------------- “democratic” style, but should be flexible enough to cope with different situations. ---------------------- Those leaders would be most effective who are adaptable and who can delegate 12 Leadership and Personality Development authority effectively because they consider their capabilities, subordinates and Notes goals be accomplished. ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- Fig 1.3: The Leadership Behaviour Continuum ---------------------- ---------------------- Check your Progress 2 ---------------------- Match the following. ---------------------- i. This skills relate to person’s knowledge and ability a. Technical ---------------------- in any organizational functional area ---------------------- ii. This skill is the ability to work effectively with b. Leadership people and to build teamwork ---------------------- iii. This skill is the ability to think in terms of models, c. Conceptual frameworks, and broad relationships, such as long ---------------------- range plans ---------------------- iv. It represents a person’s philosophy, skills, and d. Human attitudes ---------------------- v. This leaders centralize power and decision making e. Participative ---------------------- in them vi. This leadership style is expression of leader’s trust f. Autocratic ---------------------- in the abilities of his subordinates ---------------------- ---------------------- Activity 2 ---------------------- Undertake a survey in nearby organisation to find out the style of ---------------------- organisational leadership. Analyse the critical factors responsible for such leadership style. Try to find out what matters- people or productivity. ---------------------- Leadership 13  Notes 1.5 THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP ---------------------- Since leadership makes difference between success and failure, for a long time, thinkers were trying to see if leadership success could be predicted. ---------------------- They were also trying to find out as to what makes a leader. Graphological, ---------------------- Phrenological and Demographic, studies were made in these directions. However, these studies had to be discarded because of many flaws. At best, they were ---------------------- guesses. ---------------------- 1. Trait Theories of Leadership ---------------------- The scientific analysis of leadership began with concentration on leaders themselves. The vital question that this theoretical approach attempted ---------------------- to answer was what characteristic or traits make a person a leader? The earliest trait theories, which can be traced back to the ancient Greeks and ---------------------- Romans, concluded that leaders are born, not made. The “great man” ---------------------- theory of leadership said that a person is born either with or without the necessary traits for leadership. Famous figures in history – for example, ---------------------- Napoleon – were said to have had the “natural” leadership abilities to rise out of any situation and become great leaders. ---------------------- Eventually, the “great man” theory gave way to a more realistic trait ---------------------- approach to leadership. Under the influence of the behaviourist school of psychological thought, researchers accepted the fact that leadership traits ---------------------- can be acquired through learning and experience. Attention was turned on ---------------------- the search for universal traits possessed by leaders. The research efforts were generally very disappointing. Only intelligence seemed to hold up ---------------------- with any degree of consistency. ---------------------- In general, research findings do not agree on which traits are generally found in leaders or even on which ones are more important than others. The ---------------------- numbers of traits required of a successful leader are many. Additionally, depending on the situation, the leader has to bring in various shades of the ---------------------- same trait. Trait theories also suffer from the problem of semantics. ---------------------- Similar to the trait theories of personality, the trait approach to leadership has provided some descriptive insight but has little analytical or predictive ---------------------- value. The trait approach is still alive, but now the emphasis has shifted ---------------------- away from personality traits toward job related skill. 2. Fred Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership ---------------------- After the trait approach was proved to fall short of being an adequate ---------------------- overall theory of leadership, attention turned to the situational aspects of ---------------------- leadership. Fred Fiedler proposed a situation-based or contingency theory for leadership effectiveness. ---------------------- Fiedler developed what he called a contingency model of leadership ---------------------- effectiveness. This model contained the relationship between leadership style and the favorableness of the situation. Fiedler described situational ---------------------- favorableness in terms of three empirically derived dimensions: 14 Leadership and Personality Development  1. The leader member relationship, which is the most critical variable