Political Behaviour PDF

Topic 6 1.Definitions of Political Behaviour According to Eldersveld and Katz in 1961, political behaviour or behavioral approach to the study of politics is to: Identify the behaviour of individuals or groups of individuals as the primary unit of analysis. It seeks to examine the behaviour, actions and acts of Individuals, rather than characteristics of Institutions such as legislature, executive and judiciary. Traditionally, the study of politics was legalistic, normative and based on institutions, and this certainly made it challenging for the discipline to fully explain and understand the behaviour of people within their political environments. It was the need to overcome this shortcoming and achieve a better understanding of politics that gave birth to the-behavioral revolution. 2.This was a banner under which sociologists, survey researchers and other empiricists gathered in the 1950s to distinguish themselves from those who studied constitutions, philosophy, or history, and prominent scholars who championed the revolution are Robert Dahl (1961), and David Easton (1961). The main aim of political behavior is to explain behaviour with an unbiased, neutral point of view, using methods such as sampling, scaling statistical analysis and Interviewing, among others. The most practical way to do it is to focus on Individuals and groups who are the actors in politics. 3.Scholarly definitions of political behaviour seem to have expanded beyond the issue of method and approach. The current state of political behaviour, as some scholars presently claim, is typically concerned with individual behaviour in the society. One of such scholars is Rose Richard who, in her 2007 work claims that political behaviour is the study of the behaviour of politicians and actors such as voters, lobbyists, and politicians. Thus, currently, discourses in political behaviour are devoted to provide a sound understanding of the relationship between the political actions of citizens and the political process in a democracy, and this is why the subject now covers issues such as political attitudes, extra electoral forms political participation such a protest, resistance, social movement, apathy, and extremism, as well as consequences for political representation and political systems. THE STUDY OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR 1.From the early time before the study of political behaviour, specifically up to the period of 1900, the study of politics was dominated by two main methodological approaches: the Normative, Philosophical Approach and the Descriptive -Institutional Approach. 2.The Normative - Philosophical Approach: This was based on reflections on and interrogations of early philosophers towards political events and values across the globe. Socio political events such as justice, polity, legitimacy state, and power and wealth distributions were the main subjects of Interrogation and investigation because early philosophers regarded them as most essential to the understanding of politics and the peaceful coexistence of people and nations. Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean- Jacques Rousseau. 3.Most questions the philosophers asked revolved around what Justice Is, how it is achieved and what Importance It should be accorded it in human polity, what action or practice is legitimate, what the ideal role of the state is, and how power, wealth and other values are equitably distributed in the society to guarantee egalitarianism. Philosophers who engaged in these questions Include Plato, Aristotle, St Augustine, St Thomas Aquinas, Niccolo Machiavelli. The Descriptive - Institutional Approach 1.This approach basically described structures and Institutions of politics and government. It originally focused on the discussion of the evolution and operation of legislatures, executives and judiciaries which are respectively the Institutions for making, carrying out and Interpreting the law. This later came to Include bureaucracies, political parties, pressure groups, Interest groups, constitutions, and other frameworks that are constantly interacted with in politics. Unlike the foregoing approach, the Descriptive - Institutional Approach is more interested in facts than values, seeking to provide fact-based Information on structures and Institutions such as constitution and its forms, parliament and its parliamentary supremacy, law making procedures, supremacy of the law, elections and other means of choosing and changing representatives. MAIN THRUST OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR 1.Political Culture (P.C.) Political culture refers to the dominant state or situation of citizens' awareness of Issues and stakes in the political system, their evaluation as well as acceptance or rejection (as the case may be) of the system, and, in the third part, their expectations about the relationship among actors and participants in the political system. Unlike political participation that is a process; political culture is a state, and the dominant state among various states. This means that when we say that a country has a particular political culture, the true situation is that that culture so Identified is the major one among others that exist. Like political socialization, political culture also largely determines political behavior, and the method with which the behavioral school Investigates political phenomena often focuses on it. 2.The following definitions will make your understanding clearer. Taylor (1924) defined political culture as; -the complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, custom, and other capabilities andhabits acquired by man as a member of the society. Lucian Pye, (1962) defined political culture as;-...the set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments which give order and meaning to a political process, and which provides the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behaviour in the political system. It encompasses both the political Ideals and the operating norms of a polity. Some leading scholars of behavioral tradition, Gabriel Almond and S. Verba (1963) also defined political culture as; -the patterns of Individual political orientations, the attitudes towards the political system and its various parts, and to the role of the self in the political system. FORMS OF POLITICAL CULTURE 1.Almond and Verba's Classification: Parochial, Subject and Participant The earliest and most prominent attempt to categorize political culture was made by Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba (1963). They compared five democratic nations and surveyed 1,000 persons as samples in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, and Mexico, and they came out with three levels of political culture: Parochial, Subject and Participant. These three levels of political culture shall be discussed in what follows. a.Parochial Political Culture A parochial political culture exists where there are no specialized political roles and people's knowledge of politics does not go beyond their Immediate environment. In this kind of culture, religious and ethnic considerations are often put beyond general interest, and people participate in politics mainly because of them, not because of wider socio-economic reasons. Where parochial political culture is dominant, citizens hardly make demands from their governments either because of ignorance of what governance is all about, or because they lack trust for the political leaders. Parochial political culture is found among many poor and developing nations that are predisposed to contradictions such as ethnic rivalry, Indigene settler dichotomy, and primordial sentiments. b.Subject Political Culture: In a subject political culture, majority of people merely simply align with policies and practices of government almost as obedient servants. They hardly participate in making,amendment or implementation of those policies. This kind of political culture is common where the government expects absolute obedience from the people, and they Institutionalize means of achieving it. People therefore have little choice but to follow suit because they are just subjects. C. Participant Political Culture: In a participant political culture, people understand politics and governance and make several attempts to participate in it. Their participation ranges from voting, attending meetings, joining associations and forming organization. They also mobilize people to participate in protest, social movements where necessary, and they educate others around them on the roles of the government in their lives and how they can make the government perform them. Where participant political culture is dominant, people-manifest attitudes of personal political competence and they participate in active political process. Advanced countries such as Britain and the United States are found in this category. 