CET Sail Science, Biology I (2023).pdf

E T CAIL! S with SCIENCE VOLUME 2: SCIENCE I. Biology (1st Half) CET sail with SCIENCE Topic Outline I. Biology 1. Branches of Biology 2. Cell 3. Life Functions 4. Plants a. Parts and their Functions b. Pollination c. Photosynthesis...

E T CAIL! S with SCIENCE VOLUME 2: SCIENCE I. Biology (1st Half) CET sail with SCIENCE Topic Outline I. Biology 1. Branches of Biology 2. Cell 3. Life Functions 4. Plants a. Parts and their Functions b. Pollination c. Photosynthesis 5. Organic and Inorganic Compounds E T CAIL! S 1 CET Sail: Science, Biology. 2023 I. BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY Biology - Study of living things. Branch of Description Science Botany study of plants Zoology study of animals Anatomy study of structures of living organisms via dissection. Physiology study of a human body’s mechanism. Genetics study of the inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. study of the immune system, components of the immune system, Immunology its biological processes, the physiological functioning of the immune system, types, disorders and a lot more. Microbiology study of a variety of microscopic organisms like bacteria and fungi. Biotechnology use of technology to modify and manipulate biological systems. study of organisms, the environment and how the organisms Ecology interact with each other and their environment. deals with naming, describing and classification of all living Taxonomy organisms. 2 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL The Cell a. the smallest unit of life, the building blocks of all organisms Levels of Organization: Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism Common Parts in ALL cells: 1. Plasma membrane 3. Cytoplasm 2. Ribosomes 4. DNA Cells can be classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic: Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Domain Archaea and Bacteria Domain Eukarya DNA and organelles Not membrane-bound Membrane-bound Nucleus No nucleus Has nucleus Plant Cells Animal Cells Has cell wall No cell wall Has chloroplasts and central vacuole Has centrosomes and lysosomes 3 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Organelles (Animal Cell) Image retrieved from Opened.cuny.edu 4 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Organelles (Plant Cell) Image retrieved from Opened.cuny.edu 5 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Endomembrane System The endomembrane system is a set of organelles and membranes involved in the production, modification, or delivery of lipids and proteins. The endomembrane system consists of: 1. Nuclear membrane 2. Rough endoplasmic reticulum 3. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum 4. Golgi apparatus 5. Lysosomes and transport vesicles 6. Plasma membrane Cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that: 1. maintain the cell’s structure 2. allow movement of vesicles and the cytoplasm 3. allow the movement of the cell 4. Keep some organelles in place Image retrieved from bio.libretexts.org 6 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL The cytoskeleton is made of three Green: Microfilaments types of protein fibers: Pink: Intermediate Filament Blue: Microtubules Microfilaments: Narrowest diameter (7 nm) Two strands of actin protein chains that interact with myosin proteins Allows cell to change shape and move Intermediate filaments: Intertwined protein fibers 8-10 nm diameter Maintains cell structure and anchors organelles in place Microtubules: Hollow tubes of globulin proteins 25 nm diameter Pulls chromosomes apart during cell division Acts as tracks to drive vesicles Images retrieved from oercommons.org along 7 CET Sail: Biology 2023 Cell Membrane II. CELL The cell membrane is a semipermeable membrane made of two layers of phospholipids interspersed with proteins. Plasma Membrane Components and Functions Component Location Main membrane fabric; Phospholipids are made of a hydrophilic Phospholipid phosphate head that stays in the surface, and a hydrophobic tail that stays inside the cell membrane. Attached between phospholipids and between the two Cholesterol phospholipid layers Integral proteins (for Embedded within the phospholipid layer(s); may or may not example, integrins) penetrate through both layers. Goes through the cell membrane On the phospholipid bilayer's inner or outer surface; not Peripheral proteins embedded within the phospholipids. Stays only on one side of the membrane Carbohydrates Generally attached to proteins on the outside membrane layer (components of Attached to proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids) glycoproteins & Act as identifiers for cell communication glycolipids) The Fluid Mosaic Model Describes the cell membrane as a mosaic of phospholipids, proteins, and attached carbohydrates, which give the membrane its structure and fluid-like characteristics. 