Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics (Second Edition) PDF

DIWA Senior High School Series: Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics (Second Edition) e-Module Philippine Copyright 2019 by DIWA LEARNING SYSTEMS INC All rights reserved. Printed in the Philippines. Editorial, design, and layout by. No part of this publication may be reproduced or tran...

DIWA Senior High School Series: Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics (Second Edition) e-Module Philippine Copyright 2019 by DIWA LEARNING SYSTEMS INC All rights reserved. Printed in the Philippines. Editorial, design, and layout by. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the copyright owner. The Web addresses referenced in this book were live and correct at the time of the book's publication but may be subject to change. Published and exclusively distributed by DIWA LEARNING SYSTEMS INC 4/F SEDCCO 1 Bldg. 120 Thailand corner Legazpi Streets Legaspi Village, 1229 Makati City, Philippines Tel. No.: (632) 893-8501 * Fax: (632) 817-8700 e-ISBN 978-971-46-1377-5 Author MARIA CARINNES P. ALEJANDRIA-GONZALEZ is an anthropologist who works on issues of global health, urban poor, and aging. She is a PhD in Anthropology candidate at the University of the Philippines (UP) – Diliman. Ms. Gonzalez is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Sociology of the University of Santo Tomas (UST). She is also the lead associate researcher for Social Health Studies of the Research Center for Social Sciences and Education of UST. She holds a master's degree in Education (major in Social Sciences) from the Palawan State University in Puerto Princesa, Palawan and a bachelor's degree in Social Sciences (major in Anthropology and Political Science) from the University of the Philippines – Baguio. Reviewer HENRY M. CUSTODIO is a program specialist of the Research and Development Department of the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), where he is tasked to handle research initiatives on food and nutrition security, agricultural marketing, agricultural value chains, inclusive growth, and cross-cutting issues in agriculture and rural development. Prior to joining SEARCA in 2012, he was a research analyst at the Asian Development Bank, where he was involved in the evaluation of the food price crisis in Southeast Asia, social safety net programs in South Asia, and greenhouse gas emissions vis-à-vis economic development and development assistance, among others. Mr. Custodio was also involved in numerous foreign-assisted project evaluation studies and basic research projects, as well as project planning and implementation around the country. He is an ongoing PhD student at the University of the Philippines – Los Baños (UPLB) under the Environmental Science program, cognate in Agricultural Economics. He obtained his master's degree in Development Management from the same university, where he was sent to Nagoya University in Japan to specialize in International Development. His baccalaureate degree is also from UPLB, where he majored in Sociology. This book is produced by an academic publisher whose quality management system is certified to ISO 9001.  Preface The world is an increasing culturally plural environment. Globalization has made territorial borders fluid and has allowed for the interaction of people coming from various walks of life. Although abounding in beneficial impacts such as more liberal economies and cultural exchanges, such interactions may also create tension among individuals who subscribe to differing sets of morals and ideals. This textbook, Diwa Senior High School Series: Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics (Second Edition), will equip you with conceptual tools from three social sciences disciplines to make sense of today's changing world. First, anthropology will provide you with its lens of cultural relativism that would enable you to be sensitive with the diversity of cultural practices and traditions of human beings. Second, sociology will engage you in a scientific discourse of social dynamics relating to human agency. Last, political science will equip you with models and conceptual frameworks that you may use to appraise political events and behaviors. The textbook will help you respond to the challenges posed by the shifting technologies, environments, and ideals in the world by providing you with information and activities that emphasize the K to 12 methods of collaboration, reflection, integration, research, and constructivism. As a book that is engineered to meet the demands of 21st century learners, the Diwa Senior High School Series: Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics (Second Edition), textbook is organized into modules that also focus on the theme of differentiated instruction. This will hopefully develop skills relevant to the current environment. The activities provided in the book will engage you to revisit data sources and apply these in your potential career, which may be in the fields of academic, technical-vocational, sports, and arts and design. Following the pedagogy of research- and outcomes- based approach, your knowledge and understanding of the modules will be assessed using tools such as performance tasks, written works, and quarterly tests. There are also culminating activities in each unit that would enhance your capacity to create new knowledge through your collaboration with your classmates. Understanding yourself within the framework of a greater society will lead to a more productive and adaptive set of behaviors that could empower you as you face the challenges of a changing world. By understanding that humans are products of their history, environment, and culture, you will be more accepting of the variation in people's characteristics and practices. This would lead you to become a more socially inclusive and global-ready individual. The Author  Table of Contents Unit I Development of Humans as Social Actors Module 1 Human Variation Module 2 Human Evolution and Culture Module 3 Anthropology and the Study of Culture