2.Another scholar, Finer, made an invaluable contribution towards categorizing political culture. Unlike Almond & Verba and Daniel Elazar tripartite dimensions of political culture, Samuel Finer, in his book, The man on the Horse Back, written in 1962, Identifies four levels of political culture: Minimal, Low, Developed and Mature, and like Almond and Verba, he situated the different levels in different socio-political environments. Finer's typology of political culture is however based on political Institutions, procedures and legitimacy of rulers. Detailed discussion of his categorization is as follows: a.Mature Political Culture: This refers to a system in which institutions of government are very effective to the extent that the majority follow appropriate procedures to recruit political leaders. In such a system, a political aberration such as military coup will not only be unwarrantable but also inconceivable. Countries such as Britain, Canada, the United States and Australia are full of this political culture. b.Developed Political Culture: In this kind of system, there is a high level of administrative and bureaucratic stability. Institutions of government may also be very effective, but people are not really concerned about the procedure of attaining governmental powers as well as how it is retained. Germany, Japan and the defunct Soviet Union rightly belong here. c. Low Political Culture: A low political culture is that in which one may not confidently call people citizens because they are very poorly organized and are not proactive towards governmental activities. People do not also agree on the bureaucratic and administrative position of the state, so, issues such as military coup, perverted revenue sharing and intra structural relations within the country may be subjected to the prevailing pulse of the people rather that legitimate or established procedures. According to Finer, Egypt, Syria, South Korea, Turkey and Iran belong here. This is a system where the ruling class acts with Impunity because they are brutal and more coercive than the unorganized and politically passive people. In this place military Intervention in politics is perceived as normal, and leaders can fidget with public opinion at will. Political Socialization 1.Political socialization is the process of transferring knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and general dispositions about politics from one generation to the other. It accumulates almost unconsciously through citizens and people's Interactions with social institutions such as the family, the religious houses, the schools, the tertiary institutions, the media, and political parties and so on. These institutions through which people are socialized Into political values are called agencies of political socialization. Social scientists, especially those favourably disposed towards social learning theories, believe strongly that whatever a man behaves like in the society and its politics- from activism to its other extreme of apathy- is primarily a function of how he or she was socialized by these agencies. 2.Political socialization as it is defined by many scholarly perspectives and period and shall equally provide some factors that determine it. Beginning from the earlier time, Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba define political socialization as a.learning process by which the norms associated with the performance of political roles as well as fundamental political values and guiding standards of political behaviour are learned. This is contained in their article entitled, 'The Comparative Study of Political Socialization. 3.Eric Rowe (1969): define-political socialization as the process by which the values, beliefs and emotions of a political culture are passed on to succeeding generations. 4.Powell & Cowart (2003): Political socialization is the study of the developmental processes by which children of all ages (12 to 30), and adolescents acquire political cognition, attitudes, and behavior. Primary Agents of Political Socialization 1.The primary agents of political socialization are those that people first come across when they are children, and they unavoidably Interact with as they grow. Almost all human beings pass through these agents, though not necessarily on their will. The primary agents of political socialization in today's world Include the family. the school, the peer group and the religious gatherings. In the contemporary world these socialization agencles can hardly be avoided, and they affect people's beliefs and attitudes towards politics. In what follows we shall discuss these agents one after the other. a.The Family: The family is a principal agent of political socialization, or any other form of socialization at all. In fact, M. Kent Jennings in his 2007 work titled Political Socialization asserts that "from the early scholarly inquiries on through to the present time, the role of the family as a prime agent of socialization has occupied an imports in the literature". This is because the family is a relatively small and enduring institution that makes the processes of learning and imitation easier. Apart from this, the family is the first point of call of the individual, and, to that extent, It determines a lot about an individual's behaviour; including the political. Above all, every human being, by no choice of theirs, is presumably born into a family, so, except in few cases, every human being passes through the socialization of the family. b.The School: Formal educational system organized In forms of schools and colleges is a common phenomenon in the modern world. In fact, most advanced countries of the world are beginning to lay claim to zero percent Illiteracy level in their society while third world countries are following suit. The implication of this is that everyone In the society will now have to pass through one form of school or the other. Thus, the school, like the family, is an agent of socialization that is almost Impossible to escape. Some societies deliberately teach subjects such as civil education, political history and government to educate their citizens on politics. National anthems and other extracurricular exercises are basically performed in schools to expose students to certain values about politics. What most people know and believe about politics is therefore, especially In today's world, a function of school attendance. The school then qualifies as a primary agency of political. C.The Peer Group: Man, by nature, Aristotle has long insisted, is a political animal. What you get from this is that man is a gregarious being that love to live with, and around other men. In the process of this social interaction peer groups are formed. These groups consist of people of same or close age brackets, and members of the groups learn many things socially from one another through emulation and reciprocal determinism. If a person belongs to a peer group that is politically conscious for instance, the tendency of the person to become very active and interested in the politics of his nation is very high due to the kind of socialization received while Interacting with his or her peers. Peer group is also a primary agent of political socialization because it is difficult to escape in the process of existing in the society. An even school where the child is socialized is full of peer group influence, though many peer groups also exist outside the school. d.Religious Gatherings: Apart from the family and the school, organized religious gathering is another very strong agency of political socialization in the modern world. It is almost inescapable today. When people gather in the name of religion, they often inevitably discuss socio-political issues that concern them directly or indirectly, politics being, according to David Easton, -authoritative allocation of values in the society. Values that may be authoritatively allocated to, or omitted from people's homes, familles, streets, workplaces, states of residence, International relation and so on, often make people relate with politics even In religious gatherings where they are supposed to be worshipping. Today, religious associations sponsor candidates into elective positions in order to gain influence. Citizens of some countries consider the religious affiliation of a political candidate as determinant of his or her capacity to rule, and such bellefs color behaviour even in elections. The discussions and decision on these political issues are often taken in religious gatherings; hence, religion becomes a strong agent of political socialization. Subordinate Agents of Political Socialization Structures and institutions such as the media and political parties are not common to all men; they are optional, so they belong to the secondary political socialization agents. Other ones in this category are gender and age which are though common to all men, yet do not command strong organizational political influence that, say, the church and the school may have. Let us examine these four agents of political socialization in detail. a.The Media: The media is a strong agent of political socialization. The print media produces newspapers and magazines while the electronic media comes in forms of radio and television. In all these media politics and political Issues are discussed on a daily basis. In fact, it has been argued by Allan Smith that the 21st century press media is a political media as the majority of the news Items are either completely political or are connected to politics. The most recent one is social media: Facebook and the Twitters that are fast penetrating the whole world. Issues discussed in all these media create values, attitudes and beliefs in people, and as such, stand as means of socializing them into politics as well as influencing their political behaviour. b.Political Party: A political party is an organized body of people who participate in political activities with the sole aim of getting political power. Membership of a political party automatically translates to discussion and practice of political activities, with all the pranks, and the Intrigues. People who belong to political parties learn a great deal of their political tricks, values, orientations, opinions and beliefs from them, so, the political party is a very strong agent of political socialization. In specific terms, political parties have orientations and Ideological divides. There are left wing parties, right wing parties, mass parties and so on, and the orientation that is dominant in each of these parties are systematically handed down to their members from one generation to another. In Britain you have the conservative (right wing) and the labour (left wing) political parties. In the United States it is between the Republican (right wing) and the Democrat (left wing) partles. c.Gender: Until recently when universal adult suffrage has permeated the whole world, gender was a very key Issue In political socialization. In the earlier Athenian society in Greece, women were not allowed to participate in politics, and so it was in some other parts of the world. The implication is that men would be differently socialized to form different beliefs, opinions and orientation of politics, compared to women. Now that the dichotomy is changing rapidly, and universal adult suffrage is gaining popularity around the world; women's socialization in politics is fast taking different dimensions. d.Age: Also unlike gender, age was and is still a strong factor In the politics of courtiers. Today, because of universal adult suffrage, most constitutions allow citizens of eighteen years to vote and be voted for. In some countries where gerontology is common in political activities, only old people take certain electoral positions in politics. These different practices in different societies often shape opinions and orientations of people towards politics, so age is equally an agent of political socialization. Let us also quickly add that socialization may involve an Individual's formative years, or his mature years, or both. Political socialization through the primary agency is not only latent, but also tends to occur during the formative years of an individual. Political socialization through secondary agencies, on the other hand, tends to be manifest and to occur during an individual's relatively mature years. Topic 5 1.INTRODUCTION: Political Party and Pressure Group It is man not to live alone, he lives in human society. This is the reason the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle said, man is a political animal. Because he lives in a society, he needs to Interact with other people, develop rules and regulations that govern his continued existence in the society. It can be safely concluded that man has since engaged in politics. Right from the time of Greek city states, mankind has always lived in communities with various political structures that suit his environment. Political parties and pressure groups are very Important in any democratic system of government. 