Notes in determining the situation’s favourableness. ---------------------- 2. The degree of task structure, which is the second most important input into the favorableness of the situation. ---------------------- 3. The leader’s position power obtained through formal authority, ---------------------- which is the third most critical dimension of the situation. Situations are favourable to the leader if all three of the above dimensions ---------------------- are high. In other words, the leader is generally accepted by followers, if ---------------------- the task is very structured and everything is “spelled out”, and if a great deal of authority and power is formally attributed to the leader’s position ---------------------- (high third dimension). If the opposite exists, the situation will be very unfavorable to the leader. ---------------------- Fiedler was convinced that the favourableness of the situation in ---------------------- combination with the leadership style determines the effectiveness. Through the analysis of research findings, Fiedler was able to discover ---------------------- that under very favorable and very unfavorable situations, the task- ---------------------- directed, autocratic type of leader was most effective. However, when the situation was only moderately favorable or unfavorable (the intermediate ---------------------- range of favourableness), the human relations, or lenient, type of leader was most effective. ---------------------- 3. Life Cycle Theory ---------------------- It has been assumed that followers are the most crucial factor in any ---------------------- leadership event and that they are important not only because individually they accept or reject the leader but also because as a group they actually ---------------------- determine whatever personal power he may possess. Theory asserts that as the level of maturity of followers increases, the leader requires not ---------------------- only less and less structure (task) while increasing consideration but also ---------------------- should eventually decrease socio-emotional support (relationship). ---------------------- Attempts have been made to define maturity by achievement motivation, the willingness and ability to accept responsibility and task related ---------------------- education and experience. As an individual matures over time, he moves from a passive state to a state of increasing activity, from dependency on ---------------------- others to relative independence, etc. While age may be a component, it is ---------------------- not directly related to maturity. The leader behaviour should move through high task low relationship ---------------------- behaviour, to high task-high relationships, and high relationships-low task ---------------------- behaviour, to low task-low relationships behaviour, if followers progress from immaturity to maturity. ---------------------- The life cycle theory provides appropriate leadership styles according to ---------------------- maturity of one’s followers. This cycle is also distinguishable in various organizations in the interaction between superiors and subordinates. ---------------------- In working with highly trained and emotionally mature personnel, an effective leader behavior relates to low task-low relationships. ---------------------- Leadership 15  Notes Usually, in a crises-oriented organization such as military or the police, the most suitable style is the high task-low relationships. However, within ---------------------- the military itself, this style is frequently ineffective in working with research and development personnel who want limited amount of both ---------------------- structure and emotional support. Even in this group, some deviation from ---------------------- this style is needed. ---------------------- Overall, Life Cycle Theory asserts that with people of below average maturity, a high task style promises best probability of success while ---------------------- dealing with people of average maturity, the styles of high task and high relationships and high relationships and low task appear to be most ---------------------- suitable. The low task and low relationship style provides the highest ---------------------- probability of success with people of above average maturity. ---------------------- 4. Path-Goal Leadership Theory Robert House of the University of Toronto initially developed this theory, ---------------------- and House and Mitchell later refined it. It is called ‘path-goal approach’ ---------------------- because its primary concern is the leaders ‘influence on his followers’ perception of their work goals, personal goals and paths to achievement ---------------------- of these goals. It is based on the notion that leader behavior motivates and ---------------------- satisfies his followers to such an extent that it promotes the attainment of the followers’ goals and clears the path to attainment of these goals. It uses ---------------------- expectancy framework from motivation theory of Vroom. Leadership, according to this path-goal theory is closely related to motivation, on the ---------------------- one hand, and the power, on the other. In essence, the theory attempts ---------------------- to