Module 4 Sociology and the Study of Society Module 5 Political Science and the Study of Politics Module 6 Enculturation and Socialization Module 7 Social Organization Culminating Output Quarter Challenge Unit II Humans and Institutions Module 8 Kinship Module 9 Political and Leadership Structures Module 10 Economic Organization Module 11 Nonstate Institutions Module 12 Social and Political Stratification Module 13 Education Module 14 Religion and Belief Systems Module 15 Health Module 16 Social Change Culminating Output Quarter Challenge Bibliography  Unit Development of Humans as I Social Actors What makes us human? This is the question that this unit leads you to answer. From the physical attributes of humans to the sociocultural traits that they developed as members of a society or a community, this unit guides you through six modules on how to understand the concept of being human. By understanding our nature as human beings, you will be able to understand our reactions to varying environmental factors. The first module aids you in understanding the variations of human attributes. Although we all belong to just one species, you may have noticed that we have different physical characteristics, behavioral patterns, and languages. You will learn through this module that human identities are constructed by their affiliation and their negotiation with established structures and systems in society. The second module continues to address the question on human variation by focusing on the evolutionary processes that have determined our physical traits. The third to fifth modules provide you with conceptual tools to understanding humans as individuals and as members of groups. The third module introduces you to the concept of culture through the discipline of anthropology. The fourth module leads you to an inquiry on the concept of society through the lens of sociology. The fifth module lets you interrogate the nature of humans as political actors through the field of political science. In the sixth module, you will learn the processes by which humans acquire their sets of beliefs and practices. You will be introduced to the concepts of enculturation and socialization as processes of knowledge, values, and attitudes transfer.  Demonstrate understanding of the following: Human cultural variation, social differences, social change, and political identities Importance of studying culture, society, and politics Rationale for studying anthropology, political science, and sociology Culture and society as anthropological and sociological concepts Perspectives in or approaches to the study of culture and society (i.e., comparative, historical, structural-functional, interpretive critical) Human origins and the capacity for culture Role of culture in human adaptation Processes of cultural and sociopolitical evolution Enculturation and its effect on human adaptation Perspectives on human behavior as part of a sociopolitical community Acknowledge human cultural variation, social differences, social change, and political identities Adopt an open and critical attitude toward different social, political, and cultural phenomena through observation and reflection Appreciate the value of the disciplines of anthropology, sociology, and political science as social sciences Appreciate the nature of culture and society from the perspectives of anthropology and sociology Demonstrate a holistic understanding of culture and society Value cultural heritage and express pride of place without being ethnocentric Analyze key features of interrelationships among biological, cultural, and sociopolitical processes in human evolution that can  still be used and developed further Identify norms and values to be observed in interacting with others in society, and the consequences of ignoring these rules Assess the rules of social interaction to maintain stability of everyday life and the role of innovation in response to problems and challenges Recognize the value of human rights and promote the common good  Module Human Variation 1 At the end of this module, I can: 1. Articulate observations on human cultural variation, social differences, social change, and political identities. 2. Demonstrate curiosity and an openness to explore the origins and dynamics of culture, society, and political identity. 3. Be aware of why and how cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism. 4. Value cultural relativism and ethnocentrism. 5. Justify why race is a limited schema as a human classification tool. (Enrichment) Look at your seatmates. Notice the shape of their nose, the color of their hair, and the color (or tone) of their skin. Are theirs similar to yours? Do you speak the same language? Do you eat the same food? These are some of the questions that you could ask to see the differences among humans. As you read along this module, keep in mind this question: What makes us different? Environment and history are two of the primary factors that shape the behavior of human groups. This behavior, which serves as an adaptive tool for the varied stimuli projected by the environment, is influenced by beliefs, practices, and material possessions. Through constant practice, these sets of behavior form human traditions, which are passed on from one generation to the other. As each human group experiences differing environmental conditions, cultural variations are established. Comparing the traditions crafted by the Inuits of the Arctic Regions of Canada and the !Kung of Kalahari Desert in Namibia, you can see the stark difference in their types of clothing which are highly functional for the type of weather where they live. The Inuits who live in frigid areas of Canada wear thick layers of garment made of animal fur while the !Kung wear loose, single-layer clothes made of cotton to combat the desert heat in Africa. Fig. 1.1 (Left) Inuit children wearing clothes made of animal fur; (Right) ¡Kung bushmen wearing g-strings and shawls Inuit photo source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/lac- bac/6348404990 ¡Kung Photo