Contribution Of Livestock And Poultry To Climate Change PDF

Introduction to Animal Science Notes 9/11/24 - FAO asserts that livestock respiration is not listed as a recognized source of GHGs CONTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY...

Introduction to Animal Science Notes 9/11/24 - FAO asserts that livestock respiration is not listed as a recognized source of GHGs CONTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY under the Kyoto Protocol, although in TO CLIMATE CHANGE fact the protocol does list CO2 with no Contributors to Climate Change exception - Ruminant, pigs and chicken Cattle Climate Change - 65% of livestock sector emissions, making cattle the largest contributor to - Change in the statistical distribution of the total sector emissions weather patterns - Beef production – 41% of total sector - Change in average weather conditions, emissions or in the time variation of weather o Meat production around longer-term average condition - Milk production – 20% of total sector - Caused by factors emissions o Biotic processes o Milk production ▪ Produced or caused by - 4 chambers/compartments in the living organisms stomach ▪ Examples: o Rumen Deforestation ▪ Largest compartment of Landslide the stomach Calamities ▪ Fermentation vat Decomposition ▪ 25 gallons or more o Variation in solar radiation o Reticulum received by earth ▪ Pouch-like o Plate tectonics ▪ Close to the heart ▪ Earthquake o Omasum Landslide ▪ Globe shape Tsunami ▪ Leaves of tissue (pages o Volcanic eruptions in book) - Certain human activities have also been ▪ Absorbs water & other identified as significant causes of recent substances from climate change, often referred to as digestive contents ‘global warming’ o Abomasum o Contributing factors ▪ True stomach ▪ Vehicles ▪ Similar to non-ruminant ▪ High number of stomach populations ▪ Only compartment lined ▪ Industry with glands ▪ Smoke Release hydrochloric ▪ Deforestation acid and digestive ▪ Natural calamities enzymes to o Effects from these factors breakdown feed ▪ Flood - Process of regurgitation ▪ Drought 1. Mouth ▪ Hurricanes 2. Esophagus ▪ Reduced biodiversity 3. Rumen a. fermentation IMPACT OF LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY IN 4. Regurgitate CLIMATE CHANGE a. Bring swallowed up food up - High percentage of global greenhouse to the mouth gas emissions, more than all b. Reverse peristalsis transportation in the world combined 5. Esophagus 6. Reticulum  7. Omasum Plant extracts 5 – 20% 8. Abomasum (tannins, saponins, a. Digestion oils) - Food for ruminants Strategies that alter 30 – 60% o Legumes and grasses rumen microbial ▪ T. gigantea population ▪ Ipil-ipil ▪ Para grass Definition of Terms ▪ Star grass ▪ Napier 1. Gestation ▪ Indigofera a. Pregnancy b. The period of development in the Buffalo uterus from conception until birth - 9% of sectors 2. Lactation a. secretion of milk from the mammary Small Ruminant glands 3. Heat (estrus) Period - 6.5% of sectors a. In heat; standing heat - Enteric fermentation: 55% (?) 4. Standing heat Pig a. Receptive to mating 5. Heat (Estrous) cycle - Smallest enteric fermentation a. cyclical pattern of ovarian activity - They do not have the 4 chambers of the that facilitates female animals to go stomach from a period of reproductive o fermentation is not that great receptivity to non-receptivity o food of pigs: feeds 6. Weaning ▪ corn grit/meal a. Separating child from mother/parent corn i. Weaner ▪ shrimp meal 1. The child ▪ fish meal 7. Sow ▪ meat and bone meal a. Female swine example: poultry 8. Boar o broiler – meat a. Male swine o layer – eggs 9. Breeding ▪ soybean a. The mating of male and female ▪ rice bran meal b. AI Mitigation Practice 10. Litter a. Number of children Mitigation Practice Expected reduction 11. Castration in methane a. removal of the testes, epididymis, Higher grain diets 5 – 10 % and a part of the spermatic cord from Using legumes rather 5 – 15 % a male animal than grasses i. testes Using corn silage or 5 – 10% 1. the male small grain silage rather than grass reproductive organs silage or grass hay that make sperm and Herd management to 5 – 20% hormones reduce animal ii. Scrotum numbers 1. a sac of skin Rumen modifiers 5 – 15% containing the (yest, enzymes, external spermatic directly fed fascia, testicles, microbials) epididymides, and vasa deferentia  12. Farrow iii. Coconut a. Litter of pigs iv. Banana 13. Farrowing 6. Soil Science a. pig giving birth to a litter of piglets a. Study of Soils 14. Buck 7. Agricultural Economics a. male goat a. Study of economy in agricultural 15. Doe products a. female goat that has a kid b. optimizing the production and 16. kidding distribution of food and fiber a. goat giving birth products. 17. Ewe 8. Floriculture a. Female sheep a. Study of flowers 18. Lamb 9. Pomology a. A baby sheep a. Fruit production 19. Lambing 10. Animal Science a. Sheep giving birth a. Study of animals 20. Ram Agriculture is divided into: a. Male sheep 21. Calf 1. Plant based production a. young domestic cow or bull, or a a. Produce from plants young of some other species 2. Animal based production 22. Heifer a. Produce from animals a. female between 2-3 years of age 3. Aquaculture production which has not given birth a. Aquatic produce 23. Parturition a. act of giving birth Scope of Animal Science Branches under Agriculture - Biology - Genetics 1. Agriculture - Circulatory System a. A science that has a lot of branches - Nervous System 2. Horticulture - Reproductive System a. A study of growing plants - Science itself (horticultural crops such as peanuts, - Animal production cabbage, tomato, lettuce) - Animal Nutrition 3. Plant breeding - Business a. Sexual and asexual