explain the impact that leader behavior has on followers’ motivation, satisfaction and performance. ---------------------- According to the authors of the theory, there are four basic or major styles ---------------------- of leadership behaviour: ---------------------- a) Directive Leadership: Here the subordinates know exactly what is expected of them and ---------------------- the leader gives specific directions. There is no participation by the ---------------------- subordinates. When the demands of task on hand are ambiguous or when organizational procedures, rules and policies are not ---------------------- clear, a directive leader may complement the task by providing the ---------------------- necessary guidance and psychological structure for his followers. When the demands of the task are clear to the followers, high level ---------------------- of directive leadership may impede effective performance. ---------------------- b) Supportive Leadership: ---------------------- The leader is friendly and approachable and shows a genuine interest for subordinates. This style of leadership has its most positive effect ---------------------- on the satisfaction of followers who perform tasks that are full of stress, and are frustrating and unsatisfactory or unsatisfying. ---------------------- 16 Leadership and Personality Development  c) Participative Leadership: Notes The leader asks for and uses suggestions from subordinates but ---------------------- takes the decision by himself. d) Achievement-oriented Leadership: ---------------------- The leader sets challenging goals for subordinates and shows ---------------------- confidence in them to attain these goals and perform well. For followers performing ambiguous, non- repetitive tasks the higher ---------------------- the achievement orientation of the leader the more confident they ---------------------- would be that their efforts would pay-off in effective performance. Contrary would be the case, when followers perform unambiguous ---------------------- and repetitive tasks. ---------------------- The path goal theory suggests that these various styles can be and actually are used by the same leader depending on the characteristics ---------------------- of the subordinates and the environmental pressures. ---------------------- House has concluded that a high degree of direction in autonomous or ambiguous situations increases satisfaction by clarifying the ---------------------- path to Goal achievement. In contrast, strongly defined tasks are performed best with greater employee satisfaction when the leader ---------------------- demonstrates high consideration. The autonomous jobs are most ---------------------- intrinsically satisfying than structured activities are. As a result, leader behavior will be less relevant to the needs or performance of ---------------------- subordinates than when the path is more difficult to negotiate. ---------------------- Check your Progress 3 ---------------------- ---------------------- Fill in the blanks. 1. _____________ developed what he called a contingency model of ---------------------- leadership effectiveness. ---------------------- 2. _____________ contained the relationship between leadership style and the favorableness of the situation. ---------------------- ---------------------- Activity 3 ---------------------- ---------------------- A successful leader may not necessarily be effective. Agree or disagree with this statement with the help of examples. ---------------------- ---------------------- Summary ---------------------- This unit discusses various aspects of leadership. The research studies such ---------------------- as Iowa leadership studies, Ohio leadership studies and early Michigan studies set the stage for the theoretical development of leadership. ---------------------- Leadership 17  Notes A leader requires technical, human and conceptual skills. As one goes up the organizational hierarchy one requires less and less of the technical ---------------------- skill and more and more of conceptual skills. However, the degree of human skills remains the same, at whatever hierarchy level one is a leader ---------------------- deals with his followers on the basis of leadership styles. ---------------------- There are different leadership styles: autocratic, participative and free rein. All these styles have positives as well as negatives. ---------------------- The contingency theory says that effectiveness of a particular style of ---------------------- leadership depends on leader-member relations, the task structure and the leader position power. When all these are very unfavorable or very ---------------------- favorable to the leader autocratic style of leadership is a good style. When ---------------------- the situation is mildly favorable or mildly favorable to the leader there is always give and take. ---------------------- Hersey and Blanchard’s approach shows how well managers can match ---------------------- the appropriate style with the maturity level of the group being led, and Likert’s work has implications for organizational effectiveness. Path- ---------------------- goal leadership theory developed by Robert House considers the effort performance linkages and