source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/fvfavo/152519867 10 Reflect Upon Korean dramas, or K-dramas, became popular forms of entertainment in our country as early as 2007. With your seatmate, compare a K-drama series to a Filipino drama series that you have followed in terms of the following: 1. Roles of men and women in the show 2. Types of clothing that they wore 3. Kinds of environment that provided as the setting of the series (tropical, temperate, frigid) After your comparison, summarize in two paragraphs the similarities and differences of the two TV series. Nationality and Ethnicity The concepts of nationality and ethnicity are not interchangeable. Both, however, are capable of informing an individual's behavior and habits due to a set of cultural norms that each category provides. Nationality is the identity that is tied to being part of a nation or country—a “group of people who share the same history, traditions, and language” and who inhabits a particular territory delineated by a political border and administered by a government. Nationality can be acquired by being born in a country or through legal processes such as naturalization on citizenship. Within a nation are smaller cultural groups that share specific social environments, traditions, and histories that may not be necessarily subscribed to by mainstream society. These are called ethnic groups. There are about 180 indigenous ethnic groups in the Philippines and more than 100 tribal groups who are mostly inhabiting legally awarded ancestral domains. Beyond Walls 1.1 Go Online How Pinoy are you? Visit http://opinion.inquirer.net/column/pinoy- kasi, which features the articles of columnist and anthropologist Prof. Michael Tan. Using one article as reference, create a comic strip that highlights the Filipino trait that was discussed in this section. Apart from the varying cultural backgrounds and ethnicity, human populations also experience social differences, which include categories on gender, socioeconomic class (social class and economic status), political identity, and religious beliefs. Gender According to the World Health Organization (2013), gender “refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women.” Unlike sex which refers to the biological characteristic of humans such as male or female, gender categories are more varied, accommodating identities such as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (collectively referred to as LGBTQI), among others. In some societies, gender becomes a basis of one's identity, as social norms allow for their acceptance or neglect by the majority of the population. In cases of neglect, individuals who subscribe to alternative genders create groups and communities where they can articulate their thoughts and aspirations more openly. There are several types of gender based on a person's sexual orientation. Depending on the community, these gender identities can be further subdivided into more specific categories. The most common is heterosexual. A person with this gender is inclined to be sexually attracted to a person of the opposite sex. When a person is sexually attracted to a person of the same sex, he or she is a homosexual. A male who is romantically and sexually attracted to another male is called gay in popular culture, and a female who is romantically and sexually attracted to another female is considered a lesbian. There are some individuals who are attracted to both sexes, which make them bisexual, and there are some who are totally incapable of being attracted to any sex, thus making them asexual. Individuals who are attracted to multiple types of gender identify with the polysexual orientation, which is different from pansexual, who accommodate all types of gender. Finally, there are people whose gender identities do not match their biological identity as male or female. These people identify themselves as transgender. Their sexual orientation is not related to their genitalia, which allow them to identify with any other type of gender such as heterosexual, homosexual, pansexual, bisexual, and asexual. Under this category are people who identify themselves as transsexual. These individuals believe that the discord between their internal gender and the gender role that they have to perform can be addressed through medical sexual reassignment.  Fig. 1.2 Participants of the 2012 Pride March in Manila Source: http://gridcrosser.blogspot.com/2012/12/mix-and-march-metro-manila- colored-by.html Developments in the understanding of human diversity with regard to gender have allowed for the acceptance of the term “SOGIE” in the LGBTQI discussion. SOGIE (or sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender expression) enables for a wider and more fluid discussion of human identity. Sexual orientation refers to a person's biological identity, which may be male, female, or intersex (i.e., hermaphrodite). Gender identity is an individual's internal concept of self that may be related to being masculine, feminine, neither, or both, without strict relation to the physical characteristics that the person has. So a person could be physically male but have a female gender identity. Gender expression is how an individual chooses to present himself or herself in society. This can be observed in the choices on pronouns that they use to refer to themselves, the clothes that they wear, and the general behavior they display to signify their gender identity. Beyond Walls 1.2 Go Online  SOGIE can be quite confusing for individuals whose orientation to gender is on a normative context (e.g., being born male would immediately be equated to being masculine in gender). This link will direct you to a video lecture of Rikki Arundel on the importance of gender identity: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IFBU7h7fqLc After watching the video, get a sheet of paper and draw an item that represents a particular gender in your society (e.g., dolls for women). Below your drawing, write a paragraph that discusses your reason(s) for thinking that that particular item is exclusively related to that