Biology Chapter 1-3 PDF

BIOLOGY study of life and living organisms bios: life | logos: study unified science of life CELL basic unit of life GENES basic unit of heredity DNA or RNA FACTS ABOUT LIVING ORGANISMS a stable internal environment is found in them evolution is responsible...

BIOLOGY study of life and living organisms bios: life | logos: study unified science of life CELL basic unit of life GENES basic unit of heredity DNA or RNA FACTS ABOUT LIVING ORGANISMS a stable internal environment is found in them evolution is responsible for the unity and diversity among them they survive by energy absorption and conversion BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY 1. BOTANY study of plants MYCOLOGY: study and research of fungi o FUNGI: cannot make their food and has a role in nutrient cycling PHYCOLOGY: study of algae o ALGAE: aquatic living beings who can perform photosynthesis PLANT PHYSIOLOGY: deals with physiology and functioning of plants PALYNOLOGY: study of pollens PHYTOPATHOLOGY: study of plant diseases PLANT PHYSIOLOGY: concerned with the functions of parts of plants ASTROBOTANY: study of plants in space 2. ZOOLOGY study of animals CARCINOLOGY: study of crabs and crustaceans ETHOLOGY: study of animal behaviors ENTOMOLOGY: study of insects and arthropods HERPETOLOGY: study of reptiles and amphibians ICHTHYOLOGY: study of fishes MALACOLOGY: study of mollusks MAMMALOGY: study of mammals ORNITHOLOGY: study of birds 3. MICROBIOLOGY study of microorganisms PARASITOLOGY: studies parasitic organisms  VIROLOGY: study of viruses BACTERIOLOGY: study of bacteria 4. ANATOMY studies the structure and the parts of organisms 5. TAXONOMY deals with categorizing and naming different organisms 6. PHYSIOLOGY studies the normal functions of various parts of living organisms 7. THEORETICAL BIOLOGY an interdisciplinary field of scientific research with applications in medicine, biology, and biotechnology 8. CELL BIOLOGY talks about the structure and function of the cell 9. GENETICS study of genes, genetic variations, and principles of heredity 10. ECOLOGY study of the interaction of living organisms with one another and physical environment 11. EVOLUTION study of heritable changes and diversification over multiple generations 12. BIOCHEMISTRY intersection of biology and chemistry studies various chemical and physicochemical processes 13. BIOPHYSICS deals with the application of the laws of physics to biological occurrences 14. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY deals with the structure of proteins and nucleic acids and the functions 15. STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY studies the molecular structure of biological macromolecules 16. BIOTECHNOLOGY exploitation of biological processes for the production of hormones, antibodies 17. IMMUNOLOGY concerned with immunity 18. MARINE BIOLOGY study of the behavior and interactions of life forms and marine creatures with the ocean 19. PHOTOBIOLOGY study of the interactions of living organisms with light 20. RADIOBIOLOGY study of the action of ionizing radiation on living beings and their health effects 21. NEUROBIOLOGY studies the biology of the nervous system  22. PALEONTOLOGY uses fossils to study life’s history 23. FORENSIC SCIENCE application of science to answer questions related to the law FORENSIC SCIENTISTS o provide scientist evidence for use in courts o examine trace materials associated with crimes o analyze other biological evidence left at crime scenes BIOLOGY PIONEERS 1. ARISTOTLE father of biology studied all the aspects of life and its origin ARISTOTLE’S BIOLOGY THEORY: 5 MAJOR BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES o temperature o metabolism o regulation o inheritance o embryogenesis and information processing 2. GREGOR MENDEL father of genetics studies on pea plant that established many rules of heredity and a better understanding of crossbreeding in animals and plants 3. CHARLES DARWIN theory of evolution by natural selection o species change over time o give rise to new species o share a common ancestor evolution is descent with modification 4. ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK father of microbiology pioneer of microscope and discovery of microbes used magnifying glass to better judge the quality of threads 5. JOSEPH LISTER father of modern surgery pioneer of antiseptic surgery introduced the use of carbolic acid to clean wounds and sterilize surgical instruments, which led to a reduction of post-operative infections prior to the acceptance of germ theory 6. LOUIS PASTEUR also, a father of microbiology discovered the causes of diseases and preventing their spread invented pasteurization  o treats liquids to prevent bacterial contamination CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE 1. ADAPTATION THROUGH EVOLUTION the genetic makeup of a population may change over time living organisms adapt to the external environment, change their heritable traits, and prepare future generations for more efficient life processes. 2. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION living things contain specialized, coordinated parts ORGANISM o cell – tissue – organ – being o living thing with organ systems UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS: cell – atoms – molecules – organelles MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS: cells – tissues – organs – organ systems 3. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT living organisms undergo regulated growth grow – enlarge – mature – age – die 4. HEREDITY life transfers characteristics to offspring through DNA and RNA: the building blocks of life 5. HOMEOSTASIS maintenance of a stable internal environment, even in the face of a changing external environment, that is needed for cell function 6. METABOLISM an organism’s chemical reactions living things must use energy and consumes nutrients to carry out the chemical reactions that sustain life. ANABOLISM: consume energy CATABOLISM: can make stored energy available 7. REPRODUCTION living organisms can reproduce themselves to create new organisms UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS: divides/splits themselves in two MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS o ASEXUAL: single parent o SEXUAL: two parents 8. RESPONSE TO STIMULI living organisms respond to stimuli or changes in their environment SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY understands the natural world and predicts natural phenomena evidence can be found in science-based technologies  has not displayed faith, intuition, and dreams, and also doesn’t have emotional value, moral guidance, and supernatural claims science limits itself to ideas that can be tested through verifiable observations METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 1. Through OBSERVATIONS to find unsolved QUESTIONS OR PROBLEMS 2. Forming a HYPOTHESIS a tentative explanation for observations can be tested and rejected 3. Conducting EXPERIMENTS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN o determines how you will test the hypothesis o finds the answer to the question or problem EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES o identified to make sure the results are accurate o TYPES: manipulates, controlled, and responding 4. INTERPRET results gather data and record observations o QUANTITATIVE DATA: numerical o QUALITATIVE DATA: answered through observations/interviews interpret data o answers the question o responds to hypothesis 5. Draw CONCLUSIONS METHODS OF LOGICAL THINKING 1. INDUCTIIVE REASONING makes generalizations that are not always correct starts with individual pieces of information, then looks for trends in the information, and next, makes an informed guess based on those trends EXAMPLE: Last week, your best friend discovered a new restaurant that he really loves. He’s eaten there five times already. In describing the restaurant to you, he says, “Everything on the menu is delicious!” 2. DEDUCTIVE REASONING makes specific circumstances to predict specific results starts with broad declarations, then applies these to make decision about a specific case, and next, results are definitely correct EXAMPLE: Driving on icy roads is dangerous. The roads are icy today. Therefore, driving will be dangerous today! APPLICATION OF BIOLOGY TO ENGINEERING FIELD biotechnology and bioengineering are interdisciplinary fields that apply engineering principles to biological systems.  BIOTECHNOLOGY: uses living organisms to develop products BIOENGINEERING: applies engineering to address challenges in biology and medicine APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY Medical Diagnosis Environment and Energy Management Plant Agriculture / Crop Improvement Recombination DNA Technology Fermentation Technology Improvement in Food Technology Healthcare / Pharmaceuticals Animal Breeding Agriculture MICROBIOLOGY study of microscopic organisms MICROBES microorganisms exists as unicellular, multicellular, or cell clusters beneficial to life but some can cause serious harm PROTOZOA: responsible for toxoplasmosis and malaria FOUR COMPONENTS OF A CELL 1. PLASMA MEMBRANE outer covering, separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment 2. CYTOPLASM jelly-like cytosol inside the cell region outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane 3. DNA genetic material of the cell 4. RIBOSOMES molecular machines that synthesize proteins PROKARYOTE simple, single-celled organism lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles NUCLEOID: central region of the cell CIRCULAR CHROMOSOME: single large loop CELL WALL o extra layer of protection, maintain cell’s shape, and prevents dehydration o made out of peptidoglycan: polymer composed of linked carbohydrates and small proteins  CAPSULE: outermost layer, sticky, and helps the cell to attach to surfaces FLAGELLA: whip-like structures, act as rotary motors to help bacteria move FIMBRIAE: numerous, hair-like