breeding propagation Animal Science During the Ancient Times b. Science of changing the traits of - Domestication of Animals plants in order to produce desired - Hunting characteristics 4. Plant protection Reasons for Domestication a. protection of plants from its diseases - Economic reasons b. science and practice of managing o Food plant diseases, weeds, and other o work pests that damage crops and forestry o clothing 5. Agronomy - Socials a. study of crops that are in bigger o Companionship production b. producing and using plants by Animal Science in the Modern World agriculture for food, fuel, fiber, - Laboratory analysis chemicals, recreation, or land - Breeding patterns conservation. - Process of cloning i. Pineapple - Application of technology ii. Tubo Ecology of Animals 3. Conversion of plant materials into valuable products - Animals interact with the other a. Animals eat plants and plant components of the ecological system products and convert these two o Interaction of animals and plants products of high protein hence o Adaptation plants have high value for use by - Animals provide food for mankind human beings - Restore soil fertility and conserve natural 4. Sources of good food for the family resources a. one is always assured of - Promote cultural heritage and continuous supply of high- contribute to economic stability of quality food to maintain one’s societies health o Fiestas 5. Utilization of products of factories o Events a. proven to be valuable and o Dowry principal ingredients of feeds Animals and their economic utility especially for poultry and swine. 6. Animals improve soil fertility 1. As food a. can maintain or even improve a. Protein the fertility of the soil by b. Enzymes enriching it with their manure c. Essential amino acids and urine d. Highly digestible 2. Non food role DISADVANTAGES a. Fertilizer 1. Big capital is necessary to start the b. Fuel animal project i. Stool contains gas which a. Capital is expensive can be used for 2. Animal products are perishable fuel/energy a. fast growth of putrefactive c. Handicrafts and feed milling microorganisms that readily industries shorten the shelf-life of meat, i. Leather eggs and milk ii. Skin of animals 3. Diseases cause big losses d. Medicinal value a. The estimated value of farm i. Anti-venom animals lost due to diseases runs ii. Animal testing into millions of pesos every year e. Transportation and cultivation of 4. Feed problems crops a. Feed is estimated to range from ADVANTAGES 45 to 80 percent of the cost of producing farm animals 1. Animal Production is a form of 5. Marketing problems progressive agriculture a. there is difficulty in marketing a. Dynamism in the field animals and animal products b. one must always learn new unless there are existing techniques or new knowledge contract buyers because of the rapid progress in 6. Transportation problems the field. a. Travel distance of farms 2. It is the best type of diversified farming 7. Prices of animals always lag behind those a. when the price of one of feeds agricultural product falls in the a. Feeds being the biggest item of market, the farmer can recover the cost of producing animals lost income from other products will always dictate the prices of of the farm animals for sale Introduction to Animal Science Notes 2 9/23/24 NOMENCLATURE OF SYSTEMATIC ANATOMY Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals SYSTEM NAME OF KEY STUDY STRUCTURE Physiology Skeletal Osteology Bones - the scientific study of functions and Articular Arthrology Joints mechanisms in a living system. Muscular Myology Muscles - Study of the integrated function body, Digestive Splanchnology Stomach function of all its part including and intestine Respiratory Splanchnology Lungs and biophysical and biochemical processes airways Anatomy Urinary Splanchnology Kidney and urinary - a branch of natural science that deals bladder with the structural organization of living Reproductive Splanchnology Ovaries and things. testes - Refer to the science that deals with form Endocrine Endocrinology Ductless and structure of all organisms glands - Means ‘to cut apart’ Nervous Neurology Brain, spinal cord, nerves Histochemistry Circulatory Cardiology Heart and - Combination of chemistry and vessels microscopic anatomy Sensory Esthesiology Eye and ear - The anatomy of an animal viewed under a microscope DIRECTIONAL TERMS AND PLANES OF THE ANIMAL BODY Gross Anatomy Frontal Plane - Study of the form and relations of structures of the body that can be seen - Divides into Dorsal and Ventral with the unaided eye Median Plane (mid-sagittal plane) Comparative Anatomy - Cranium - Caudally line - Study of the structures of various species - Divides into equal left and right parts of animals with particular emphasis on those characteristics that aid in Cranial classification - Toward the head Embryology Caudal - Study of developmental anatomy, - Toward the tail covering the period from conception to birth Medial Histology - Towards the median or mid-line - Study of tissues and cells that can be Lateral seen with the aid of a microscope - Away from median Ultrastructure Cytology Sagittal plane - Deals with portions of cells and tissues as - Plane parallel to the median plane they are visualized with the aid of the - Unequal left and right parts electron microscope Dorsal - Toward the backbone of the vertebral column or towards the back Ventral c. Ventral Cavity – subdivided by the diaphragm - Toward the abdominal or belly a. Thoracic – cranially or anteriorly Rostral 1. Heart and lungs b. Abdominal – caudally or posteriorly - Towards the nose 1. Kidneys Proximal 2. Digestive organs 3. Reproductive organs - Upper body c. Pelvic - Near the body/trunk 1. Terminal part of the digestive Distal system ▪ Rectum - Lower portion d. Neck - Away from the body/trunk o Narrow elongation of the wall of the trunk Transverse Plane 1. Vertebrae - Right angle to the median plane which 2. Muscles divides the cranial and caudal part 3. Nerves equally 4. Arteries and veins 5. Large portion of the esophagus Anterior (Upright) and trachea - Toward the front 3. Tail a. begins at the caudal opening of the Posterior (upright) digestive tract - Toward the back EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF FARM ANIMALS MAIN DIVISIONS OF ANIMAL BODY Integumentary System 1. Head - Protective covering of the body of the a. Contains most of sense organs skin and appendages or modifications a. Eyes, nose, tastebuds, ears o Hair b. Brain (CNS) o Horn c. Other structures o Feather a. Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, etc. o Hoof 2. Trunk o Wool a. Contains body cavities b. Median View Skin a. Dorsal cavity - Exterior covering of the body and is 1. Brain and spinal cord (vertebral continuous with the exterior membranes column) of the respiratory, urogenital, and b. Vertebral Cavity digestive tracts 1. Viscera of the body o Two layers ▪ Internal organs of the ▪ Epidermis or cuticle body ▪ Dermis or corium (true Contained within skin) the abdominal and thoracic cavities Cerumen (ear wax) 2. Vertebral column - Sebum in the ear which discourages ▪ Protection and Support insects and prevents passage of foreign Cervical bodies Thoracic Lumbar Sacrum Coccyx Functions of the Skin Functions of Hair - Protection of sensitive tissues from Identification physical injury - Color/shades of colors - Prevents penetration of toxic liquids and - Cowlicks – hairs which converge to from gases hair streams and vortices in the animal - Protects body from adverse effect of body. Used to identify animals light (UV) through the pigment melanin - Regulates body temperature Adaptive Functions Relative to Temperature - Contains ergosterol which forms into Regulation of The Animal Body Vitamin D - Organ of touch, heat, and pain - Summer – hairs are shaded - Prevents delicate tissues from drying - Winter – hair thickens Glands of the Skin Hoof – horny covering of the distal end of the digit Sudoriferous or Sweat Glands - Cloven hooves (split/divided): cattle, - Eliminate waste products in sweat form carabao, goats, sheep, swine - Cools off the body by evaporation of the - Solid hooves – horses sweat (large quantity of salt is lost during - Parts: sweating o Sole – greater part touching the o Among the farm animals have ground developed functional sweat o Wall – visible when placed on glands the ground ▪ Horse o Frog – wedge shape mass ▪ Bos indicus (Brahman) o Oil Gland Horn – pointed projection in the animals’ head ▪ Part of the chicken that consisting of a covering of keratin and other secretes oil that the proteins surrounding a cire of live bones chicken uses for - Base or root is a thin edge continuous preening with the epidermis Sebaceous glands – produce sebum - Encircled by variable rings - Thickness towards the apex increases till - Protect skin from harmful substance practically solid - Impart gloss to the hairs - Prevents hair from becoming dry and brittle - Makes hair soft - Wards off moisture on skin - Lessens evaporation of water - Contains precursor of vitamin D (ergosterol) Hair - Is the general covering of the body surface of the animal body - Hair is Coat covering of cattle, goats, horses, carabaos, swine and man - Wool for sheep - Feather for poultry Parts of the Hair 1. Shaft – above the skin 2. Root – embedded in the hair follicle Introduction to Animal Science Notes 3 9/25/24 INTERNAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Skeletal System Osteology - The study of the bone that make up the skeleton or framework of the body - The skeleton of a living animals made up of bones that are themselves living structures - They have o blood vessels o lymphatic vessels o nerves - subject to diseases - undergo repair and they adjust to changes in stress Functions: - provides protection - giving rigidity and form the body - acting as levers - storing minerals - forming the cellular elements of blood General Composition of Bones - Organic Matter – 1/3 bone weight o resilience and toughness - Inorganic Matter – 2/3 bone weight o largely calcium and phosphorus o are deposited within the organic framework o gives hardness and rigidity Main Divisions of the skeleton 1. Axial Skeleton - Includes bone on or attached to the midline a. Skull i. Protects the brain ii. Supports many of the sense organs iii. Form passages for entry to the digestive and respiratory system 1. Neu cranium – 1st one that protects the brain 2. Splanchnocranium – forming and protecting the face b. Vertebral Column i. Composed of median unpaired irregular bones called vertebrae 1. Cervical 2. Thoracic 3. Lumbar 4. Sacral 5. Coccygeal ii. Parts of a typical vertebra 1. Body a. Cylindrical mass forming the ventral part of the vertebra and floor of the vertebral foramen 2. Arch a. Completes the vertebral foramen b. Contains the spinal cord 3. Articular process  a. Form joints 4. Spinous process a. Provide important attachments b. Withers i. In horses, thoracic vertebrae form the dorsal prominence 5. Transverse process a. Project lateral from the arc iii. Formula depending on the number of vertebrae Vertebrae Bovine Sheep/Goat Horse Swine Chicken Cervical 7 7 7 7 14 Thoracic 13 13 18 14-15 7 Lumbar 6 6-7 6 6-7 Fused 14 Sacral 5 4 5 4 Coccygeal 18-20 16-18 15-20 20-23 6 c. Sternum i. Forms the ventrum of the bony thorax and gives attachment to the costal cartilages of the ribs ii. providing a bony origin