gender. Socioeconomic Class The concept of socioeconomic class varies between societies as the ideas associated with being poor or rich differ based on the collective experiences of individuals. As such, Filipinos who are from the Global South (developing countries) would perceive poverty differently from Singaporeans who are from the Global North (developed countries or industrialized nations). People falling into different social classes are bound to experience life differently such as in the form of transportation and the type and amount of food that they can afford and consume daily. The typical determinants of one's social status include income, value of assets and amount of savings, cultural interests and hobbies, and economic status of his or her peers and relatives. In Great Britain, a new survey revealed the fragmentation of the British traditional three-class system which includes the upper, middle, and working classes, to the seven-class system: “elite, established middle class, technical middle class, new affluent workers, traditional working class, emergent service workers, and the precariat” (Smith, 2013). This shift is primarily attributed to the diversifying global economy. This phenomenon was also observed in the United States as the predominantly middle class has been recorded to shrink in percentage as the poor grow in number. Big Idea  The world is polarized due to socioeconomic and political inequalities. In the Philippines, our indicators of social class are different, given the economic and political context in which our country is in. Although government surveys take into account the factors enumerated earlier such as income and value of assets, Filipinos often describe their social class in personalized contexts. Hence, when you ask a Filipino what his or her social class is, the response can be any of the following: mahirap, medyo mayaman, sakto lang, mayaman, and the like. What Have I Learned So Far? 1. How is social class constructed? 2. What contexts allowed for the change in Great Britain's social class dynamics? 3. Referring to the cited social categories used among Filipinos, classify your family's status. Explain. Beyond Walls 1.3 Go Online In the United States, social inequality remains a pervading issue that transcends various segments of American society. This link will lead you to an article that discusses the factors and contexts that inform the growing inequality in the US: http://money.cnn.com/2016/12/22/news/economy/us-inequality-worse/ After reading the article, create a poster that will inform the reader on social inequality, points for activism, and vulnerable groups. Political Identity  Political identity as a social category refers to the set of attitudes and practices that an individual adheres to in relation to the political systems and actors within his or her society. Petryna (2001) discussed the context of “biological citizenship” as an adaptive tool utilized by individuals who were biologically affected by the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986. She argued: “the damaged biology of a population has become the grounds for social membership and the basis for staking citizenship claims.” Political parties in the Philippines such as Ang Ladlad, a party that negotiates for the welfare of the LGBTQI community, and Kabataan, a party that promotes youth empowerment, are examples of how sectors in our society use their identities as political vehicles to negotiate for, and lobby their needs. Religion can also offer political identity to its followers. Members of the church Iglesia ni Cristo promote the practice of block voting, a church-based exercise of one's right to suffrage wherein the ministers and the members agree to unanimously vote for a chosen candidate or political party lineup. In a more rigid context, an individual can acquire political identity by subscribing to a political belief such as communism, democracy, or socialism. Fig 1.3. (Left) Iglesia ni Cristo sample ballot given to its members for the 2016 National Elections; (Right) preelection meeting between then presidential candidate Rodrigo Duterte and INC executive minister Eduardo Manalo Source: Twitter and Eagle News Religion The belief in the supernatural has been one of the universal preoccupations of humans as early as 60 000 years ago. The earliest forms of religion revolved around making sense of natural occurrences such as extreme weather conditions, natural and man-made calamities, sickness, and even death. Early human art exuded ancient forms of superstitions that included beliefs in the afterlife and that of superhuman capabilities. The Sorcerer of Les Gabillou is an example of a Paleolithic artwork. This artwork depicts the supernatural ability of a religious practitioner to become half-man and half-animal. Fig.1.4. Early Paleolithic art of a half-human, half-animal found in France Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic#/media/File:Gabillou_Sorcier.png  Today, religion has evolved to promote far complex forms of understanding human nature, the afterlife, and natural events. Some are monotheistic, believing in the existence of one god, whereas others are polytheistic, believing in the existence of multiple gods. Some religions have gods arranged in a hierarchy, and others have gods that equally coexist. What must be noted is that religion is a mirror of the society that affiliates with it, such that a society with a strong caste system such as India is expected to have a set of gods that are placed in a hierarchical system as well. Here is a graphical distribution of the world's population by its religious affiliations. Fig. 1.5 A 2016 map of the world (colored based on religious orientation of the population) Source: https://carfleo.com/2016/01/25/world-religions-links-general/ Beyond Walls 1.4 Read and Answer The interrelationship between religious orientation and warfare has been well documented in human history. From the French Wars of Religions in the 16th century between Catholics and Protestants, to the  Bosnian War between 1992 and 1995 among Muslims, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians, religion has played a vital role in informing decisions of populations to go to war. Visit this link to read an article on the war at the Gaza Strip between Israelis and Palestinians: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel /11006125/Gaza-explained-Why-Israel-and-Palestinians-are- in-constant-conflict-over-Gaza.html After reading the article, answer the following questions, and discuss your answers with your classmates: 1. How did religion influence the conflict in the region? 