2.Meaning of a Political Party A political party is generally described as an organized body of people who share common principles and cherish certain common goals regarding the political system. A political party operates and seeks political power through constitutional means to translate its policies into practice. It is a body of like- minded people having similar views on matters of public concern. A political party can be viewed as ”an organized group of citizens who profess or share the same political views and who by acting as a political unit, try to control the government". Another perspective is: "a political party consists of a group of citizens, more or less organized, who act as a political unit and who, by the use of their voting power, aim to control the government and carry out their general policies". From these descriptions political parties are organized bodies and are primarily concerned with the acquisition and retention of power. Role of Political Party 1.Monitoring government actions is the responsibility of the opposition parties. They spend a lot of time looking into the policies and practices of the ruling party, which aids in educating the public about both sides of an issue. 2.They are crucial in the dissemination of cultural values and In shaping public opinion. They make up the sociological and psychological components of the political system. 3.They are crucial conduits that connect the populace and the representative system of government. 4. Elections must be free and fair, which depends on political parties. A government is formed by political parties and political opposition is also formed by these parties. 5.Political parties allow for the creation of laws that are tailored to a nation's needs. 6. Political parties preserve an ongoing relationship between the populace and those who serve as their representatives in both the administration and the opposition. 7.Political parties seek to enlist supporters who share their views about the government. Even though many members of the same party don't exactly hold the same views, their fundamental assumptions about how the government ought to function remain the same. 8. The goal of political parties is to encourage individuals who hold similar views on the government. Sometimes members of the same party hold divergent views on how the government should continue to function. Advantages of Political Party 1.Political parties are a major source of Information about current and upcoming laws in many elections. It's a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for the public to collaborate with politicians to start creating a vision for the future. 2.In a representational form of government, the voters must still exert pressure on their representatives to uphold their promises, but they can do so through the political party. 3.The main advantage of political parties is that there is a larger motivation to vote, which results In higher voter turnout. Because they can now select a deserving candidate from a variety of parties with divergent positions on a range of issues, more people are likely to cast ballots and make their voices heard. 4. Political parties promote public engagement; guarantee checks and balances and ensure the welfare of the nation's citizens. 5. Political parties group the talks Into numerous, relevant groups, which helps to shape the conversations about governance. If 100 separate people were asked their opinions and their political views were the same, there is a chance that they would all give the same response. More people within a community can listen to what is being said since It produces a communal voice rather than an isolated one. 6.Legislation can be made more quickly when people can discuss ideas and policies in a group setting than if they were working alone. If the party is properly handled, this appears to be advantageous. Disadvantages of Political Party 1.A nation with a party system might artificialize politics. It might incite Jealousy, foster hostility between the parties, and occasionally spark uprisings and riots. As a result of their inability to agree on specific levels, the public is compelled to divide into factions. 2. Political parties provide people with a stage on which to express specific thoughts on the direction they believe society is taking. Like- minded people listen to such opinions, which helps the party expand. People or businesses with enough money can pay a political party's leadership to offer a particular viewpoint to the assembled people in an effort to sway perspectives, attitudes, or even votes. 3.Parties may anticipate that their supporters will support and express their opinions without challenging the decision-makers. They might not permit them to express criticism of their views or choices. As a result, because they are expected to do as their party directs, this would prevent the members from having individual perspectives on certain matters. 4.Another troublesome drawback of political parties is a decrease in voter turnout. Fewer people want to get interested or participate, and even those who do split their votes as more and more parties are formed. 5.Disenfranchisement, or the perception that one's vote doesn't matter, is one of the political parties' fundamental drawbacks. This can be the case if they decide not to take part because they have no interest in any of the platforms or candidates put up by the various parties. CLASSIFICATIONS OF PARTY SYSTEM 1.One clear way of differentiating types of party system is to refer to the number of parties competing for political power. In this way, we can speak of "one-party “ and "multi-party” systems respectively. In a one- party system, only one-party functions effectively as permanent government, while power alternates between two major parties in a two-party system. In a multi-party system, there are many parties, but no party is capable of winning election alone, and a coalition government becomes inevitable, Political parties operate in a political environment and how parties Interact and relate with each other in the political process is known as party system. Meaning of Single-Party System 1.A Single-Party system is a system in which only one party is legally and officially recognised by the state. There may be in existence other smaller political parties, but they must concede to the authority of the dominant political party, A Single-Party performs better in a smaller country with a small population and landmass. Examples Include People's Action Party In Singapore, Institutional Revolutionary party (PRI) in Mexico. The PRI as a government party won all presidential elections and ruled the country close to seventy years before the system broke down in 1997 (Shively, 2011:267). The strong hold of the PRI was effectively challenged In 2000 by Vicentre Fox of the National Action Party, and it won the presidency. This paved the way for a true and competitive electoral victory. Merits of Single-Party System 1.It removes problems associated with tribalism, ethnicity and unites the people together. 2.It leads to the development of the spirit of patriotism and consciousness in the people, and It makes it easy to mobilise the people to elect their leaders during election. 3. It helps to muster efforts together to get the best personal and human resources to run the affairs of the country. 4.Single-Party system provides opportunity for political stability and national unity by not polarizing the society Into various groups that may lead to clashes and violence. Demerits of Single-Party System 1.It limits the choice of the electorates in terms of candidates and programmes. They must choose among the limited candidates given by the political party. 2.Single-Party system offers limited political education since there is no opportunity for alternative views and programmes. 3. It does not make for peaceful change of government. Since there is no alternative political party that can take over the government, instability may result in the political system. We should note that it is very difficult for the electorates to change an unpopular government without resorting to violence and destruction. 4.The chief distinguishing factor of a single political party is that it does not tolerate opposition party. It considers any opposition party as a threat that should be eliminated. 5. Single-Party breeds corruption, nepotism and other negative vices, and it is not uncommon for the leadership of party government to enrich themselves at the expense of the State. 