for the pectoral muscles 1. The sternum consists of individual bones called sternebrae that tend to fuse as age advances d. Ribs i. Form the lateral walls of the bony thorax ii. Usually, the number of pairs of ribs is the same as the number of thoracic vertebrae iii. The last pair or two of ribs have no connection 1. Floating ribs 2. Appendicular Skeleton – bones of the thoracic and pelvic bones a. Thoracic or anterior limb i. Shoulder girdle – scapula (Shoulder Blade) 1. Scapula a. Flat triangular bone 2. Coracoid 3. Clavicle or collar bone a. Wishbone in birds ii. Arm – humerus 1. Humerus a. Long bone b. Vary in minor details from one animal to another c. Shaft and two extremities iii. Forearm – radius and ulna 1. Radius a. Larger than ula in mammals i. in birds, ulna is larger b. enters into the elbow join proximally and the carpus distally 2. Ulna a. Varies i. Horse and ox – bones are fused ii. Pig – ulna is larger and longer than the radius iii. Dog – ulna is well developed iv. Manus – homologous of the hand in man  1. Carpus or knee in animals a. Complex region that includes two rows of small bones b. Corresponds to the human wrist, called knee by horsemen i. Metacarpus 1. 2. Digits a. Number one to five depending on species i. Homologous with fingers of man b. Phalanges i. Three phalanges 1. Proximal (p1) 2. Middle (p2) 3. Distal (p3) c. Sesamoid i. Each digit also includes two proximal sesamoid bones at the palmar b. Pelvic or posterior limb i. Pelvic girdle – ischium, pubis 1. Pelvic gridle a. Consists of a circle of bones by which the pelvic limbs articulate with the vertebral column i. Each hemipelvis (half a pelvis) comprises three bones which are fused to form Os coxae or pelvic / hip bone 1. Ilium a. Largest and most dorsal of pelvic bones b. Irregular 2. Ischium 3. Pubis a. Smallest ii. All these three participate in the formation of the acetabulum of the hip joint 1. Ball and Socket Joint a. Joined by femur ii. Thigh – femur 1. Extends form the coxofemoral (hip) joint to the stifle iii. Legs 1. Tibia a. Larger of the two b. Palpable beneath the skin medially 2. Fibula a. Smaller b. Lies on the lateral side of the leg 3. Patella a. Kneecap iv. Pes – homologue of the foot of man 1. Tarsus (hock) a. Carpus in the thoracic limb i. Multiple small bones ii. Human ankle b. Tarsals c. Metatarsals d. Digits / Phalanges  3. Splanchnic or Visceral skeleton a. Consists of certain bones developed in the substances of some viscera or soft organs (e.g. os penis of dogs, os rostri (snout) of hogs) Classification of bones 1. Long bones a. Greater in one dimension than any other b. Function as levers and aid in support, locomotion and prehension 2. Short Bones a. Cuboid and equal in all dimensions b. Absorb concussion 3. Flat bones a. Relatively thin b. Lanina externa and lamina interna – plates of compact bone i. Separated by diploe, a spongy material 4. Irregular bones a. providing major mechanical support for the body Sexual difference of the skeleton Male Female Conjugate diameter Narrower Wider Transverse diameter Narrower Wider Pelvic outlet Smaller Larger Inclination of the pelvis Lesser Greater Pelvic cavity Not so roomy Much roomier Pubic floor Almost flat Concave Ischial arch Narrower Wider Growth of skeletal system Growth - bones increase in size and length as animal grows - Growth occurs at the ends, in the region of the cartilage between the epiphysis (the ends) and diaphysis (the shaft) o known as epiphysis- diaphysis cartilage Maturity - become mature gradually when the cartilage (epiphyseal- diaphysial) becomes calcified and is replaced by bony material. Joints - Articulations or referred to as arthrology Kinds of joints 1. Synarthroses – immovable joints a. Suture – junction between the bones of the skull b. Gomphosis – articulation of the teeth and their socket c. Synchondrosis – immovable joint which completely joins together two bones 2. Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joints a. Symphyses – median-line joints united by fibro-cartilage b. Syndesmoses – united by fibrous tissue 3. Diarthrosis – Freely moveable Movement of the Joints Gliding or sliding movement - occurs between two more or less flat surfaces in plane joints Flexion (folding) - denotes moving two or more bones so that the angle between them becomes less than 180 degrees. Extension (straightening) - denotes movement by which the angle is increased to 180 degrees. Hyperextension - movement in which the angle between segments is increased beyond 180° Adduction - is the term applied to moving an extremity toward the median plane or a digit toward the axis of the limb. Circumduction - occurs when an extremity follows in the curved plane of the surface of a cone. Pronation - rotates an extremity so that the dorsum is up Supination - a movement that rotates an extremity so that the palmar or plantar aspect of the limb is up. FRACTURE - A fracture is when your bones crack or split into two pieces due to injury. Types of Fracture 1. Simple- skin over the fracture site is not broken 2. Compound- wound from the exterior contacts the fracture bone 3. Complete- bone is broken entirely across 4. Comminuted- a number of small fragments are formed (crushed) 5. Greenstick- one side is broken, the other is bent (in young animals) 6. Epiphyseal- occurs at junction of epiphysis and diaphysis of bone (also in young animals) Introduction to Animal Science Notes 4 10/2/2024 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF FARM ANIMALS Muscular System - All forms of tissue in the body that can contract to perform movement or similar functions - An organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles - It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body Myology - Deals with the muscles and their accessory - Study of Muscles THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSCLES Two Processes of tissue growth 1. Hyperplasia – increase in the number of cells by cell division a. Growth of embryo 2. Hypertrophy – increase in cell size a. Atrophy – decrease in cell size Myoblasts - The cells that will form the muscle fibers Myogenesis - Process of forming of muscle fibers 1. Satellite Cell (Muscle Precursor) 2. Myoblasts 3. Primary Fusion 4. Secondary Fusion 5. Myotube 6. Mature Muscle Fiber Function Of The Muscular System 1. Contraction – the only function of the muscle 2. Relaxation – passive process, lack of contraction a. Source of proteins b. Provide power for movement of various body parts c. Expel or force out secretions of organs (involuntary muscles) d. Provide impetus for movement of ingesta e. Responsible for uterine motility f. Aid in expelling fetus at parturition g. Causes contraction of the heart (regulates blood flow 3 Types of Muscle Tissues 1. Skeletal – bulk tissue of an animal a. Multinucleated – lots of nuclei b. Striated c. Voluntary d. Cylindrical fibers are long – run the length of the muscle e. Can contract multiple times between relaxations, can undergo fatigue f. Skeletal Muscle Organization i. Endomysium 1. Connective tissue between individual muscle fibers ii. Perimysium 1. Sheath surrounding bundles of muscle fibers iii. Epimysium 1. Connective tissue around an entire muscle 2. Deep fascia of the muscle 2. Smooth a. Uninucleated b. Non-striated c. Involuntary d. Spindle shaped cells, usually found in parallel lines forming sheets e. Found in the walls of hollow organs (Visceral) f. Slow contraction but can sustain – doesn’t fatigue easily 3. Cardiac a. Uninucleated b. Striated c. Involuntary i. Auto-rhythmic 1. Doesn’t require nervous system stimulation to contract d. Cylindrical and branched cells (fibers) i. Joined by intercalated disks – allow passage of electrical activity throughout muscle Muscle Cell Structure - Sarcolemma o Plasma membrane of a muscle fiber - Sarcoplasm o Cytoplasm of a muscle fiber that contains organelles, including myofibrils - Glycogen o Polysaccharide that stores energy for muscle contraction - Myoglobin o A red pigment that stores oxygen for muscle contraction - Sarcoplasmic reticulum o The smooth ER of a muscle fiber that stores Ca ions - Muscle fiber o Are arranged in bundles called fascicles - Myofibril o A bundle of myofilaments that contracts - Myofilament o Thick and thin filaments whose structure and function account of muscle striations and contractions (actin and myosin) - Sarcomere o Basic contractile unit of muscle Contraction of Skeletal Muscle - Contraction cause fibers to shorten in all directions - Skeletal Muscles o Composed of muscle fibers ▪ Long cylindrical cells containing several nuclei o Will contract or relax when they receive signals from the nervous system o Neuromuscular Junction ▪ Site of the signal exchange ▪ Where Synaptic bulb of an axon terminal and muscle fiber connect o Muscle Fibers ▪ Composed of many myofibrils Contains contractile units called sarcomere o Run adjacent to one another down the length of the myofibril o Consists alternating thick and thin protein filaments giving skeletal muscle its striated appearance o Muscle contracts when these filaments slide past each other ▪ Thick = myosin Center of the sarcomere; m-line ▪ Thin = actin Outer edges of the sarcomere = z-line o The sarcomere shortens from both sides when actin filaments slide along the myosin filaments Myosin filaments actually pulls the actin along its length The cross bridges of the myosin filaments attached to the actin filaments and exert force on them to move o This action is called the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction A contraction begins when a bound ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and inorganic phosphate o This causes the myosin head to extend and can attach to a binding site on actin forming a crossbridge ▪ Power stroke is triggered allowing myosin to pull the actin filament to the M-line thereby shortening the sarcomere ADP and inorganic phosphate are released during the power stroke o Myosin remains attached to actin until a new molecule of ATP binds freeing the myosin to either go through another cycle of binding and more contraction or remain unattached to allow the muscle to relax Muscle contractions are controlled by the action of calcium o The thin actin filaments are associated with regulatory proteins ▪ Troponin ▪ Tropomyosin When a muscle is relaxed tropomyosin blocks the crossbridge binding sites on actin  When calcium ion levels are high enough and ATP is present, calcium ions bind to the troponin which displaces tropomyosin o Exposing the myosin binding sites on actin ▪ This allows myosin to attach to a binding site on actin forming a crossbridge Calcium ions o Are stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum o Released in response to signal from the nervous system to contract Neurotransmitter molecules are released from a neuron and bind to receptors which depolarize the membrane of the muscle fiber The electrical impulse the t-tubules and open calcium stores Calcium ions flow to the myofibrils where they trigger a muscle contraction As the actin and myosin slide along each other, the entire sarcomere shortens as the z-lines draw closer to the m-line o As the sarcomeres in myofibrils contract, the entire muscle fiber will shorten When muscle fibers contract in unison, a muscle can produce enough force to move the body Muscle Arrangements - Strap Muscles - Fusiform - Pennate - Penniform (Featherlike) Functional Grouping of Muscles - Extensor Muscles – straighten - Flexor Muscles – bend - Abductor Muscles – move away from a plane - Adductor Muscles – pull a limb toward the median plane - Sphincters - encircle an opening whether they are striated or smooth - Cutaneous Muscles - superficial facia between the skin and the deep facia covering the skeletal muscles Muscles Involved In A Specific Action - Agonists – producing the desired action - Antagonists – opposite the action - Synergists – oppose any undesired action of the agonists Muscle Attachments - the muscle fibers attach to very short tendons, which in turn attach to the periosteum of the bone or penetrate the surface of the bone for a short distance Origin - less mobile attachment insertion - more movable attachment Contraction of Smooth Muscles - Thick and thin filaments are present but there are no myofibrils, no sarcomeres, no striations o anchored to proteins in the sarcoplasm called dense bodies or directly to the sarcolemma - much slower than skeletal muscle - more fatigue resistant than skeletal muscle and can maintain contractions for far longer Types of Muscle Contraction 1. Concentric contraction a. moves a bone or segment by shortening 2. Isometric contraction a. occurs naturally whenever a limb or portion of the body is held stationary against equal resistance, such as gravity 3. Eccentric contraction a. occurs in the extensor muscles of the neck when an animal lowers its head gradually 4. Isotonic contraction a. occurs when the length of the muscle changes but the tension remains the same, primarily when a muscle lifts a given weight Muscle Relaxation - the thin and thick filaments are dissociated, allowing the elasticity of the muscle to return it to its resting length, which pulls the Z lines and thin filaments back to their original positions. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM or CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM An efficient circulatory System has: - Fluid e.g., blood, to carry materials to be transported - System of vessels to distribute the blood - Pump to push the blood through the system - Exchange organs to carry out exchanges between the blood and external environment o Lungs and intestine to add materials to the blood o Lungs and kidneys to remove materials from the blood Functions: 1. Distribution of nutrients 2. Transportation and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide 3. Removal of wastes materials 4. Distribution of endocrine secretions 5. Prevention of excessive bleeding 6. Prevention of infection 7. Regulation of body temperature Heart - Cone shaped hollow muscular structure - Situated in the thorax between the lungs and is protected by the rib cage - Pumps blood to all parts of the body - Failure to perform this function terminates life Heart Divisions Left Right Ventricle Ventricle Atrium Atrium Atrioventricular valve (AV) - Bicuspid Atrioventricular valve (AV)- tricuspid Aortic valve Pulmonary valve Base of the heart - Directed dorsad or craniodorsad - Attached to other thoracic structures by large arteries, veins and pericardial Pericardium - Serous membrane that surrounds the heart - Creates a closed cavity (pericardial Space) that contains only a small amount of fluid for lubrication - The heart is invaginated into the pericardium much like a fist thrust into an inflated balloon Layers of the Pericardium 1. Visceral Pericardium or Epicardium a. Inner layer b. Adherent 2. Parietal a. Outer layer 3. Pericardial Sac a. The parietal pericardium, fibrous pericardium, and mediastinal pleura together b. Grossly identifiable as a thin but tough tissue surrounding the heart Heart Wall Layers 1. Epicardium a. Outer serous covering b. The same as the visceral layer of pericardium 2. Endocardium a. the innermost layer of the heart. It lines the inner surfaces of the heart chambers, including the heart valves i. The inner layer lines the heart chambers and is made of endothelial cells ii. The second layer: a subendocardial connective tissue which is continuous with the connective tissue of the myocardium iii. Continuous with the lining of the blood vessels Chambers 1. Atrium - Receives blood by way of large veins 2. Ventricle - Pumps blood from the heart through a large artery Cardiac Anatomy Four Valves - Tricuspid valve o regulates blood flow between the right atrium and right ventricle - Pulmonary valve o controls blood flow from the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries - Mitral valve (Bicuspid) o lets oxygen-rich blood from your lungs pass from the left atrium into the left ventricle. - Aortic valve o opens the way for oxygen-rich blood to pass from the left ventricle into the aorta Heart Beat Four Stages 1. Each atrium relaxes so that blood can enter 2. The atrio-ventricular valves open and both ventricles relax 3. Ventricles contract and atrio-ventricular valves snap shut to stop blood flowing back into the atria a. First sound = “lubb” 4. The semi-lunar valves open and blood is pumped out of the right ventricle to the lungs. At the same time, blood id pumped out of the left ventricle into the aorta Diastole - Dilation o Greek: dia – apart; stello – place or put - Refers to the relaxation of a chamber of the heart Systole - Stello, place Where can we feel it? - Sheep and Goat o Inside of the top of the back leg - Cattle o Underside of the base of the tail - Horse o Inside of the cheek Heart Sounds - Lub o Associated with valve closures when the heart contracts - Dub o Produced by the vibrations of the aortic and pulmonary semilunar valve Heart Murmur - A general term for any abnormal heart sound - May occur when a valve fails to close completely (vascular insufficiency) and blood flow goes ub the wrong direction Tachycardia - Increase in heart rate Bradycardia - Decrease in heart rate BLOOD FLOW (Deoxygenated Blood) Superior and Inferior Vena Cava => Right Atrium => Tricuspid Valve => Right Ventricle => Pulmonary Valve => Pulmonary artery => Lungs => (Oxygenated Blood) Pulmonary Vein => Left Atrium => Mitral Valve (Bicuspid Valve) => Left Ventricle => Aortic Valce => Aorta -> Body BLOOD VESSELS Arteries - Carries blood away from the heart Veins - Returns blood from the body to the heart - Carry unoxygenated blood Capillaries - Tiny blood vessels with selective membrane - Responsible for transfer of nutrients Lymph Vessels - Carry tissue fluid and lymph - Accessories to body’s circulatory system and originates in tissue spaces and converge to form larger ducts, as they pass through lymph glands Lymph glands - Act to filter foreign substances from the lymph, preventing passage into the blood stream - Produce lymphocytes o Produce antibodies o Lymph nodes ▪ Filter of lymph ▪ Produces lymphocytes and plasma cells which produce antibodies against infection ▪ Scattered all throughout the body If there is an infection to that specific site, it will increase in size to fight off the infection Spleen - organ associated with the circulatory system - It is attached to the stomach - Phagocytizes fragile worn-out RBC Kinds of Lymph Vessels 1. Afferent – carry lymph TOWARD to lymph nodes 2. Efferent- carry filtered lymph AWAY from lymph nodes Lymph - a liquid lying between the tissues and the blood vessels (capillaries) - The flow of lymph is sluggish and in one direction only, from the tissues towards the heart - governed by: o Difference in pressure o Muscular movement o Presence of valves Composition of Lymph - Few red corpuscles and lymphocytes - Low protein content - High in bicarbonates and chlorides - Slightly higher pH than plasma - Colorless fluid with specific gravity of 1.015 - Contains water, glucose, gases, non-protein substances, inorganic substances, hormones coenzymes, vitamins and immune substances Functions of lymph - medium for transporting nutrients and O2 in the blood to the tissues - contains antibodies for protection - carries fat in the form of milk-like fluid (chyle) to the blood circulation Heart Rate of Different Organisms Organism Average Rate Normal Range Human 70 58-104 Cat 120 110-140 Cow 65 60-70 Dog 115 100-130 Guinea pig 280 200-400 Hamster 450 300-600 Horse 44 23-70 Rabbit 205 123-304 Rat 328 261-600 Cardiac cycle - Is one complete cycle of cardiac contraction and relaxation (heartbeat) - Correspond to the low-pressure (pulmonary circulation) o Lungs - High pressure (systemic circulation) o System = pumps blood throughout the body Systemic Circulatory System - Provides the functional blood supply to all body tissue - Carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells - Picks up carbon dioxide and waste products Pulmonary Circulatory System - Pumping of blood in the lungs - carries the blood to and from the lungs Coronary Circulatory System - Blood flow to the heart muscle itself o Provides with oxygen and nutrition Hepatic Portal System - Venous system - Blood leaves the intestines and proceeds to the liver before returning to the heart - Portal system o Series of vessels between two capillary beds Blood - combination of plasma (watery liquid) and cells that float in it - a specialized bodily fluid that supplies essential substances and nutrients, such as sugar, oxygen, and hormones to our cells, and carries waste away from those cells Blood Formation Hemopoiesis - is the process that produces the formed elements of the blood - takes place in the red bone marrow found in the epiphyses of: o long bones o flat bones o vertebrae o pelvis - hemopoietic stem cells (hemocytoblasts) divide to produce various “blast” cells Erythropoiesis - the process of making erythrocytes, begins with the formation of proerythroblasts from hemopoietic stem cells Leukopoiesis - the process of making leukocytes o Myeloblasts divide to form eosinophilic, neutrophilic, or basophilic myelocytes, ▪ which lead to the development of the three kinds of granulocytes. o Monoblasts lead to the development of monocytes. o Lymphoblasts lead to the development of lymphocytes Thrombopoiesis - the process of making platelets Functions of the Blood: - Conveys nutrients to the tissues - Carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs - Carries waste products to excretory organs - Transports hormones to target organs - Helps control body temperature - Helps maintain water balance - Helps maintain constant pH in tissues/ fluid - Aids overcome diseases Composition of Blood 1. Plasma – fluid portion of blood a. Colorless in thin layer b. Yellowish in large quantities i. Due to bilirubin c. Serum – supernatant yellow fluid i. Plasma minus fibrogen and clotting factors 2. Corpuscles a. Red Blood Vessels (erythrocytes) i. Non-nucleated ii. Hemoglobin for transport and red color iii. Transport hemoglobin 1. Carries oxygen to the tissues iv. Made of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates v. Round and biconcave vi. Erythropoiesis 1. the production of RBC (erythrocytes) vii. Erythropoietin 1. a hormone secreted by the kidney. It regulates the production of RBC. viii. Reticulocytes 1. immature RBC b. White Blood Cells (leukocytes) i. Nucleated ii. Fight infections by attacking bacteria, viruses, and germs that invade the body iii. Originate in the bone marrow but circulates throughout the bloodstream iv. More RBC than WBC v. Major role: defend the body against invading organisms vi. Different Types of WBC 1. Neutrophils a. Formed in the bone marrow b. Engulfing