structures, used for attachment to host cells and surfaces PILI: allow transfer DNA to other bacteria and involved in bacterial locomotion SIZE: 0.1 to 5.0 micrometer EUKARYOTE packed with a fascinating array of subcellular structures that play important roles in energy balance, metabolism, and gene expression NUCLEUS: houses the cell’s genetic material ORGANELLES: specialized functions that float in the cytosol MULTIPLE LINEAR CHROMOSOMES KINGDOM PROTISTA PROTISTS simple eukaryotic organisms, neither plants nor animals or fungi unicellular in nature but can also be found as a colony of cells live in water, damp terrestrial environments, or as parasites have cilia or flagella for mobility SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: cell fusion and zygote formation GROUPS OF KINGDOM PROTISTA 1. CHRYSOPHYTES golden algae and diatoms found in marine and freshwater 2. DINOFLAGELLATES photosynthetic and marine dependent on the key pigments in their cells 3. EUGLENOIDS live in motionless freshwater cell wall is absent but has a protein-rich layer called pellicle 4. SLIME MOLDS saprophytic body moves along putrefying leaves and twigs, nourishes itself on organic material form accumulation under favorable surroundings – PLASMODIAL SLIME MOLDS 5. PROTOZOANS heterotrophs; survive either as parasites or predators KINGDOM FUNGI FUNGI filamentous, excluding yeast CELL WALL: composed of polysaccharides and chitin TYPES OF FUNGI o saprophytes, heterotrophic, parasites o symbiont: some lives with algae or roots of higher plants slender, long thread-like constructions called hyphae o mycelium: web of hyphae o coenocytic hyphae: unbroken tubes, jam-packed with multinucleated cytoplasm o septae: cross-walls TYPES OF FUNGI 1. MULTICELLULAR FILAMENTOUS MOLDS made up of hyphae, which keep on growing and intertwining until the form mycelium digestive enzymes are secreted from hyphal tip, which break down organic matter found in the soil to be used as food 2. MACROSCOPIC FILAMENTOUS FUNGI grow by producing mycelium below ground and visible fruiting bodies mushrooms or toadstools 3. YEASTS small, lemon-shaped single cells, same size as RBC multiple by budding a daughter cell off from the original parent cell, where scars are seen on the surface where buds have broken off one of the most widely used model organism for genetic studies Saccharomyces cerevisiae FUNGAL DISEASES 1. FUNGAL NAIL INFECTIONS common infections of the toenails and fingernails onychomycosis SYMPTOMS: nails that are discolored, thick, and fragile or cracked 2. RINGWORM can cause a circular rash that is usually red an itchy live on skin, surfaces, and on household items tinea or dermatophytosis SYMPTOMS o itchy skin o ring-shaped rash o red scaly cracked skin o hair loss  3. CANDIDIASIS CAUSE: candida normally lives inside the body and on skin without causing any problems can multiply and cause infection if the environment inside the body changes in a way that encourages its growth vaginal candidiasis, vulvovaginal candidiasis, candidal vaginitis: in vagina thrush or oropharyngeal candidiasis: in mouth and throat esophageal candidiasis, candida esophagitis: in esophagus and common in people with HIV/AIDS VAGINAL SYMPTOMS: vaginal itching or soreness, pain during sexual intercourse and urinating, abdominal vaginal discharge MOUTH AND THROAT SYMPTOMS o white patches on the inner cheeks, tongue, roof of the mouth, and throat o redness or soreness o cotton-like feeling in the mouth o loss of taste; pain while eating or swallowing o cracking and redness at the corners of the mouth KINGDOM MONERA BACTERIA occur everywhere, microscopic in nature, and are prokaryotic CELL WALL: formed of amino acids and polysaccharides HETEROTROPHIC BACTERIA o parasitic or saprophytic o get energy through consuming organic carbon o absorb dead organic material like decomposing flesh o some kil their host, while others help them AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA o chemosynthetic or photosynthetic o make their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis o PHOTOAUTOTROPHS: cyanobacteria produce oxygen, while heliobacteria do not. o CHEMOAUTOTROPHS: found in ocean vents and in the roots of legumes REPRODUCTION: binary fusion o divides into two identical daughter cells o DNA of parent cell divides into two replicates – parent cell then elongates and splits into two daughter cells – when conditions are favorable, cells can divide every 20 minutes TYPES OF BACTERIA 1. SPHERICAL shaped like a ball  streptococcus group – strep throat 2. ROD-SHAPED known as bacilli vibrio: curved rod-shaped bacteria Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) 3. SPIRAL known as spirilla spirochetes: tight coil spiral bacteria leptospirosis, Lyme disease, and syphilis BACTERIAL DISEASES I. UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT 1. STREP THROAT make your throat feel sore and scratchy common in children SYMPTOMS: sore throat, fever, cough, and swollen lymph nodes and