6.Curtailment of personal liberty. In this system, fundamental human rights of association, speech, expressions are placed under serious watch, the leadership often use the apparatus of state machinery to punish their perceived "enemies". FEATURES OF TWO-PARTY SYSTEM 1.In a two-party system, there are two major political parties of almost the same strength and a few minor political parties too small to make any tangible Impact in the outcome of an election. It does not imply that there are only two political parties in a two-party system. They can be more, In Britain two dominant parties exist - the Conservative and the Labor party even though there is liberal party, and it operates in the same political system, but it is not officially recognised. In the USA, there are the Democratic and the Republican parties. Other countries that operate two-party systems include Canada and New Zealand, etc. Britain and the USA are the two leading countries that practices a two-party system of government, the two political parties In Britain can be distinguished by their policies and programmes. This is not strictly so when we talk about the two parties in the USA because their ideologies are similar. Features of Two-Party System 1.Two major political parties are constitutionally allowed to operate, and a few other minor parties may also be represented in the parliament. 2.The two-party system can operate in both the cabinet and presidential system of government. 3.With or without the support of the minor political parties, one of the major political parties in a cabinet system should be able to form a stable government until the next general election. 4.In the cabinet system of government one of the political parties that wins the majority of the vote forms the government and takes over the affairs of ruling the country while the other party that is defeated forms the opposition and examines in detail policies and programmes of the party in power. Merits of Two-Party System 1.This system gives opportunity to the electorate to choose between two parties, manifestoes, policies and candidates. 2.It prevents dictatorial tendencies of one-party system by giving the opportunity to express one's views on crucial issues. 3.It gives ample opportunity to criticize policies and actions of the ruling party and offer alternative suggestions. 4.This system paves way for political stability by reducing ethnic rivalries and tribalism by taking care of the needs of the various groups In the society. 5.It allows the ruling party to be accountable and responsible because the electorate would know where to direct their complaints and criticism. When a ruling party falls in its expectations to the people, it risks its chance in the next election. 6.It allows peaceful change of government. This is because the opposition party acts as a very good alternative government. This in turn gives room for healthy competition. 7.A two-party system helps to protect the Interest of the minority because the opposition would always highlight the interests of the minority groups that are not adequately represented. 8.It prevents the abuse of power by the party in power for instance, any legislation that is against the interest of the people are normally thrown out during the passage of the bill in parliament through reasonable and constructive criticisms of the opposition party. Demerits of Two-Party System 1.Two-party system may not be suitable for a community with deep religious and ethnic problems. It may not present a wide range of choices for the electorate because the parties may exaggerate their differences and give false Impression of national unity. The interest of the minority may not be taken into consideration especially in a multi-ethnic society like T&T since it lends to divide the society into two different factions. 2. The system is often based on winner-takes-all and this can lead to exclusion of the best brain from the government. 3. A two-party system often creates chaos and violence because the ruling party may want to perpetuate itself in power and use all power at its disposal. This unhealthy rivalry does not augur well for the peace and development of any nation. 4.The system is highly expensive when it comes to issues of funds and time particularly during elections. 5.It does not give opportunity for growth and development of minor political parties. MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM 1.A multi-party system is a political system where there are many political parties big and small contesting in an election with the motive of winning political power and subsequently governing the country. In a multi-party system, it is very rare that a single-party wins a clear-cut majority to gain the control of the parliament, so, a coalition government is invariably inevitable. Each of these parties stands a good chance of winning several seats in the parliament. It is interesting to note that minor political parties can emerge shortly before the election and disappear immediately after election. The crucial thing is that more than three or more political parties can come together to form a coalition government. These parties have narrow interests, L.e., no broad-based Ideology and at times they operate Ilke Interest groups. Countries that operate multi-party systems include Germany, Italy, France, Sweden, Switzerland, India, Iceland, Belgium. Features of Multi-Party System 1. Generally, in a multi-party system, there are several political parties contesting for the control of state power and the chances of a sole party winning a clear majority is unlikely, therefore, there is a necessity for a coalition government. One glaring feature of this system is that powers are shared between various parties in the coalition. 2.Each political party represents or stands for a clear definite principle and may find it difficult to compromise in respect of such principle. 3.Voters Join the party which represents their interest and opinions. 4. There is an abundant choice of programmes that voters can choose from. Merits of Multi-Party System 1.This system gives ample opportunity for voters to choose any political party that represents their opinions, beliefs and even ideology. 2.Voters can equally make choices between candidates and programmes of each party. 3.It prevents arbitrary rule and dictatorship since no party is strong enough to suppress other political parties. 4.Multi-party system gives opportunity for political opponents to express their views and contribute to the debate in the parliament. 5.It widens the political education of the voters. 6.Multi-party system caters for the interest of both majority and the minority of the people and allays the fears of the minority. 7. It allows the citizens of a country to exercise their fundamental human right of political association rather than being lumped together in a one-party system and it gives the opportunity for freedom of expression. 8.This system encourages the formation of coalition governments because no party can win on its own. 9.It also encourages democratic principles and rule of law. Demerits of Multi-Party System 1. It produces an unstable government since it is a product of necessity and when any party in the coalition feels dissatisfied with such an alliance, it may break up easily. 2. It can even make the electorates confused when it comes to making meaningful choices between candidates and programmes of several political parties. 3.In a multi-party system, it is difficult to hold any party responsible and accountable for their actions in the parliament. 4.Decision making is often slow because the executive always looks at Issues from the angle of their parties. 5.Multi-party system breeds weak and ineffective political parties that are localized In nature and character since some of them are based on ethnicism, religion and sectionalism instead of national unity. MEANING AND FEATURES OF PRESSURE GROUP INTRODUCTION 1.Every group in the society has its-own interest to protect and preserve so also individuals. Bentley (1908), the author of group theory remarked that "a group means a certain portion of men of a society taken, however not as a physical mass cut off from other masses of men but as a mass of activity which does not preclude the men who participate in it from participating likewise in many other group activities" (Johari, J.C. 2011:444). All groups in the society participate in diverse activities to further their Interests. Truman said that "a group is a collection of individuals who on the basis of one or more shared attitudes makes certain claims upon other groups in the society for the establishment, maintenance or enhancement of forms of behavior that are implied in the shared attitude. Features of Pressure Groups 1.They influence the government but do not form a government. 2. Pressure groups have limited objectives, and they pursue the objectives with all vigor. 3.It may support candidates nominated for election, but it does not contest any election or nominate candidates for elections. 4.Pressure groups can use any legitimate means at its disposal in order to achieve its objectives 5.They exert pressure on legislators to vote in a way it sult the association and if such legislator fails, anytime he seeks renomination, he will not be nominated. 6.The size of groups differs due to several factors like numbers of members, intensity and type of organizations. 7.They are persuasive organizations that are common in all modern political systems. The number of them that can be found in any political system depends on various factors such as the degree of openness of the political system, its level of development, system of government, prevailing political culture. An open political system is one that recognises and protects the fundamental right of the citizen and paves the way for the people to exercise the fundamental rights publicly. 8.They blend and modify public opinion and make it more exact. If the opinion is specific and exact, the easier it is for the political leaders to act on the wishes of the people. Some people even refer to this as Interest articulation. 9.The activities of pressure groups are usually regarded with suspicion, while trade unions are viewed with greater suspicion than employers' association or union simply because orientation of business elites and governing elites are not In the same direction. Functions of Pressure Groups 1.They serve as a powerful link between the people and the government. This is done by officials of the pressure group consulting with the representatives of the government and presenting the views/demands of the people to the representative of the government. 