2. How was religious conflict turned to political aggression? Exceptionality/Non-exceptionality Some individuals do not conform to behavioral or cognitive norms, not because they intend to deviate, but because they are exceptional. The concept of exceptionality leans on the non-average capacity of an individual. This could be understood in a spectrum of capabilities, wherein you have the geniuses in one extreme and you have the disabled and challenged in the other extreme. Such characteristics would place an individual in compromising situations as the environment demands conformity. Issues relating to both statuses can range from having fewer employment opportunities due to being physically disabled to not reaching one's full capacity due to the lack of advanced mechanisms to support an exceptional talent. Big Idea Human variation is predicated by the plurality of cultural and environmental conditions. Cultural Variation  The variation in human conditions promotes diversity and plurality in cultural traditions. This could lead to discrimination and ostracism. Ethnocentrism is a perspective that promotes an individual's culture as the most efficient and superior; hence, the individual who exhibits ethnocentrism feels that his or her culture is the most appropriate as compared with other cultures. This may also manifest in a belief that one's set of morals is better than those of others, such that one's religion is accepted as a truer form of belief system. This perspective evaluates a particular culture based on the observer's understanding of the other, which is often problematic, given the bias of the observer due to his or her own culture's preconditioning. Using this perspective as a lens in understanding society is problematic on the basis that each culture is efficient and appropriate for the environment where it finds its practice. For example, forcing the Maasais to wear fur-based clothing that Eskimos typically wear would be inappropriate due to the difference in the environments where these two groups live. When faced with a plurality of culture, you may adapt the conceptual tool of cultural relativism, which promotes the perspective that cultures must be understood in the context of their locality. Using this perspective makes you tolerant of the differing attitudes and practices of others—a characteristic that is essential to a highly globalized world that we live in today. Traditions, social norms, and political identities are not static because they are often affected by the environment. Social change occurs as human populations adapt to their dynamic surroundings. Other factors that trigger social change include technology and globalization. This will be further discussed in Module 15. Ferraro and Andretta advocate a more culturally relative approach to understanding other human groups. They said that one can build emotional resilience by understanding that others do not necessarily mean to offend, but that their actions are guided by their own cultural norms. And with such a predisposition, one can balance the contradictions within his or her team and appreciate other perspectives that can enhance the potential for collaboration.  Another problematic form of classification for human groups is rooted in race. From the 17th to the early 19th century, the term race was used as a form of human classification that was based on observable human traits and characteristics. Some of the earlier categories include Caucasoid, Australoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid. These categories merely reflect the differences in skin color, size of skull, height, body frame, and other physical characteristics. The clear delineation among these categories is blurred by the constant intermarriages among peoples of various ethnic origins producing offspring who possess mixed traits from the parents. In the Philippines, an individual whose parents have different ethno-biological backgrounds is often dubbed as a mestiza (female) or a mestizo (male). Due to the social contexts associated with racial groups, discrimination was further exacerbated. In countries that practiced slavery of African populations, racial discrimination against individuals of African descent by the colonizers became a highly observable phenomenon. From racial slurs to unequal access, and to benefits and opportunities, racism creates a deep social cleavage that further marginalizes the subjects of racial oppression. In a 2016 study of the Sentencing Project through Dr. Nellis, it was noted that, “African Americans are incarcerated in state prisons at a rate that is 5.1 times the imprisonment of whites. In five states (Iowa, Minnesota, New Jersey, Vermont, and Wisconsin), the disparity is more than 10 to 1.” This vulnerability to incarceration is attributed to the distinctly lower household income of black families than their white counterparts. Such economic conditioning creates ripples in other facets of their lives, which include lesser access to good education, poor housing conditions, and lesser to no access to health care. Filipinos have also been subject to various forms of racism, having been subjected to three major colonizing powers (Spanish, American, and Japanese). These forms of racism include segregated spaces, disqualification from potential work despite qualifications, and inaccessibility to quality education. Big Idea  The differences among human populations are socially and systemically constructed. The question that everyone must answer in relation to racial variation is