tonsils COMPLICATIONS: kidney inflammation, rheumatic fever, or acute glomerulonephritis CAUSE: Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus) TRANSMISSION: airborne droplets TREATMENT: penicillin or clarithromycin PREVENTION: good hygiene 2. DIPHTHERIA affects the mucous membranes of nose and throat can damage the heart, kidneys, and nervous system deadly, especially in children SYMPTOMS: sore throat, low-grade fever CAUSE: Corynebacterium diphtheriae TRANSMISSION: airborne droplets, contaminated items TREATMENT: antitoxins and penicillin or erythromycin PREVENTION: DTaP or Tdap vaccine 3. PERTUSSIS highly contagious respiratory tract infection SYMPTOMS: fever, severe cough followed by a high-pitched intake of breath “whoop” CAUSE: Bordetella pertussis TRANSMISSION: airborne droplets TREATMENT: erythromycin PREVENTION: DTaP or Tdap vaccine 4. BACTERIAL MENINGITIS most serious type of meningitis; deadly, or can lead to permanent disability affects the meninges: membranes surround the brain and spinal cord  SYMPTOMS: headache, rigid neck, vomiting, and sensitivity to bright light CAUSES: Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitides, Streptococcus pheumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes, and Group B Streptococcus TRANSMISSION: pregnancy and airborne droplets TREATMENT: early diagnosis, penicillin, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone antibiotics PREVENTION: vaccines and good hygiene II. LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT 1. TUBERCULOSIS SYMPTOMS: chronic cough, chest pain, and high fever CAUSE: Mycobacterium tuberculosis TRANSMISSION: inhalation of bacilli TREATMENT: isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and rifampin require 6-9 months PREVENTION: BCG vaccine 2. TYPICAL BACTERIAL PNEUMONIA SYMPTOMS: fever, sharp chest pains, cough, and rust-colored sputum CAUSE: Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcal pneumonia), Haemophiles influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Klebsiella TRANSMISSION: aerosolized droplets TREATMENT: penicillin or erythromycin PREVENTION: pneumococcal vaccine 3. ATYPICAL BACTERIAL PNEUMONIA SYMPTOMS: fever, dry cough, diarrhea and vomiting CAUSE: Mycoplasma pneumoniae TRANSMISSION: aerosolized droplets TREATMENT: erythromycin III. FOODBORNE AND WASTEBORNE 1. BOTULISM severe form of food poisoning SYMPTOMS: paralysis of facial muscles, blurred vision, slurred speech, and difficulty swallowing and breathing CAUSE: Clostridium botulinum TREATMENT: antitoxin and placed on a ventilator 2. SALMONELLA TYPHI acid bacillus that invades the blood SYMPTOMS: fever, abdominal pain, rose spots, lethargy, and delirium TRANSMISSION: contaminated food or environment TREATMENT: chloramphenicol PREVENTION: typhoid vaccines 3. VIBRIO CHOLERAE acute, diarrheal illness in the intestine, producing enterotoxin  bacteria exit body through feces SYMPTOMS: profuse watery diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration, circulatory collapse, and shock TRANSMISSION: contaminated water and food TREATMENT: oral rehydration therapy PREVENTION: make safe water and food, good hygiene 4. GASTROENTERITIS watery diarrhea / traveler’s diarrhea CAUSE: E. coli E. coli 0157:H7: serious form of diarrhea that leads to hemorrhagic colitis hemolytic uremic syndrome: occurs when kidneys are involved 5. GASTRIC ULCER CAUSE: Helicobacter pylori TRANSMISSION: contaminated food or water TREATMENT: antibiotics and acid suppressors IV. SOILBORNE AND ARTHROPODBORNE 1. ANTHRAX plagues farm animals and agricultural workers SYMPTOMS: respiratory distress and blood infection CAUSE: Bacillus anthracis TRANSMISSION: inhalation, consumption, or skin contact TREATMENT: ciprofloxacin 2. TETANUS SYMPTOMS: generalized muscle stiffness, trismus, and convulsive contractions with unnatural fixed smile CAUSE: Clostridium tetani TRANSMISSION: direct contact TREATMENT: antitoxin and antibiotics PREVENTION: vaccine 3. LEPTOSPIROSIS spread from animals to humans (zoonosis) up to 10% of patients experience a systemic form of the disease SYMPTOMS: flu-like CAUSE: Leptospira interorgan TRANSMISSION: exposure to urine of contaminated water, soil, or food TREATMENT: penicillin or doxycycline V. SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED, CONTACT, AND MISCELLANEOUS 1. SYPHILIS CAUSE: Treponema pallidum PRIMARY SYPHILIS: characterized by a chancre SECONDARY SYPHILIS: presents fever, flu-like illness, and skin rash  TERTIARY SYPHILIS: characterized by gumma CONGENITAL SYPHILIS: transmitted through pregnancy, mother to fetus 2. GONORRHEA WOMEN SYMPTOMS: vaginal and urethral discharge of pus and burning during urination WOMEN COMPLICATION: pelvic inflammatory disease and salpingitis MEN SYMPTOMS: urethral inflammation, burning on urination, discharge of pus WOMEN TRANSMISSION: pregnancy causing gonococcal ophthalmia CAUSE: Neisseria gonorrhoeae VIRUSES type of germ, can make you sick antibiotic don’t work on them studying them