disease-causing bacteria and other small particles c. Bacterial infection = increase in numbers 2. Eosinophils a. ability to eat up or engulf foreign particles into their bodies b. infection with parasites/allergies = increase in numbers c. extreme/prolonged stress = decrease in numbers 3. basophils a. function is unknown b. produced in the bone marrow c. least common 4. lymphocytes a. formed and released from the lymphoid tissue b. lymphopenia= decrease in number i. initial stages of infections such as parvovirus  5. monocytes a. developed and stored in the spleen and bone marrow b. ability to eat or engulf foreign material, such as infectious organisms c. secrete various protein molecules that help in the clean-up of inflamed and irritated tissue 6. platelets a. vital function in the formation of clots b. platelets and fibrinogen i. responsible for the repair of all damaged blood vessels c. decrease in number = used up a large quantity of cells in clot formation Hemoglobin - pigment that gives blood its color - carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs Blood Coagulation - also known as clotting - process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a clot - results in hemostasis the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair Animal Blood Types Cattle - 11 major blood groups ABCFJLMRSTZ - B has over 60 antigens Making it difficult to closely match donor and recipient J antigen is not a true antigen Sheep - 7 blood groups ABCDMRX - B is polymorphic - M-L system is involved in active red cell potassium transport and polymorphism Goats - 5 major blood groups ABCMJ - J is soluble antigen RESPIRATORY SYSTEM collapse and follow movements of the neck - Involve structures which are concerned b. Bronchi in the exchange of gases between the i. Branches into several blood and the external environment alveolar ducts which Major Functions: terminate in clusters of air sacs 1. Supply oxygen to the blood 1. Alveoli 2. Removes carbon dioxide from the blood a. Exchange of Secondary Functions: gases with blood takes 1. Assists in regulation of acidity of place extracellular fluid of the body 5. Lungs 2. Assists in temperature control a. Divided into lobes 3. Helps eliminate water i. Apical (cranial) 4. Helps in phonation ii. Cardiac (middle) a. Voice production iii. Diaphragmic (caudal) Respiratory organs/apparatus iv. Intermediate (right lung) 1. Nostrils/ nares Physiology of Respiration a. External openings of air 1. Ventilation passages a. Process by which air is moved b. Muzzle – skin surrounding into (inspiration) and out of nostril (expiration) the lungs c. Functions b. Alveoli i. Warming of air i. Primary site of gas ii. Moistening of air exchange iii. Filtration of air c. Alveolar ventilation 2. Pharynx i. Critical component of a. Common soft tissue for food and this function air 2. Panting 3. Larynx a. Mechanism to dissipate heat a. Gatekeeper to the entrance of b. Characterized by an increased the trachea ventilator rate but a reduced b. Maintains a rigid, boxlike shape tidal volume via a series of paired and i. Volume of air moved unpaired cartilages during each breath i. 5 Cartilages 3. Forced expiration 1. Cricoid a. Active process that forces more 2. Arytenoid (2) air from the lungs that would 3. Thyroid occur during a normal passive 4. Epiglottic expiration c. Regulate the size of the airway b. Requires contraction of and protect it by closing to abdominal muscles to force prevent substances other than viscera against the diaphragm air from entering the trachea and contraction of other d. Organ of phonation muscles to pull the ribs (vocalization) 4. Heaves i. Voice box a. Condition in horses that is 4. Trachea and Bronchi characterized by labored or a. Trachea difficult breathing i. Formed by a series of C – i. Results in chronic shaped hyaline tracheal obstructive airway cartilages that resists disease Respiration Process - Hypernea – increased depth or rate of breathing 1. Pulmonary ventilation - Polypnea – rapid, shallow breathing a. Inflow and outflow of air - Coastal/thoracic breathing – between the atmosphere and considerable movement of ribs the alveoli lungs - Abdominal diaphragmic breathing – 2. Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between alveoli movement of abdomen in ordinary quiet and blood breathing 3. Transportation of O2 and CO2 in in blood and body fluids to and from the somatic Respiration Rate of Farm Animals and Man cells Species Respiration rate/min 4. Regulation of ventilation and other Horse 8-18 aspect of respiration Cattle 10-30 Rate of breathing Hog 8-18 Dog 16-30 - Controlled by the medulla of the brain Cat 20-30 a. Respiration center Chicken 15-30 - Regulates inspiration and expiration of Man 12-20 air by the lungs - Influenced by carbon dioxide content of the blood Factors Affecting Respiration Standard Test 1. Body size 2. Exercise 1. Born dead – sink in water 3. Excitement 2. Born alive – float in water 4. Pregnancy Mechanics of respiration 5. Fill of stomach 6. Pathologic condition A. Inspiration – enlargement of thorax a. 1st – contraction of diaphragm b. 2nd – forward and outward movement of ribs c. 3rd – distending of lungs; air to flow inward B. Expiration – passive return to lungs and thorax to normal position; air to flow outward a. Diaphragm – principal muscle in inspiration Diffusion of Gases 1. Occurs between the epithelium membranes of the alveoli and blood capillaries 2. Pressure gradient (CO2 diffuses 20x more than O2) a. O2 pressure in alveoli b. CO2 pressure in capillary c. CO2 diffuses from alveoli to capillary Types of Respiration - Apnea – no respiration - Eupnea – normal quiet respiration - Dyspnea – difficult respiration