2.They assist the government in the execution of some of its functions. Government do delegate pressure groups that are experts in certain fields to handle its programme. 3.Pressure groups help legislators and officials of the government with statistical data, inputs on some Important and technical Issues which they cannot ordinarily handle for the implementation of government policies. 4. Even though pressure groups are not elected by the people, they give support to the government so that they may be acceptable by the people. 5.They criticize unpopular government policies and prevent maladministration and check dictatorial tendencies of any government. 6.They educate people about their fundamental rights and also provide political education to the public and in some cases; they promote welfare services to the public. 7.They also represent diverse interests of the society since membership of such groups comes from different backgrounds which may not be represented in the government. 8.Pressure group may influence members of the executives, who have law making Input and who can rightly decide the effectiveness of law enforcement. 9.They can even assist nominated candidates before election with funds, time and election materials, etc. TECHNIQUES USED BY PRESSURE GROUPS 1.Lobbying Lobbying means to try and influence a politician or the government, for example to persuade them to support or oppose a change in the law. Lobbying is a crucial method used by pressure groups. They lobby those that are directly concerned with their demands, may be a legislator or a minister. They can even go through their sponsors so that their needs or demands can be met. This can also be done through sponsoring bills in the legislative assembly, or it may take the form of testifying before a relevant committee or even talking to Individuals in the parliament to facilitate easy passage of a bill. They may even circulate leaflets, circulars, etc, to create a favorable atmosphere for the proposal they want approval for. This also includes direct personal contact by the group to convince public officials to support their claims or demands. Pressure Groups may even lobby through advertisement in popular mass media to create and curry the favour of the public on topical policy Issues. Publicity and Propaganda Pressure groups can use mass media like the press, radio, television, bulletins, and handbills to persuade those in authority to accede to their demands. It is of interest to note that all the major professional organizations In the associational pressure group normally use this medium. Strikes/Boycott This is an effective method that pressure groups use to force the government or those in authority to yield to the demands of their members. It is the last resort. In this situation, the employees would down tools and refuse to carry out their legitimate duties. First, they give the concerned group notice of strike and when nothing concrete is done, they may give an ultimatum again before finally embarking on strike action. Public and Peaceful Demonstrations 1.Pressure groups have used this method successfully thereby forcing the government to drop certain policies or the other; the groups normally organise themselves in strategic locations with their members. Riots/Violence When pressure groups have used all known methods at their disposal and no meaningful success is achieved regarding their goals and objectives, they may at times resort to violence. The violence can take several forms. It can be arson, destruction of property, etc. Violence Is most probably due to lack of patience among the leaders of the pressure groups or Insensitivity on the part of those in authority to yield to the demands of the groups. But destruction and arson are not solutions to any disagreement. Solutions lie in persistent dialogue to be able to reach a level of compromise and understanding. Other techniques of pressure groups Include underground activities of the press. The printed media like magazines, newspapers can go underground and print whatever it feels appropriate, and the government will be all out for them. Factors That Can Ald Operation Of Pressure Groups 1. If pressure groups are well organized with good strategies, they will make a good Impact on the society and the government will accord them due recognition and may consider their demands. Availability of funds is also crucial for execution of the plans and working of the pressure group. They require money to print their aims and objectives, maintain their offices, and pay their staff. 2.Effective and dynamic leaders are important for the successful operation of pressure groups. Leaders that can make impact and contribute meaningfully to issues at stake, leaders who will not compromise with those in positions of authority and betray the confidence reposed on them by their members; leaders that are dedicated to the goals and aspirations of the groups. The importance of effective and bold leadership in the operations or working of pressure groups cannot be overemphasized. 3.Other factors include the attitude of the government of the day towards the various pressure groups. If the government of the day is democratic and tolerant of the activities of pressure groups, they will go a long way in the pursuit of their objectives, enhance and promote the welfare of their members. Constraints on the Power of Pressure Group 1.Pressure groups may be unable to perform their operations successfully due to several factors. They may not be able to properly articulate their aims and objectives if they lack cohesion and effective mobilisation of members. The group goal and objective may not be clearly stated, and it will be difficult for members of the public to embrace the activities of such groups. Poorly organized groups are not likely to have large followership and localized pressure groups would equally suffer the same fate. The political culture in which pressure groups operates is very crucial 2. The methods and techniques that pressure groups may choose to advance and promote their objectives are limited to the acceptable prevailing cultures of the community. Lack of unity and disciplined leadership of the pressure groups seriously limit the operation and success of the groups. Comparison of Pressure Groups and Political Parties 1. It is said that pressure groups try to Influence people who have the power to make decisions on behalf of the people. They do not look for political office for themselves but try to Influence decision makers while political parties struggle to win elections with the motive of forming the government and controlling state power. 2.Pressure groups fight for the protection and promotion of specific narrow interests like better conditions of service, reduction in the prices of agricultural commodities, etc. Political parties' aggregate Interest of everybody in the state, l.e., farmers, businessmen, lawyers, accountant, doctors and others in the society. 3.Political parties conduct their affairs openly while pressure groups Indulge themselves in a "hide and seek" game. Topic 7 THE BRITISH SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT 1. Britain is a unitary state with devolution, is governed within the framework of a parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch, currently King Charles III, is the head of state and the prime minister of the United Kingdom, currently Sir Keir Starmer, is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the British government, on behalf of and by the consent of the monarch, as well as by the devolved governments of Scotland and Wales, and the Northern Ireland Executive. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, as well as in the Scottish parliament and Welsh and Northern Ireland assemblies. The Judiciary is Independent of the executive and the legislature. 2.The highest court is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The growing power of parliament against the monarch in the 17th century was reflected on the development of more organized political parties. This feature was to characterize the future of the British two-party political system, in which political power has shifted between two major parties. The UK political system is a multi-party system. Since the 1920s, the two largest political parties have been the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Before the Labour Party rose in British politics, the Liberal Party was the other major political party along with the Conservatives. BRITISH SOURCES OF AUTHORITY 1. The British system of government operates without a written constitution. 2. There are four sources of authority which are a. Constitutional Conventions; b. Acts of Parliament; c. Opinions of judges; d. Opinions of constitutional scholars. 3. The doctrine of the Supremacy of Parliament applies to all laws enacted by Parliament. 4. Constitutional conventions are the core of the functioning of the system of government. THE SUPREMACY OF PARLIAMENT AND THE EUROPEAN UNION 1. The supremacy of Parliament is one of the fundamental tenets of the British Constitution and it confers supreme legislative power on Parliament. 2. The constitutional scholar A.V. Dicey spoke of "the right to make or unmake any law whatever...and...no person or body is recognised by the Law of England as having the right to override or set aside the legislation of Parliament". 3. This supremacy was challenged with the U.K.'s membership of the European Union (EU), 4. Membership of the EU together with the Introduction of the Human Rights Act 1998 diminished the doctrine of the Supremacy of Parliament. 5. The Impact of the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 is such that the UK will complete its withdrawal from the EU on 31 December 2020 providing a transition period until 31 December 2020 when EU law will cease to have effect in the UK. The British Monarchy 1. The Monarchy is the oldest form of government in the United Kingdom. In a monarchy, a king or queen is Head of State. The British monarchy is known as a constitutional monarchy. This means that, while The Sovereign is Head of State, the ability to make and pass legislation resides with an elected parliament. 