performance goals satisfaction linkages. ---------------------- However, path-goal theory is a relatively new and warrants further ---------------------- research to test its applicability. ---------------------- Keywords ---------------------- Motivation: The internal condition that activates behaviour and gives it direction. ---------------------- Values: Broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or ---------------------- outcomes. As such, values reflect a person’s sense of right and wrong or ---------------------- what ought to be. ---------------------- Self-Assessment Questions ---------------------- 1. Define Leadership. Distinguish between leadership and management. ---------------------- 2. What is leadership? Why is there a need for leadership? Discuss the different styles of leadership. ---------------------- 3. “Leadership is the driving force, which gets things done by others.” ---------------------- Discuss in detail. 4. Explain the different approaches to leadership. Discuss the four systems ---------------------- by Rensis Likert. ---------------------- 5. Discuss the significance of leadership in management. 6. Write a short note on effective style of leadership in the Indian context. ---------------------- 7. Is leadership situational? Comment with examples. ---------------------- 8. Write short notes. a. Leadership continuum ---------------------- b. Classic studies on leadership 18 Leadership and Personality Development Answers to Check your Progress Notes Check your Progress 1 ---------------------- Fill in the blanks. ---------------------- 1. The word leadership is sometimes used to indicate that it is an attribute ---------------------- of personality; sometimes it is used as if it was a characteristic of certain positions, and sometimes as an attribute of behaviour. ---------------------- 2. A democratic leader encourages group discussion and decision-making. ---------------------- 3. The laissez faire leader essentially provided no leadership. ---------------------- 4. The authoritarian leader was very directive and allowed no participation. ---------------------- Check your Progress 2 ---------------------- Match the following. ---------------------- i. a. ii. d. ---------------------- iii. c. iv. b. ---------------------- v. f. vi. e. ---------------------- Check your Progress 3 ---------------------- Fill in the blanks. ---------------------- 1. Fiedler developed what he called a contingency model of leadership ---------------------- effectiveness. 2. Contingency model of leadership effectiveness contained the relationship ---------------------- between leadership style and the favorableness of the situation. ---------------------- Suggested Reading ---------------------- 1. Aswathappa, K. Essentials of Business Environment. Himalaya Publishing ---------------------- House ---------------------- 2. Stogill, Ralph M. Handbok of Leadership. NY: The free press. ---------------------- 3. Tannebaum, Robert and Fred Massarik. ‘Leadership: A frame of reference’in leadership and organization – A Behavioural Science ---------------------- Approach. McGraw Hill. ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- Leadership 19  Notes ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- 20 Leadership and Personality Development Attitudes UNIT Structure: 2 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Nature of Attitude 2.3 Arousal of Attitude 2.4 Attitudes and Values 2.5 Attitudes and Opinions 2.6 Attitudes, Beliefs and Ideology 2.7 Attitudes and Prejudices 2.8 Characteristics of Attitude 2.9 Attitude Formation 2.10 Measurement of Attitude 2.10.1 Difficulties in Attitude Measurement 2.11 Changing Attitudes 2.12 Attitudes and Behaviour 2.12.1 Sources of Job Satisfaction 2.12.2 Job Satisfaction and Employee Performance 2.12.3 Commitment to Organisation Summary Keywords Self-Assessment Questions Answers to Check your Progress Suggested Reading Attitudes 21  Notes Objectives ---------------------- ---------------------- After going through this unit, you will be able to: Describe the nature and importance of attitude ---------------------- Analyse the differences between attitudes, opinion, value, ideology, etc. ---------------------- Appraise how attitudes are formed and how attitudes can be changed ---------------------- Justify work attitudes like job satisfaction and organisational ---------------------- commitment ---------------------- 2.1 INTRODUCTION ---------------------- Developing climate for teamwork and mutually supporting atmosphere ---------------------- in organisation calls for predicting and estimating the individual’s responses to ---------------------- certain organisational stimuli. Individuals react to different stimuli on the basis of learned preferences. An individual’s behaviour is a function of attitudes. An ---------------------- attitude is a cognitive element; it always remains inside a person. In organisational context, employees have attitudes related to job security or uncertainty, prestige ---------------------- of the department and the work that they do, etc. The individual’s attitudes toward ---------------------- these factors are indicative of his apathy or enthusiasm toward the activities and objectives of the