this: Are humans really different from one another, or are our differences just skin-deep? Some scholars would argue that there should be biological egalitarianism among humans to prevent further racism. This perspective promotes the equality of our biological makeup despite our ancestry. Beyond Walls 1.5 Apply It in Real Life Track: Arts and Design You are a fashion designer who will be exhibiting a collection at this year's Fashion Week. The theme for this year is “Overlapping Textiles: Intercultural Designs.” The show aims to present how local designs and textiles have accommodated the techniques of other countries. As a designer from the Philippines, create a clothing line that represents the fusion of Philippine materials with those of another Asian country. You need to produce a visual representation of the clothing line and discuss its influences to a set of judges who will evaluate your presentation based on creativity, cultural relevance, and clarity of and relevance to the theme. Extend Your Knowledge Societies are being polarized by the subscription of their population to extremist leanings that are rooted on human variation. In the US, the neo- Nazi group has continuously assaulted, verbally and physically, individuals that do not conform to the group's concept of racial purity. This group is very much wary of immigrants and colored people. This reading introduces you to a group called the Black Bloc, which fundamentally opposes the Neo-Nazi movement: http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-black-bloc- 20170212-story.html Essential Learning An understanding and acceptance of human variation as a product of cultural and environmental plurality creates space for greater collaboration among populations and limits the possibility of developing hostile intentions toward dissimilar groups. In an increasingly globalized world, extremism and exclusivity are two traits that are proven non- beneficial, whereas a culturally relative approach is sure to promote collaboration and communication across populations.  Module Human Evolution and Culture 2 At the end of this module, I can: 1. Trace the biological and cultural evolution from early to modern humans. 2. Explore the significance of human material remains as pieces of artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural and social, political, and economic processes. 3. Recognize national, local, and specialized museums, and archaeological and historical sites as venues to appreciate and reflect on the complexities of biocultural and social evolution as part of being and becoming human. 4. Identify forms of tangible and intangible heritage, and the threats to these. Cultural Beginnings Culture is defined as “that complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of a society” (Tylor, 2010). It is a by-product of the attempt of humans to survive their environment and to compensate for their biological characteristics and limitations. To understand culture, you need to know the following: 1. Biological capacity of humans for culture 2. Place of humans in the animal kingdom 3. How humans came to develop early forms of culture Biological Capacity for Culture  The need to scrutinize human anatomy to understand culture is indispensable. Physical and cultural anthropologists argue that we could trace how culture became possible by understanding our biological makeup. 1. Our thinking capacity The primary biological component of humans that allowed for culture is the developed brain. It has the necessary parts for facilitating pertinent skills such as speaking, touching, feeling, seeing, and smelling. Fig. 2.1. The human brain and its parts The frontal lobe and the motor cortex function for cognition and motor abilities. The parietal lobe allows for touch and taste abilities. The temporal lobe allows for hearing skills. The occipital lobe allows for visual skills. Compared with other primates, humans have a larger brain, weighing 1.4 kg. Chimpanzees have a brain weighing only 420 g, and those of gorillas weigh 500 g. Due to the size of their brain and the complexity of its parts, humans were able to create survival skills that helped them adapt to their environment and outlive their less adaptive biological relatives. Fig. 2.2. Brain size comparison among primates 2. Our speaking capacity As the brain is the primary source of humans' capacity to comprehend sound and provide meaning to it, the vocal tract acts as the mechanism by which sounds are produced and reproduced to transmit ideas and values. Notice in Figure 2.3 that the vocal tract of a human is longer than that of a chimpanzee. A longer vocal tract means that there is a longer vibration surface, allowing humans to produce a wider array of sounds than chimpanzees. The tongue of humans is also more flexible than that of a chimpanzee, allowing for more control in making sounds.  Fig. 2.3. Vocal tract comparison between a chimpanzee (left) and a human (right). Traditional scientific belief pegs the development of language at 100 000 years ago, making it an exclusive trait of the modern human. However, Dan Dediu from the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in the Netherlands argued that the origin of language may be rooted as far back as 500 000 years ago, based on the discovered bone fragment from an ancestor known as Homo heidelbergensis. This fossil is a hyoid bone which is “crucial for speaking as it supports the root of the tongue” (Hogenboom, 2013). Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals), our nearest relative, was also found to have the same bone, which functions similarly as ours. Hence, current arguments include that Neanderthals were a truly human species. 3. Our gripping capacity Look at your hands. Notice how your thumb relates with your other fingers. This capacity to directly oppose your thumb with your other fingers is an exclusive trait of humans. It allowed us to have a finer grip. Thus, we have the capability to craft materials with precision.  