2. Although the British Sovereign no longer has a political or executive role, he or she continues to play an important part in the life of the nation. As Head of State the Monarch undertakes constitutional and representative duties which have developed over one thousand years of history. In addition to these State duties, The Monarch has a less formal role as 'Head of State'. The Sovereign acts as a focus for national Identity, unity and pride; gives a sense of stability and continuity; officially recognizes success and excellence and supports the Idea of voluntary service. 3. The Monarch is chosen by a line of succession and is Head of the Church of England. The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 replaced male-preference primogeniture with absolute primogeniture for succession to the Throne for those born in line after 28 October 2011. The Act also removed the disqualification of anyone who married a Roman Catholic. All persons outside the first six in line to the Throne are now free to marry without the permission of the Monarch. The Act Implemented the terms of the Perth Agreement 2011 that was made at the CHOGM In Perth, Australia among 16 Commonwealth countries that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their Monarch (9 of these are from the Commonwealth Caribbean). 4. The monarch has several roles and duties in the United Kingdom, those aspects are represented in: The Monarch and Government. As Head of State The King has to remain strictly neutral with respect to political matters, unable to vote or stand for election. But The King does have important ceremonial and formal roles in relation to the Government of the UK The King as Sovereign is Head of the Armed Forces. 5. The Monarch is the head of the Anglican Church, Queen and the Church In the United Kingdom, The King's title Includes the words 'Defender of the Faith'. This means His Majesty has a specific role in both the Church of England and the Church of Scotland. As established Churches, they are recognised by law as the official Churches of England and Scotland, respectively. In both England and Scotland, the established Churches are subject to the regulation of law. The principle of religious toleration is fully recognised both for those of other creeds and for those without any religious beliefs. There are no established Churches in Northern Ireland nor in Wales. The British Parliament 1. The Parliament of the United Kingdom, commonly known as the UK Parliament or British Parliament, is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom, British Crown dependencies and British overseas territories. It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom (currently King Charles III() and its seat is the Palace of Westminster In the City of Westminster, one of the boroughs of the British capital, London. Sovereignty Of The Parliament: The British Parliament is Sovereign, and Its powers have often been undermined by its own acts, and it is not under rule or control of any institution whether the executive, judicial nor the Monarchy institution. 2. The parliament is bicameral, consisting of an upper house (the House of Lords) and a lower house (the House of Commons). The Sovereign forms the third component of the legislature (the Queen-in-Parliament). The House of Lords includes two different types of members: the Lords Spiritual, consisting of the most senior bishops of the Church of England, and the Lords Temporal, consisting mainly of life peers, appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister and of 92 hereditary peers, sitting either by virtue of holding a royal office, or by being elected by their fellow hereditary peers. Prior to the opening of the Supreme Court in October 2009, the House of Lords also performed a judicial role through the Law Lords. 3. The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by Acts of Union passed by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. At the start of the 19th century, Parliament was further enlarged by Acts of Union ratified by the Parliament of Great Britain and the Parliament of Ireland that abolished the latter and added 100 Irish MPs and 32 Lords to the former to create the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 formally amended the name to the "Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", five years after the secession of the Irish Free State. CABINET AND MINISTERS 1. The Prime Minister advises on the formation of the Cabinet. 2. Ministers are appointed without delay by the Monarch from among members of the House of Commons or the House of Lords on the advice of the Prime Minister and can be dismissed at any time. 3. Cabinet is governed by the doctrine of the collective responsibility of the Cabinet to Parliament through (1) the confidence rule, (li) the confidentiality rule, and, (ill) the unanimity rule. 4. Ministers are governed by the doctrine of the individual responsibility of Ministers to Parliament through (1) the advice rule, (II) the culpability rule, and, (iii) the proprietary rule. THE JUDICIARY 1. Since 1 October 2009, the United Kingdom Supreme Court has been the final court of appeal for the UK. 2. This court replaced the House of Lords as the final court of appeal. 3. The Lord Chancellor no longer plays the three-part role that he used to play before 2009. 4. In 2005 the Secretary of State for Justice became the Minister responsible for the Judiciary, in 2006, the office of Lord Speaker was created to preside over the House of Lords; and in 2009, the Lord Chief Justice replaced the Lord Chancellor as the head of the Judiciary. 5. Since 2009, the so-called Law Lords no longer sit in the House of Lords as they are now all on the bench of the UK Supreme Court. 6. Judges on the Supreme Court are appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister after the Prime Minister receives a recommendation from the Lord Chancellor who is required to convene a selection commission to advise the Lord Chancellor on an appointment to the Supreme Court. Judges serve until the age of 70. The American Presidential System 1. The American political system began as an experiment in liberty and democracy in 1776, the United States is more accurately defined as a constitutional federal republic. Constitutional refers to the fact that government in the United State is based on the ultimate power within the American system rests with the people. This power is exercised through regular scheduled elections in which voters select the President, members of Congress, and various state and local officials. These officials and their staff formulate policy. Make laws. And direct the day-to-day operations of government. 2. The US Government was founded upon the following principles: popular Sovereignty, Limited Government Separation of powers, Checks and Balances Judicial Review, and Federalism. The Executive branch is headed by the president and is independent of the legislature. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of Congress, the senate and the House of Representatives. Judicial power is exercised by the Judicial branch (or judiciary), composed of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts. The judiciary's function is to Interpret the United States Constitution as well as federal laws and regulations. This includes resolving disputes between the Executive and Legislative branches. The federal government of the United States was established by the constitution. American politics has been dominated by two parties, the Democratic Party and the Republic Party, since the American Civil War, although other parties have also existed. The American Government And Its Branches 1. The United States government is based on the principle of federalism, in which power is shared between the federal government and state governments. The details of American federalism, including what powers the federal government should have and how those powers can be exercised, have been debated ever since the adoption of the Constitution. Some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to Individuals, the states or other recognized entities. FOUNDATION OF US GOVERNMENT 1. The United States Constitution was approved by delegates to the constitutional convention in Philadelphia on 17 September, 1787. 2. The Constitution is the supreme law of the USA. 3. The Bill of Rights was ratified on 15 December 1791 and consists of the First Ten Amendments to the Constitution. 4. Any amendment to the constitution must be passed by a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Congress and approved by three-fourths of all the states of the union. 5. There have been 27 amendments to the US Constitution since its ratification in 1787. 6. The United States Supreme Court is the only entity that can determine what the words of the constitution mean. Separation of Powers: The Constitution separates the government's powers among three branches: Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. Under the separation of powers plan, each branch has its own job and powers. The Legislative Branch: Article one of the constitution grants all legislative powers of the federal government to a congress. All legislative powers herein shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Congress is a bicameral legislature. This means it is a legislature divided into two chambers or houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of two members from each state. Membership in the House of Representatives is based on population and its size is therefore not specified in the Constitution. Both the House of Representatives and the senate meet for the same two-year-term. 1.All 435 members of the House of Representatives are elected every two years on election day in November. 2. All 100 senators are not elected at the same time. 3.One-third of the Senate is elected by rotation every two years and all Senators serve for a period of six years. 4.All Senators and members of the House run for election after gaining the nomination of their party in a primary election before the general election. 