8 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Methods of Transport, Energy Requirements, and Types of Transported Material Transport Method Active/Passive Material Transported Diffusion Passive Small-molecular weight material Osmosis Passive Water Facilitated Sodium, potassium, calcium, Passive transport/diffusion glucose Primary active Active Sodium, potassium, calcium transport Secondary active Amino acids, lactose Active transport Large macromolecules, whole cells, Phagocytosis Active or cellular structures Pinocytosis and Active Small molecules (liquids/water) potocytosis Receptor-mediated Large quantities of Active 9 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Passive Transport Usually follows down the concentration gradient (from high to low) 1. Diffusion Movement of solutes from lower concentration to higher concentration (down the concentration gradient) Heavier/larger molecules tend to move more slowly through the membrane than smaller ones Higher concentration gradient → faster diffusion 2. Osmosis Movement of water through a semipermeable membrane until concentrations are equalized Integral protein that allows polar molecules to pass through Tonicity: Hypotonic: less concentrated outside the cell; water rushes in and may cause cell to burst (lyse) Isotonic: equal concentrations inside and outside Images retrieved from OpenStax Biology Hypertonic: high concentration outside; water leaves the cell and makes it shrivel 10 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL 3. Facilitated transport For polar molecules that cannot pass through the cell membrane Carried out with the help of transport proteins Channel protein Integral protein that allows polar molecules to pass through e.g. water through an aquaporin May be gated to control flow Carrier protein Binds to a substance and changes shape, pushing it inside the cell Image retrieved from Biology LibreTexts 11 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Active Transport Involved when going against a concentration gradient Requires energy (usually ATP) and involves transport proteins 1. Primary Active Transport ATP binds to a protein to allow the transfer of a substance Example: Sodium-potassium pump Images retrieved from Biology LibreTexts 2. Secondary Active Transport (Co-Transport) Uses the potential energy from going down the concentration gradient to transport molecules Example: glucose transport 12 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Bulk Transport Phagocytosis Endocytosis: Transports into the cell Phagocytosis: for large substances/particles; cell membrane envelopes particle and Receptor-mediated endocytosis forms a vesicle around it Vesicle contents later digested by a lysosome Pinocytosis: for smaller molecules; usually much smaller vesicles Receptor-mediated endocytosis Molecules bind to receptors which trigger the cell membrane engulfing them into a vesicle Images retrieved from Biology LibreTexts Exocytosis: Transports into the cell Vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, which releases stored particles/molecules 13 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Bulk Transport Phagocytosis Endocytosis: Transports into the cell Phagocytosis: for large substances/particles; cell membrane envelopes particle and Receptor-mediated endocytosis forms a vesicle around it Vesicle contents later digested by a lysosome Pinocytosis: for smaller molecules; usually much smaller vesicles Receptor-mediated endocytosis Molecules bind to receptors which trigger the cell membrane engulfing them into a vesicle Images retrieved from Biology LibreTexts Exocytosis: Transports into the cell Vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, which releases stored particles/molecules 14 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Cell Interactions and the ECM The extracellular matrix (ECM) is the network of collagen and carbohydrate fibers found outside the cell. It keeps the cells together to form a tissue and facilitates cell communication. Types of Intercellular Junctions: Plasmodesmata (singular: Tight junctions: plasmodesma): a channel between watertight seal plant cell walls that allow their between two animal cytoplasms to connect cells Images retrieved from Biology LibreTexts 15 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Types of Intercellular Junctions: Gap junctions: channels Desmosomes: connect two animal in animal cells that allow cells and are made of intermediate transport of materials filaments (i.e. keratin) Images retrieved from Biology LibreTexts 16 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Cellular Respiration Image retrieved from Biology LibreTexts Glycolysis Energy-requiring steps (1-5; 2 ATP consumed) Energy-releasing steps (6-10; 4 ATP produced) 17 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Pyruvate Oxidation Image retrieved from Biology LibreTexts 18 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Citric Acid Cycle Image retrieved from Microbenotes Oxidative Phosphorylation/Electron Transport Chain Only part that uses oxygen Produces the most ATP 19 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Electron