was extremely difficult until 1940s, when electron microscope enabled scientists to see them and innovative methods allowed researchers to cultivate them composed of nucleic acid and the genome is surrounded by protein capsid, which is usually subdivided into capsomeres have envelope surrounding the nucleocapsid and it, with the spikes, are used for attachment to host cells helical, icosahedral, and complex symmetry VIRAL REPLICATION AND ITS CONTROL 1. ATTACHMENT: virus becomes attached to a target epithelial cell 2. PENETRATION: cell engulfs the virus by endocytosis 3. UNCOATING: viral contents are released 4. BIOSYNTHESIS: viral RNA enters the nucleus, replicated by the viral RNA polymerase 5. ASSEMBLY: new phage particles are assembled 6. RELEASE: new viral particles are made and released into the extracellular fluid, where the cell is not killed and continues to make another viral particle VIRAL DISEASES 1. MEASLES childhood infection, also called rubeola fatal for small children SYMPTOMS: hacking cough, sneezing, eye redness, sensitivity to light, high fever, Koplik spots, gurr lines CAUSE: measles virus (member of paramyxoviruses) TRANSMISSION: airborne droplets, contaminated items/surfaces 2. CHICKENPOX itchy rash with small, fluid-filled blisters highly contagious for first-timers and nonvaccinated varicella-zoster virus  TRANSMISSION: airborne droplets, direct contact with the rash TREATMENT: acyclovir PREVENTION: vaccine 3. SHINGLES causes a painful rash, single stripe of blisters that wraps around the sides of the torso anyone who had chickenpox may develop shingles, as the virus enters to nervous system after recovery and stay dormant for years not deadly, common complication: postherpetic neuralgia, causes shingles pain for a long time after blisters have cleared varicella-zoster virus 4. POLIO contagious, causes nerve injury leading to paralysis, difficulty breathing, and sometimes death poliovirus TRANSMISSION: direct contact, contaminated food and water, infected feces 5. INFLUENZA spike proteins hemagglutinin and neuraminidase for viral entry and exit CAUSE: types A, B, C of orthomyxoviruses TREATMENT: antiviral drugs PREVENTION: vaccine 6. SARS in severe illness, insufficient oxygen reaches the blood and mechanical ventilation is required SYMPTOMS: fever, headache. feeling of discomfort, body aches, dry cough, and difficulty breathing CAUSE: coronavirus 7. HERPES SIMPLEX wide spectrum of viral diseases commonly found in the environment CAUSE: cold sores (HSV-1), genital herpes (HSV-2) TREATMENT: antiviral drugs neonatal herpes: deadly disease transmitted from a herpes simplex-infected mother during childbirth 8. MUMPS SYMPTOMS: swollen parotid glands and testes CAUSE: another member of paramyxoviruses IMMUNITY protection from an infectious disease TYPES OF IMMUNITY 1. ACTIVE NATURAL: produces antibodies when exposed to a live pathogen  2. ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL: produces antibodies when vaccinated 3. PASSIVE NATURAL: antibodies are passed from mom through placenta and breastmilk 4. PASSIVE ARTIFICIAL: immunoglobulins are administered after pathogen exposure IMMUNIZATION: process by which a person becomes protected against disease through vaccination VACCINE: stimulates the body’s immune response against diseases VACCINATION: act of introducing a vaccine into the body BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING conduct of biological processes on an industrial scale catalyst is either living cells or extracts from them BIOENGINEERING involve with the biosynthesis of animal of plant products engineering application to field of medicine and biology CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISM 1. ACCORDING TO CARBON SOURCE autotrophs heterotrophs 2. ACCORDING TO EBERGY SOURCE chemotrophs o obtain energy by breaking down substrate o chemoorganotrophs o chemolithotrophs phototrophs o obtain energy from light o photoorganotrophs o photoautotrophs 3. ACCORDING TO FINAL ELECTION ACCEPTOR aerobes anaerobes facultative anaerobes microaerophiles LIPIDS lipos: fat water insoluble biomolecules highly soluble in organic solvents used as fuel molecules, energy storage, and components of membranes  HYDROPHOBIC: nonpolar / water-fearing AMPHIPATHIC: containing both nonpolar and polar regions provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals GLYCEROL organic compound (alcohol) with 3 carbons, 5 hydrogens, and 3 hydroxyl (OH) groups FATTY ACIDS used for energy storage found in the cytoplasm of adipose cells have long and unbranched hydrocarbon chains and even number of carbon atoms (carboxyl) 4-36 carbons long; hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic 1st double bond – between C9 and C10 remaining double bond – begin at C12 and C15 SATURATED VS UNSATURATED FATS SATURATED: no double bonds, max number of bonded H atoms UNSATURATED o one or more double bonds with cis configuration in the C skeleton, unsaturated with H atoms o the higher the