5. No member of Congress can serve in the President's Cabinet unless they resign their seat in the House or the Senate. 6. No member of the President's Cabinet can be appointed without ratification by the Senate after presidential nomination. Most, not all, nominees are successful. 7. The House or the Senate perform oversight duties over the Executive branch through hearings by congressional committees. 8. Any law passed by Congress can be vetoed by the President and that veto can only be overridden by a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Congress. The Executive Branch 1. The second article of the Constitution vests the executive power in the President. It also provides for the office of vice-president. The President, assisted by the Vice-President, is surrounded by a team of experts who advise and counsel him on all matters, foreign and domestic affairs of the nation. The executive Branch is made up of thirteen Executive Departments and many agencies. Each of the departments is headed by a secretary appointed by the President with the Senate's approval. These secretaries along with the Vice President along with several other top officials make up the President's cabinet. The Cabinet is an advisory group that helps the President in making decisions and setting government policy. The Idea of a cabinet as a group of advisers to the president began with George Washington. Cabinet meetings take place in the cabinet room of the White House and are usually closed to the public news media. THE PRESIDENCY 1. The President and Vice President run as a team and are elected on the First Tuesday following the First Monday in November in a leap year. 2. The presidential nominees of each party are determined after primary elections or caucuses in the states and the candidate who has vice- presidential delegates to the quadrennial convention of their party becomes that party's nominee. 3. The presidential nominee chooses a running mate as his/her vice- presidential nominee who is then approved by the quadrennial convention of their party. 4. The winners are determined by which candidates obtain a majority of votes in the Electoral College after the vote on election day. 5. The winners may not necessarily win the popular vote even though they have won the Electoral College vote (as happened in 1824, 1876, 1888, 2000 and in 2016). 6. The President and Vice President are sworn into office at 12 noon on 20th January following the election. This is known as Inauguration Day. 7. According to the 22nd Amendment to the US Constitution, no President can serve for more than two four-year terms of office. 8. The President's Cabinet is advisory to the President and is limited to the Vice President and the heads of 15 executive departments. EXPLAINING THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE 1. All states, except Nebraska and Maine, allocate their votes on a winner-take-all basis. 2.Nebraska and Maine allocate 2 votes for the overall winner of the popular vote statewide and one vote for each House of Representatives district in their state. 3. The calculation of votes for each state is based on the size of their congressional delegation (2 senators per state + the number of House of Representatives seats). Washington, D.C. has 3 votes. 4. The Electoral College meets on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December when the electors meet in their state capitals to cast their votes. 5. The votes from the Electoral College meetings are counted by the Senate on 6 January thereafter. 6.The result of the counting of these votes is the final result of the presidential election. The Judicial Branch 1. The third branch of the American government is the judicial branch, headed by the Supreme Court which tops all federal and state jurisdictions. The federal courts have clearly defined functions. Article 3 of the constitution states the basis of the federal court system. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The first congress divided the nation into districts and created federal courts for each district. Congress has established several lower federal courts, and they are of two types: constitutional courts and legislative courts. The district courts are trial courts that hear both civil and criminal cases. Judges of the federal courts are appointed by the president with the consent of the senate. The Supreme Court 1. There are nine justices on the bench of the United States Supreme Court. 2. All Supreme Court justices are nominated by the President and ratified by the Senate. 3.There is no retirement age. Supreme Court justices retire when they are ready to retire. 4. Justices are politically appointed based on the process of presidential nomination and Senate approval; however, they serve for life. 5. Usually, any nomination of a Supreme Court justice becomes a major political event as Presidents try to leave a legacy on the court long after they have left office. 6. Major political controversies have arisen over some nominees, e.g. Robert Bork 1987 (defeated 42-59), Clarence Thomas 1991 (approved 52-48), and Brett Kavanaugh (approved 50-48). 7.William Rehnquist was nominated by President Reagan in 1986 to become Chief Justice and was confirmed by a 65-33 vote and upon his death, John Roberts was nominated as Chief Justice by President George W. Bush in 2005 and confirmed by a 78-22 vote, UK vs US Systems of Government 1. In the UK, Ministers must be drawn from Parliament. In the USA, Cabinet Secretaries cannot be drawn from the House of Representatives or the Senate. 2. In the UK, there are no further requirements for appointment of Ministers beyond royal appointment after prime ministerial advice. In the USA, Cabinet Secretaries must be nominated by the President and ratified by the Senate. 3. In the UK, there are no term limits on the Prime Minister. In the USA, there are term limits on the President. 4.In the UK, the life of parliament is fixed for 5 years, but may be altered. In the USA, Senators serve for 6 years and are elected by rotation every 2 years, while members of the House of Representatives are elected every 2 years. 5. In the UK, members of the House of Commons can shorten the life of parliament If they wish by resolution or motions of no confidence. In the USA, the life of the Congress is fixed. 6. In the UK, by convention, the Monarch will not veto legislation passed by parliament. In the USA, the President can veto legislation passed by Congress unless overridden by Congress by a two-thirds majority vote. 7. In the UK, Supreme Court judges are appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister after a recommendation from the Lord Chancellor and they serve until age 70. In the USA, Supreme Court justices are nominated by the President and ratified by the Senate, and they retire when they are ready to do so. Topic 8 : Electoral Systems A) First past-the-post B) Proportional Representation C) Second Ballot D) Mixed Systems Definitions of Elections 1.Although elections are fundamental and very common in modern political discourse and there is hardly any dispute about their meaning. They have, like many other social science concepts, been discussed from several perspectives. In what follows we shall consider some of the definitions as stated by scholars. A good one to begin with is the definition by R. Dowse and J. Hughes (1972) who assert that: Elections are one type of social mechanism, amongst others, for aggregating preferences of a particular kind. An election is, therefore, a procedure recognized by the rules of an organization, be it a state, a club, a voluntary organization or whatever, where all, or some, of the members choose a smaller number of persons to hold an office, or offices, of authority within that organization. Characteristics of Elections 1.It is quite important for the social scientist to clarify that to the extent that there are many forms of political system, ranging from monarchy, to totalitarianism, election is not, and cannot be the only way of choosing political leaders. The work, however, is made easier as it limits the scope of elections to government at the level of the state. We shall discuss the circumstances of election in government in the following part. Electoral System: Elections often hold under clearly defined electoral systems. Suffrage: The electorate does not generally include the entire population; for example, many countries prohibit those judged mentally incompetent from voting, and all jurisdictions require a minimum age for voting. Used in Democracy: Because democracy is often regarded as the government of the people by the people and for the people, election is often the main mechanism used to ensure that leadership is arrived at based on the wish of the people. Under democracy, election often means majority, mostly in number and sometimes in agreed forms of representation. In democratic systems, elections are based on certain electoral systems that are products of the evolution and history of the society. In the electoral system voting pattern, vote counting, and winner declaration are the main issues. While we can have major electoral systems as proportional and majoritarian, other ones include party-list proportional representation, additional member system, First Past the Post (otherwise called relative majority) and absolute majority. Functions of Elections a.Political Recruitment Elections provide people of a political community with the opportunity to vote and be voted for in the process of choosing representatives in government. This process is systematized, and it provides, at least in theory, a platform for fair participation of many people. Perhaps without elections, only one family or clique will dominate political offices in a political community. b. Peaceful Transfer of Power This systematization of the recruitment process in elections is open and competitive, and therefore promises to eliminate unwarranted grudges and agitation. This means that elections provide the basis for the orderly and peaceful transfer of power in a political system. c.Interest Articulation During elections people can articulate their political interest either as Individual candidates are allowed by the constitution, or as representative of a political party. Interest articulation is a very vital aspect