Transport Chain Oxidative Phosphorylation/Electron Transport Chain Only part that uses oxygen Produces the most ATP Image retrieved from Biology LibreTexts 20 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Metabolism without Oxygen Anaerobic respiration: Uses other molecules other than oxygen for the electron transport chain Lactic acid fermentation Pyruvate is reduced lactate and allows for NAD+ regeneration (NAD+ was turned to NADH in glycolysis) Pyruvic Acid + NADH Lactic Acid + NAD+ Image retrieved from Biology LibreTexts 21 CET Sail: Biology 2023 II. CELL Metabolism without Oxygen Alcohol fermentation Also allows for NAD+ regeneration Respiration with other macromolecules Image retrieved from Biology LibreTexts Cell Cycle Image retrieved from openstax.org 22 CET Sail: Biology 2023 III. LIFE FUNCTIONS Life functions are activities carried out by organisms to live. The common life functions are: Metabolism - undertaking of essential chemical reactions that involve combining simple molcules to form a complex substance (anabolism) and breaking down complex substances into simpler molecules (catabolism). Reproduction - produce offspring, either sexually or asexually. Asexual Reproduction - one parent organism can reproduce by itself without the use of sex cells. Ex. Budding - a bud grows and detaches out of a parent that eventually becomes another organism (sponge). Sexual Reproduction - two parents organism reproduce by the union of their sex cells (egg cell and sperm cell) in a process called fertilization. Responsiveness / Sensitivity - responding to internal or external stimuli. Movement - motion not only of the physical body but also individual organs and individual cells. Development - changes the body goes through in life such as growth, repair, and differentiation. Homeostasis - maintaining a stable internal environment. Excretion - removal of waste product. Nutrition - exchanging of materials and gases with the environment. 23 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Photosynthesis: Summary Image retrieved from Biology LibreTexts 24 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS I. Light-Dependent Reaction: Image retrieved from Biology LibreTexts 25 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Photosynthesis: Image retrieved from Biology LibreTexts 26 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Plant Form and Physiology Shoot system all parts above ground Root system all parts underground Image retrieved from gatech.edu 27 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Tissues Meristematic tissues/meristems constantly dividing cells that can specialize Permanent tissues no longer constantly dividing; differentiated into three categories Image retrieved from sciencefacts.net 28 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Parts of a Plant and Plant Parts Image retrieved from wordpress.com 29 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Stem Image retrieved from gatech.edu Primary Growth Apical meristems Makes the plant taller/longer Secondary Growth Lateral meristems Makes the stem thicker/wider Secondary xylem/phloem from vascular cambium Cork from cork cambium Image retrieved from libretexts.org 30 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Roots Image retrieved from libretexts.org Image retrieved from gatech.edu 31 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Leaves Parts Venation Patterns Image retrieved from libretexts.org Image retrieved from byjus.com Cross-section Mesophyll cells contain many chloroplasts Phyllotaxy (leaf arrangement) Spongy mesophyll allows for air circulation Image retrieved from byjus.com Image retrieved from libretexts.org 32 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Plant Nutrition and Transport Water Transport Cohesion-Tension Theory Image retrieved from openstax.org 33 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Nutrient Transport Source to Sink -driven by water moving from xylem to phloem near sources; water leaving phloem at sink (osmosis); water movement pushes nutrients throughout the plant -companion cell transports from leaf to phloem Image retrieved from openstax.org 34 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Macronutrients and Micronutrients Macronutrients Micronutrients needed in large amounts needed in trace amounts Essential Elements for Plant Growth Macronutrients Micronutrients C (Carbon) Fe (Iron) H (Hydrogen) Mn (Manganese) O (Oxygen) B (Boron) N (Nitrogen) Mo (Molybdenum) P (Phosphorus) Cu (Copper) K (Potassium) Zn (Zinc) Ca (Calcium) Cl (Chlorine) Mg (Magnesium) Ni (Nickel) S (Sulfur) Co (Cobalt) Na (Sodium) Si (Silicon) 35 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Plant Hormones Growth Inhibitors Growth Inhibitors Growth Promoters and Promoters Ethylene Abscisic Acid Auxins Gibberelins Cytokinins Image retrieved from WikiMedia 36 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Plant Transport growth movement whose direction is determined by the direction from which the stimulus strikes the plant. 