degree of unsaturation, the lower the melting point o monounsaturated fat and polyunsaturated fat TRANS FATTY ACIDS trans-unsaturated can be produced by o fermentation in the rumen of dairy animals o hydrogenation of fish or vegetable oils o oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them semi-solid and of a consistency desirable diets high in trans fatty acids correlate with increased blood levels of LDL and decreased HDL TRIGLYCERIDES triacylglycerols simplest lipids constructed from fatty acids nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules provide stored energy and insulation compact energy storage: 1g triglycerides produce >2x energy that that of 1g polysaccharide  formed by joining of 3 fatty acids to a glycerol backbone in a dehydration reaction; 3 molecules of water are released in the process PHOSPHOLIPIDS major constituents of the plasma membrane composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or sphingosine backbone IN WATER: spontaneously assemble into aggregates that shield hydrophobic portion WAXES covers the feathers of some aquatic birds and the leaf surfaces of some plants hydrophobic, prevent water from sticking on the surface made up of long fatty acid chains esterified to long-chain alcohols TERPENES AND TERPENOIDS constituents of essential oils produced by conifers and derived from isoprene STEROIDS derivatives perhydrocyclopentanophenanthrene ring system important biological regulators that show dramatic physiological effects characterized by a C skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings: 1 cyclopentane and 3 cyclohexane rings hydrophobic and insoluble in water CHOLESTEROL HDL: GOOD CHOLESTEROL o transport cholesterol to liver o prevents buildup in arteries o removes cholesterol from bloodstream LDL: BAD CHOLESTEROL o deposits cholesterol in arteries o results in arterial plaque buildup o can lead to heart attack and stroke PIGMENTS lipids with a system of conjugated double bonds can absorb visible light some of these acts a light-capturing pigments in vision and photosynthesis LIPIDS’ ACTIVE ROLES metabolites and messengers hormones-potent signals  enzyme cofactors in electron-transfer reactions in chloroplasts and mitochondria, or in the transfer of sugar moieties in a variety of glycosylation reaction CARBOHYDRATES main source of energy for the body found in plant foods and most abundant biomolecule in nature stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, n is the number of carbons in the molecule carbo: carbon | hydrate: water polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES 1. MONOSACCHARIDES monomer of carbohydrates, common base unit, soluble in water saccharide – sakcharon: sugar white, crystalline solids that contain a single aldehyde or ketone functional group also called simple sugars, and end with suffix -ose ALDOSE: sugar has aldehyde group, structure R-CHO KETOSE: sugar has ketone group, structure RC(=O)R’ TRIOSE: monosaccharide containing 3 carbon atoms GLUCOSE o one of the most important monosaccharides o one of the main sources of calories o can cross blood-brain barrier which nourishes the brain GALACTOSE: known as milk sugar FRUCTOSE: fruit sugar; found in honey, fruits, and vegetables 2. DISACCHARIDES SUCROSE o found in all photosynthetic plants o sugar cane and sugar beets having the highest qualities o acid catalyzed hydrolysis yields 1 mole of D-Glucose and D-Fructose o a non-reducing sugar, table sugar o glucose + fructose MALTOSE o from hydrolysis of starch using diastase o acid catalyzed hydrolysis yields 2 moles of D-Glucose o a reducing sugar, malt sugar o glucose + glucose o found in molasses, cereals, and candies o a product of starch digestions and purified from barley and other grains CELLOBIOSE o from partial hydrolysis of cellulose o acid catalyzed hydrolysis yields 2 moles of D-Glucose  o a reducing sugar o glucose + glucose LACTOSE o acid catalyzed hydrolysis yields D-Glucose and D-Galactose o a reducing sugar o galactose + glucose o found in milk of mammals (cow and human) o synthetic sugar that is not absorbed by the body but is broken down in the colon into products that absorb water into colon, thus softening stools o treats constipation, reduce blood ammonia levels in person with liver disease TREHALOSE o glucose + glucose o also known as trehalose or mycoses o natural alpha-linked disaccharide with extremely high-water retention properties o helps plants and animals reduce long periods without water 3. POLYSACCHARIDES sugar polymers containing more than 20 or so monosaccharide units most abundant carbohydrate in food long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides STARCHES stored form of sugars in plants made up of a mixture of amylose and amylopectin important sources of calories found in foods sugar molecules that human intestinal enzyme can breakdown not sweet AMYLOSE starch formed by unbranched chains of glucose monomers poorly soluble in water and slowly digestible AMYLOPECTIN