of the workings of a political system. d.Interest Aggregation As political interests and preferences differ in politics, elections help to aggregate them in political communities. It is through elections that the views and opinions of people are organized, translated and consolidated into definitive electoral choices and mandates that will eventually produce leaders and representatives at different levels. e.Enhancement of Political Equality. Elections are very good means of bringing together the rich and the poor before the ballot box, making them equal at least for that moment, in their duties of politics. But for a mechanism like elections, the poor may never have any opportunity to mix up with the rich at all, especially in highly stratified societies. f.Citizens' Control of Government The major role which elections play is to provide means and mechanisms through which the people who are governed can influence the ways those who govern them conduct themselves. It is one sure way among-violence, in the form of riots and political assassination, and the exercise of pressure groups influence" through which, as Dowse and Hughes (1972) puts it, -the governors are controlled. g.Sense of Political Community Elections help to integrate people into a strong sense of community spirit through the Interaction it provides. This can assist people in ameliorating contradictions such as ethnicity, religious dichotomy and indigene settler rivalry as we have In Nigeria and other parts of the world. h.Political Communication Conduct of elections also ensures political communication between the citizens and those who govern them. People of a country, during electioneering campaigns have ample opportunities to ask their leaders how they have governed them over years. Without this kind of opportunity, governance will be esoteric and surreptitious, and democracy will be reduced to conspiracy. Diversity of Electoral Systems 1.There is a great diversity of electoral systems to be found in the functioning democracies of the world. 2.The rules that govern how votes are cast and seats allocated differ markedly from one country to another. 3.Applying two different formulae to the same distribution of votes with the same voter intent will produce quite different outcomes in terms of members elected for each party. Typologies Of Electoral Systems 1. Typologies of electoral systems can be based on: a. Electoral Formula which determines how votes are to be counted to declare winners or allocate seats. b. District Magnitude which refers to the number of seats per district. c. Ballot Structure which defines how voters express their choices. Electoral Formulae There are three basic electoral formulae : a. Plurality - when a candidate gets more votes Individually than each individual opponent and can win with less than 50% of the votes cast. b. Majority - a winner can only be declared when a candidate gets more than 50% of the votes cast. c. Proportionality - political parties should be represented in the Legislature in exact (or nearly exact) proportion to the votes they polled. Plurality Electoral System 1.Plurality systems are commonly known as first past-the- post. 2.To be elected, a candidate needs simply to have more individual votes than each challenger. 3. The plurality rule is often applied in single-member constituencies, but it is also used in presidential contests as well as in multi-member constituencies if so designed. First Past-the-Post 1.This system operates on the basis that the person who receives the highest single number of votes cast in a single-member constituency will be declared the winner over all other candidates. In essence, it relies upon the principle of plurality as opposed to the principle of majority. 2.Consider the following hypothetical situation showing the position of candidates of parties in terms of votes in a constituency: Party A: 5,000 votes. Party B: 4,000 votes. Party C: 3,000 votes. Party D: 2,000 votes. 1.The virtual simplicity makes the first past-the-post system very easy to operate. However, there have been criticisms of this system on the ground that the winner may not always emerge with a majority, but rather with a plurality. 2.In such cases, the will of the electorate may not be seen to be satisfied. This has led to reforms that seek to find a majority as the key to victory in all cases. 3.Not that it would be impossible to find a majority without some formula, If the first past-the-post method is to be used on a single occasion. 4.In some countries, the desire for a majority winner is more important than a simple system. Therefore, a second ballot is required in order to find a majority winner. Majority Systems 1.Requiring a majority without further specification opens the possibility of having no winner at all If there is a single-round election or a succession of indecisive elections if no candidate is eliminated. 2.That problem is solved through the holding of a second ballot where all other candidates besides the top two are eliminated and the contest is confined to two candidates only. 3.If no candidate obtains more than 50% on the first ballot, a second and final ballot is held between the two candidates who got the highest number of votes in the first round. The winner will emerge with a majority. Proportional Representation 1.There are two major types of proportional representation, namely the party list system and the single transferable vote. 2. Party List System: This system places emphasis upon the allocation of the number of seats in the Legislature to political parties contesting an election, in proportion to the votes cast for each party. To achieve this type of distribution, the total number of votes cast is divided by the total number of seats to determine the quota which will determine the allocation for each party. There are different versions of the party list system of proportional representation: a.One set of systems determines seat allocation by subtraction, while another set determines seat allocation by division. b. The ones based on subtraction are called "largest remainder systems. c.The ones based on division are called "highest average" systems and use a divisor. d.The most common "largest remainder systems are the Hare, Droop and Imperiali quotas, while the "highest average" systems use either the d'Hondt or modified Saint Lague methods of division. 1.To calculate the method of allocation, divide the number of votes cast (238,530) by the number of seats to be allocated (53) to establish the quota, In this case, the quota was 4,500. Divide the votes cast for each party by the quota to determine the individual party allocations, In this case the allocations and the remainder votes were: PPP =24 seats and 1,332 remainder PNC = 21 seats and 2,157 remainder 2. UF = 6 seats and 2,612 remainder 2.Because under the Hare system of proportional representation the parties with the largest remainders are allocated the remaining seats in accordance with the size of their remainders, the two remaining seats were allocated based on one each to the UF and the PNC (in that order). As a result, the final tally of seats for the PNC was 22 and the final tally of seats for the UF was 7. The Single Transferable Vote 1.This is based upon preferential voting whereby the voter has the option to cast a vote based on ranked preferences. 2.This type of system is used in multi-member constituencies where there Is more than one Member of Parliament (M.P.). 3.In contrast to the party list system, the voters vote for candidates and not for parties. This system is used in the Republic of Ireland. The votes are counted on first preference to determine: a.how many votes were cast. b. what the quota will be for each constituency. 1.Suppose In a three-member constituency, To first preference counting, Parties A, B, C and D obtained, respectively, 6,501; 4,201; 3,798 and 3,500 votes. The total number of votes cast is 18,000. The quota for this constituency, therefore, Is 4,501 votes (18,000/3+1 = 4,500. Then add 1 to determine the Droop quota which will be 4,501. 2.To be declared elected, a victorious candidate requires 4,501 votes as each level of preference is counted. Based on the first preference votes above, the candidate for Party A can be declared elected, so second preference votes become necessary for determining the winners of the other seats. 1.The surplus votes more than the quota from Candidate A will be transferred in accordance with the preferences of the voters shown on those excess ballot papers. 2.At the same time, the second preferences on the remaining ballot papers will be counted with the lowest ranked candidate being eliminated and their ranked votes transferred. If a candidate earns 4,501 votes on second preference, then that candidate will be declared elected. 3.If only one candidate is so elected, then any surplus votes from that candidate will be counted on third preference together with the remaining ballots, while again the lowest ranked candidate at this stage is eliminated and their ranked votes transferred. The candidate who earns 4,501 votes will be elected. 1.The single transferable vote system, thus, allows the voter much greater freedom to choose between parties based on their perception of the quality of the candidates. 2.At the same time, there are many voters who may choose a straight party line as regards preferences. 3.However, you should note that in this system no votes are wasted as the surplus votes are counted on a lower preference If no one is declared elected on a higher preference. That is, no winner on first preference means a counting of second preference votes, and so on. Mixed Systems 1.It is technically possible to mix different electoral systems to devise a hybrid, or mixed system. 2. An example of this was the proposal by the Wooding Constitution Commission for Trinidad and Tobago in their 1974 Report for a single House consisting of 72 members. 3. 36 members were to be elected by first past-the-post in geographical constituencies and another 36 members drawn from party lists on the basis of proportional representation. 4.The mixed system has been used in local government elections in Trinidad and Tobago since 2013.

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