Fig.2.4. Hands of selected primates Reflect Upon Given the contemporary behavior of humans, project a potential biological development that may occur to our species and its possible functions. The hand of a human has digits (fingers) that are straight, as compared with the curved ones of the other primates. Notice that the thumb of the human is proportionately longer than those of the other primates. These characteristics of the human hand allow for two types of grip: power and precision. Power grip enables humans to wrap the thumb and fingers on an object; it became the cornerstone of our capacity to hold tools firmly for hunting and other activities. Precision grip enables humans to hold and pick objects steadily using their fingers. This capacity is crucial for tool-making activities. 4. Our walking/standing capacity Primates have two forms of locomotion: bipedalism and quadropedalism. Bipedalism is the capacity to walk and stand on two feet, whereas quadropedalism uses all four limbs. Although apes are semi- bipedal, humans are the only fully bipedal primates. Being bipedal, humans gained more capacity to move while carrying objects with their free hands. This is an important trait, as it gave humans more productivity with their hands. Apart from this, humans gained a more efficient form of locomotion suitable for hunting and foraging. Big Idea Cultural development is predicated by the physical development of humans. What Have I Learned So Far? 1. How was culture developed through the physical changes that occurred in early humans? 2. Why is bidepalism an important development in the physical capacity of humans? 3. Why is it important to study human evolution? Human Origins and the Capacity for Culture Fig. 2.5. Timeline of human evolution Our evolution toward humanity as we know it has been a long journey of survival against the elements of the environment and against competing species. As our ancestors evolved biologically in response to their environment, they have also developed cultural technologies that aided them to efficiently obtain food and deter predators. Archaeologists refer to these early traditions as stone tool industries, instead of culture, as the material products of these periods merely display the methods used by early humans in creating tools and not the modern context by which we define it. It is believed that the crudest methods of toolmaking may have been practiced by the earlier Australopithecines (A. afarensis and A. africanus). These methods may have involved the use of wood as digging sticks or even crude spears. Although there is no archaeological evidence to prove this claim, it is being assumed that the earlier homos had at least this capacity, which is observed among present-day chimpanzees. Some contest this perspective, arguing that the evidence of stone tool usage found in the Dikika area in Ethiopia puts the timeframe to 3.4 million years ago, the period of the Australopithecines. These pieces of evidence include grooved and fractured bone fossils. However, as the pieces of evidence are not as conclusive as the other discoveries, current archaeological and anthropological timelines suggest that toolmaking started 2.6 million years ago. The Oldowan Industry The Oldowan industry, a stone tool industry, is characterized by the use of “hard water-worn creek cobbles made out of volcanic rock” (O'Neil, 2012). These raw materials were then made into tools through percussion flaking, which is a process involving the systematic collision of a hammer stone with a core stone. The impact of the collision produces a core tool (used for general purposes) and a flake tool (used as a knife). Supporting the existence of this industry is the evidence found by Mary and Louis Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, which was dated at 2.6 million years ago. This industry is known to have been used by Homo habilis.  Fig.2.6. Percussion flaking method These forms of technology allowed for the species to “butcher large animals, because human teeth and fingers are totally inadequate for cutting through thick skins and slicing off pieces of meat. Evidence of their use in this manner can be seen in cut marks that still are visible on bones and it improved their food gathering skills using the ‘hammering, digging, and chopping implements’” (O'Neil, 2012). From Africa, this industry spread to Europe and Asia during the migration of Homo erectus, who acquired it from Homo habilis within 1.9– 1.8 million years ago. By 1.8–1.6 million years ago, the Oldowan industry has already reached Java, Indonesia, and Northern China. The Acheulian Industry Homo erectus developed a more complex industry from what they inherited from Homo habilis. Using the same process of percussion flaking, Homo erectus created hand axes that were bifacial, shaped in both sides, and with straighter and sharper edges. Some archaeologists contest the general label of “hand axes,” as the stone implements may have been used in different context. However, it is still generally accepted that these stone implements were used in multiple activities such as light chopping of wood, digging up roots and bulbs, butchering animals, and cracking nuts and small bones. Tools that were made were kept and not disposed of like the tools in the Oldowan industry, as the tools of the latter set were more useful due to their generic application. Homo erectus made other tools such as “choppers, cleavers, and hammers as well as flakes used as knives and scrapers” (O'Neil, 2012). Fig. 2.7. Bifacial stone tool from the Acheulian industry Source: http://humanevolutionb36.