branched polysaccharide more soluble in water and more easily digestible than amylose DIETARY FIBERS carbohydrate that intestinal enzymes cannot breakdown; non-digestible have molecules that are resisting to human enzymes critical, slows down the absorption for simple sugar  helps blood glucose level GLYCOGEN storage form of glucose in humans and vertebrates and is made up of monomers of glucose animal equivalent of starch and is highly branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells GLYCOGENOLYSIS: whenever blood glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to release glucose CELLULOSE most abundant natural biopolymer cell wall of plants is mostly made of this; wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES IN THE BODY provides body with energy cells convert carbohydrates into fuels molecule ATP through a process called cellular respiration provide stored energy promotes good digestive health by reducing constipation and lowering the risk of digestive tract diseases PROTEINS polymers of amino acids; function as catalyst most versatile macromolecules in living systems and severe crucial functions in essentially all biological processes transport and store other molecules such as oxygen provide mechanical support and immune protection generate movement, transmit nerve impulse, and control growth and differentiation contain a wide range of functional groups can interact with one another and with other biological macromolecules to form complex assemblies some are quite rigid, whereas others display limited flexibility TYPES OF PROTEINS 1. ENZYMES produced by living cells catalysts in biochemical reactions and are usually complex or conjugated proteins help in breakdown, rearrangement, or synthesis reactions CATABOLIC ENZYMES: breakdown their substrates ANABOLIC ENZYMES: build more complex molecules from their substrates  CATALYTIC ENZYMES: affect the rate of reaction 2. HORMONES chemical-signaling molecules usually small proteins or steroids, secreted by endocrine cells that act to control specific physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction SEX HORMONES o estrogen: from urine of a pregnant woman, Butenandt and Doisy o estradiol: true female hormone, Doisy o androsterone: from 15000 L of male urine, Butenandt and Tscherning o testosterone: true male hormone, from bull testes, Laqueur o progesterone: most important pregnancy hormone secreted by placenta ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES o isolated from the adrenal cortex o involved in carbohydrate, proteins, and lipid metabolism, water and electrolyte balance and reactions to allergic and inflammatory phenomena AMINO ACIDS building blocks of protein, only 20 to 22 amino acids zwitterion: molecule that has both negative and positive charges have chiral center, optical activity is observed, except for glycine amphoteric, naturally occur in L form ESSENTIAL (green) o must obtain from diet o all are found in dairy products NON-ESSENTIAL (red) o can be synthesized in the animal body o can be made by humans and so is not essential to the human diet 20 AMINO ACIDS o alanine leucine o arginine lysine o asparagine methionine o aspartic acid phenylalanine o cysteine proline o glutamine serine o glutamic acid threonine o glycine tryptophan o histidine tyrosine o isoleucine valine PEPTIDE BOND dehydration synthesis reaction, condensation reaction; known as peptides  formed when the amine group of one acid binds with the carbonyl carbon of another amino acid, releasing a molecule of water LEVEL OF STRUCTURE IN PROTEINS 1. PRIMARY STRUCTURE describes the order of the amino acids in a polypeptide chain consists of a sequence of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds and includes any disulfide bonds 2. SECONDARY STRUCTURE polypeptide backbone can fold into periodic structures to form the secondary structure conformation of the polypeptide backbone the folded structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonding backbone can change direction by making reverse turns or loops ALPHA HELIX o coiled tightly on the fashion of a spring o the backbone forms the inner part of the coil while the side chains extend outward from the coil o stabilized by hydrogen bond between the >N-H of one amino acid and the >C=O on the 4th amino acid away from it o every helical turn in an alpha helix 3.6 amino acid residues BETA PLEATED SHEET o individual protein chains are aligned side-by-side with every other protein chain aligned in an opposite direction o protein chains are held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonding, between amide groups of two separate chains 3. TERTIARY STRUCTURE primarily due to interactions between the R groups of the amino acids that make up the protein R group interaction that contributes to tertiary structure include hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonding, hydrogen bonding and disulfide linkages 4. QUATERNARY STRUCTURE describes the interactions of