organisation. ---------------------- The notable feature of attitude is that it varies in direction, (favourable- ---------------------- unfavourable) intensity, (how strongly they are held) and the extent of consciousness (awareness of individual concerning his attitude). ---------------------- ---------------------- 2.2 NATURE OF ATTITUDE ---------------------- An attitude may be defined as a tendency to react positively or negatively with regard to an object., A person who, for example, has a positive attitude ---------------------- towards religion is likely to enjoy going to worship services, to believe that religious institutions foster morality, and therefore, may contribute towards its ---------------------- financial support. ---------------------- An attitude is always directed toward some object, such as the temple, ---------------------- school, etc. The object may be of general social significance, such as labour- management relations, or it may be purely personal, such as a feeling about ---------------------- playing cricket or football. Moreover, the object of an attitude may be as abstract as the philosophy of re-birth or as concrete as a car. ---------------------- An attitude is a tendency to react in a certain way. That is, a person who has ---------------------- an attitude has a readiness or a disposition to react favourably or unfavourably to anyone or a large variety of related situations. Until some situation arouses it, ---------------------- however, the attitude is latent. A man who, for example, has a patriotic attitude ---------------------- toward his country is not continuously aroused about it. But his patriotic attitude 22 Leadership and Personality Development arises when his country is threatened from an external aggression or if the National Notes Anthem is sung, and so on. ---------------------- Attitudes are for or against things. We tend to have favourable attitudes toward sources of gratification and unfavourable attitudes toward sources of ---------------------- punishment and frustration. It is possible, of course, that our attitude toward an object may not be uniformly favourable or unfavourable. We, for example, may ---------------------- admire and respect American technical accomplishments and yet resent other ---------------------- aspects of its system. ---------------------- 2.3 AROUSAL OF ATTITUDE ---------------------- What kinds of events are likely to arouse attitudinal reactions? The following principles outline conditions for attitude arousal: ---------------------- If an event appears to maintain, attain or foster movement toward ---------------------- what one values, then that event will tend to arouse positive reactions. ---------------------- Accordingly, a person who identifies with the goals of management would react positively to legislation or proposal to restrict unionism. ---------------------- If an event appears to destroy, prevent attainment of, or otherwise ---------------------- endanger what one values, then that event will tend to arouse negative reactions. Accordingly, a person who identifies with the goals of labour ---------------------- unions would react negatively to legislation or proposal to restrict trade unionism. ---------------------- The stronger an attitude, the lesser is the stimulation necessary to arouse it. ---------------------- Let us assume that the following items constitute an ascending scale of ---------------------- stimulation of attitude arousal for a person who has an unfavourable attitude toward labour unions: ---------------------- a) Seeing a group of people in working clothes. ---------------------- b) Seeing a group of labourers entering a union hall. ---------------------- c) Seeing a group of labourers picketing in an orderly manner. ---------------------- d) Seeing a group of labourers milling about, jeering and overturning a company truck. ---------------------- For a person who has a weakly unfavourable attitude toward labour unions, ---------------------- perhaps only item “d” would produce much of an attitudinal reaction. On the other hand, for a person who has an intensely anti-union attitude, item “b” and ---------------------- even “a” would be capable of arousing the attitude. ---------------------- The stronger one’s attitude, the greater is the probability of arousal of the attitude or the wider is the range of stimulus situations which are capable of ---------------------- arousing it. Those who, for example, have strong attitudes, either favourable or unfavourable, towards untouchables, are likely to be aroused by a wider range ---------------------- of situations than are those who have weak attitudes. ---------------------- An aroused attitude consists of three categories of internal (implicit, covert) responses. These consist of affective (emotional) reactions, cognitive (thoughts, ---------------------- Attitudes 23  Notes perceptual reactions, judgements), and action tendencies. The latter are actually motives for doing particular things. ---------------------- Suppose, for example, we consider someone’s internal reactions to ---------------------- situations involving higher education. He likes (affective reaction) the company of well-educated people, enjoys (affective reaction) spending time in th