1. Hydrotropism Plants' response to water 2. Gravitropism/Geotropism Plants' response to gravity Images retrieved from Nagwa 37 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Plant Transport growth movement whose direction is determined by the direction from which the stimulus strikes the plant. 3. Phototropism 4. Thigmotropism Plants' response to light Plants' response to "touch" Images retrieved from Nagwa 38 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Asexual Reproduction Images retrieved from BYJU'S 39 CET Sail: Biology 2023 IV. PLANTS Angiosperm Lifecycle Images retrieved from BYJU'S &Wikiversity 40 CET Sail: Biology 2023 V. ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Organic Compounds These are main chemical compounds of living organisms, which often consists of C-H bonds. Macromoleules are large molecules that make up an organisms, and they are made up building blocks called monomers acquired from the foods we eat. Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic Acids Elements C, H, O, N, S C, H, O C, H, O, P C, H, O, P, N Sugar, Glucose, Fats, Oils, Wax, Enzymes, Starch, Steroids, Examples muscle fibers, DNA, RNA, ATP Glycogen, Phospholipids in antibodies Cellulose membranes Monomers Monosaccharid Often Include Fatty (Building Amino Acids Nucleotides es Acids Blocks) 41 CET Sail: Biology 2023 V. ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Organic Compounds These are main chemical compounds of living organisms, which often consists of C-H bonds. Macromoleules are large molecules that make up an organisms, and they are made up building blocks called monomers acquired from the foods we eat. Carbohydrates - sugars whose function is to store energy. Examples of carbohydrates are: Monosaccharide - glucose, fructose, galactose. Disaccharide - sucrose (glucose + fructose), maltose (glucose + glucose), lactose (glucose + galactose). Polysaccharides - starch (for plants), glycogen (for animals). Proteins - are molecules that have many different functions in living things wherein it is the number and order of amino acids that determines the shape of the protein, and it is the structure of the protein that determines the unique function of the protein. Examples of proteins are: Enzymes - for speeding up chemical reactions. Antibodies - for protection against diseases. Muscle Fiber - for movement. 42 CET Sail: Biology 2023 V. ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Organic Compounds These are main chemical compounds of living organisms, which often consists of C-H bonds. Macromoleules are large molecules that make up an organisms, and they are made up building blocks called monomers acquired from the foods we eat. Lipids - are molecules such as fats, oils, and waxes. Fats - long-term energy storage for animals; solid at room temperatures. Oil - lipids that are long-term energy storage for plants; liquid at room temperature. Wax - gives protective body covering that are water-resistant. Nucleic Acid - long chains of nucleotides that carry heredity information. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - a double-stranded nucleic acid that stores genetic information Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - involved in making proteins. 43 CET Sail: Biology 2023 V. ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Inorganic Compouds - compounds that lack C-H bond. Water (H2O) -the most abundant inorganic compound. Minerals - an element or compound exhibiting crystalline structure, and is naturally occurring as a result of geological processes. Acids and Bases - they can be characterized by measuring their pH. Acids have low pH (less than 7) while bases have high pH (more than 7). Neutral substances like water have pH values approximate to 7. Acids Bases Acid gives off hydrogen ions Bases give off hydroxyl ion when dissolved in water. when dissolved in water. It turns blue colour litmus It turns red colour litmus paper into red. paper into blue. It has bitter taste and soapy It has a sour taste. to touch. Its pH value ranges from 1 to Its pH value ranges from 7 to 7. 14. Example: HCl, H2SO4 etc. Example: NaOH, KOH etc. CET Sail: Science, Biology. 2023 REFERENCES https://byjus.com/biology https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e https://pressbooks- dev.oer.hawaii.edu/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/functions-of-human-life/ https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-life-science- 2.0/section/2.2/primary/lesson/organic-compounds-ms-ls/#x-ck12- TVNMUy0wMi0xNC1QaG9zcGhvbGlwaWRz https://byjus.com/chemistry/acids-and-bases/ About Us. CET Sail is a non-profit, student-run project intended to help senior high school students prepare for UPCAT 2024. Our target demographic is those especially who have difficulty in Math & Sciences and those who may not have immediate access to reviewers due to financial reasons, yet are avidly preparing for their examination. For contacts, you may message our Facebook Page Below: https://www.facebook.com/CETSail2023