the students in an oligomeric protein stabilized by both covalent and non-covalent bonds – various interactions, including hydrogen-bonding, disulfide-bridges and salt bridges insulin: has a combination of hydrogen bonds and disulfide bonds that cause it to be mostly clumped into a ball shape SHAPES OF PROTEINS 1. FIBROUS PROTEINS long, rod-like forming fibers insoluble in water ALPHA-KERATIN o bundles of helical polypeptides twisted together o found in hair, wool, skin, horns, and fingernails COLLAGEN o most abundant proteins in vertebrates o synthesized by connective tissue cells o essential structural components of all connective tissues ELASTIN o gives elasticity to the body’s tissues and organs o found predominantly in walls of arteries, intestines, skin, and other elastic tissues o highly hydrophobic: composed of A, V, L, and G SILK FIBROIN o found in silk that can produced by insects and spider o considered to be beta-keratin o consists of amino acid residues with small R groups 2. GLOBULAR PROTEINS spherical in shape soluble in water functions as enzymes, hormones, membrane transporters and receptors, immunoglobulins or antibodies, storage protein 3. MYOGLOBIN found in high concentration in skeletal and cardiac muscles, responsible for the red color diving mammals have high myoglobin concentrations in muscles serves as reservoir of oxygen within muscle cells facilitates diffusion of oxygen in metabolically active cells NUCLEID ACID long-chain polymeric molecules, known as the nucleotides and polynucleotides store information for cellular growth and reproduction carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell DNA AND RNA DNA RNA Function carries genetic information involved in protein synthesis Location remains in the nucleus leaves the nucleus double-stranded ladder: sugar- Structure phosphate backbone, with base usually single-stranded rungs Sugar deoxyribose ribose Pyrimidines cytosine, thymine cytosine, uracil Purines adenine, guanine adenine, guanine NUCLEOTIDES monomers of DNA and RNA combine with each other to form a polynucleotide, DNA or RNA made up of 3 components: nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group nitrogenous base is attached to a sugar molecule, attached to one or more phosphate groups a nucleoside that forms a phosphate ester with C5’ OH group of ribose or dioxyribose NUCLEOSIDES consists of a nitrogen base linked by a glycosidic bond to C1’ of a ribose or deoxyribose named by changing the nitrogen base ending to -osine for purines and -idine for pyrimidines PENTOSE SUGARS RNA: ribose DNA: deoxyribose sugars have their carbon atoms numbered with primes to distinguish them from the nitrogen bases PRIMARY STRUCTURE nucleotide sequence nucleotides in nucleic acids are joined by phosphodiester bonds phosphate residue is attached to the hydroxyl group of the 5’ carbon of one sugar and the hydroxyl group of the 3’ carbon of the sugar of the next nucleotide, which forms a 5’- 3’ phosphodiester linkage SECONDARY STRUCTURE DNA is an antiparallel double helix 2 strands of the helix run in opposite directions, meaning that the 5’ carbon end of 1 strand will face the 3’ carbon end of its matching strand the phosphate backbone is on the outside, and the nitrogenous bases are on the inside each base interacts with a base from the opposing strand by hydrogen bonds  allow types of base pairing: o adenine-tymine and guanin-cystosine o 2 hydrogen bonds from between A and T o 3 hydrogen bonds from between guanin and cystosine RIBONUCLEIC ACID RNA is much more abundant that DNA mainly involved in the process of protein synthesis under the direction of DNA usually single-stranded and is made of ribonucleotides that are linked by phosphodiester bonds ribonucleotide in RNA chain contains ribose, one of the four nitrogenous bases, and the phosphate group MAJOR TYPES OF RNA o messenger RNA: carries the message from DNA, which controls all of the cellular activities in a cell o ribosomal RNA: major constituent of ribosomes on which the mRNA binds o transfer RNA: carries the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis o microRNA: interfering with the expression of certain mRNA messages FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS aid with gut repair encourage cellular growth and assist in muscle growth strengthen the immune system neutralization of toxins and regular cellular metabolism helping the antioxidants in the body carry out their processes to reduce changes of damage from oxidative stress SUMMARY Basic Macromolecule Monomer Examples Uses Formula storage, signals, structural, enzymes, Proteins CHON amino acids contractile, defensive, hormones enzyme, transport, receptors butter, oil, energy storage, protection, fatty acid and Lipids C:H:O cholesterol, chemical messengers, repel glycerol beeswax water glucose, fructose, Carbohydrates C:H:O monosaccharides starch, energy storage, storage glycogen, cellulose Nucleic Acids CHONP nucleotides DNA, RNA genetic information