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/6/2/12623644/326059742. jpg This industry was named after Saint Acheul, a patron saint in southwest France, as these artifacts were discovered in the area. The artifacts date to 1.5 million years ago. Although this industry is believed to have originated in East Africa, scholars argue that its extensive use may have been out of Africa as Homo erectus invented this industry and brought it to Europe 900 000–500 000 years ago and to China 800 000 years ago. As no evidence is found in other parts of Asia signifying the usage of this industry, scholars proposed that the region may have accommodated an industry that used perishable materials such as bamboo and other trees. The Mousterian Industry This industry was developed by Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals) in Europe and West Asia between 300 000 and 30 000 years ago. This industry was named after a site in France called Le Moustier, where evidence was uncovered in 1860. The tools from this industry combined Acheulian industry techniques with the Levalloisian technique, which involved the use of a premade core tool and the extraction of a flake tool that has sharpened edges. This type of tool is very efficient as all the sides of the flake tool are sharpened and, due to the reduction in size, more handy. Fig. 2.8. A Mousterian tool Source: http://www.internetlooks.com/mousteriantool.jpg Evidence of this industry dating back 100 000 years was also found in Northern Africa and West Asia, where modern humans, such as that of Qafze, migrated. Most archaeologists hypothesize that this industry could be an evidence of acculturation of modern humans with their Neanderthal relatives.  Fig. 2.9. Stone tool development Source: http://images.en.yibada.com/data/images/full/30307/hominin-stone-tools- millions-of-years-old.jpg You can see that the tools in Figure 2.9 are different in terms of size, shape, and sharpened sides. These differences are primarily due to the shifting needs of the users who were adapting to their environment as they addressed their need for food and security. It could also be said that these are pieces of evidence of the development of tradition, as one efficient trait is borrowed or passed on to the next generation or group of species. By the end of the Paleolithic period, early humans have been engaged in proto-culture type of industries wherein they did not just create tools but also started creating art and other symbolic materials. For the purposes of our discussion, two industries shall be discussed: Aurignacian and Magdalenian. The Aurignacian Industry This industry was mainly present in Europe and southwest Asia from 45 000 to 35 000 years ago. The term Aurignacian was derived from Aurignac, an area in France where the evidence for this industry was found. Users of this industry used raw materials such as flint, animal bones, and antlers. The method they employed in creating tools such as fine blades was similar to the one used in the Mousterian industry. Apart from a more advanced toolmaking industry, what made this industry a cultural milestone for the modern humans in Europe is their development of self-awareness. This development was projected through cave paintings and the fabrication of accessories such as figurines, bracelets, and beads. The cave paintings found in the El Castillo Cave in Cantabaria, Spain provide us with a glimpse of the environment that the early humans lived in. Most of the paintings are that of the animals that existed at that time. Fig. 2.10. Cave painting of a bison in El Castillo Cave Source: https://en.wikipedia.Org/wiki/Cave_painting#/media/File:AltamiraBison.jpg Apart from the animal-themed figurines, archaeologists also unearthed human-inspired figurines. Figure 2.11 shows the Venus of Schelklingen, which is also called the Venus of Hohle Fels. This figurine was sculpted from a woolly mammoth tusk. Emphasis was also made by the artisan on several parts of the body such as the breasts and the hips. Scholars theorize that this emphasis may be due to the importance of these parts in childbearing or child-rearing.  Fig. 2.11. The Venus of Hohle Fels Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus_of_Hohle_Fels#/media/File:Venus-of- Schelklingen.jpg The earliest evidence of music appreciation was also related to this period through the discovery of a bone flute in Hohle Fels, Germany. Fig. 2.12. The Hohle Fels bone flute Source: https://upload.wikimedia.Org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Flauta_paleol%C3%A Dtica.jpg The Magdalenian Industry This industry saw the end of the Paleolithic period as it transformed to the Neolithic period. The industry was named after the La Madeleine site in Dordogne, France. This industry, which is also a proto-culture used by the early humans, was defined by several revolutionary advancements in technology such as the creation of microliths from flint, bone, antler, and ivory. Apart from functional tools which were at times beautified by artistic engravings, the early humans during this period were engrossed in creating figurines, personal adornments, and other forms of mobiliary art. A defining method used in toolmaking during this period was the application of heat on the material prior to the flaking process. This was done by casting the raw material on fire, which allowed for a more precise cut upon flaking. The creation of specialized weapons, such as barbed harpoons, is evidence of the growing sophistication of the hunting skills and technology of the early humans. Fig. 2.13. Barbed harpoons dated to 13 000 years ago Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flickr_- _Wikimedia_France_-_MDL.99.8.10.jpg/480px-Flickr_-_Wikimedia_France_- _MDL.99.8.10.jpg  Another cultural milestone for the users of this industry was the use of temporary man-made shelters such as tents made of animal skin. Although the use of rock shelters and caves were still predominant during this period, the creation of tents allowed the early humans to be more mobile. The technological development in this industry has allowed the early humans to have more leisure time, as evidenced by their preoccupation with decorative materials. By 10 000 BCE, this industry has spread to parts of Europe including contemporary territories such as Great Britain, Germany, Spain, and Poland. Beyond Walls 2.1 Apply It in Real Life Track: Academic You are a Paleolithic art exhibitor for a museum. With the goal of promoting Paleolithic art to the general public, your task is to create a brochure that will feature 10 of the most significant Paleolithic art pieces. This brochure will contain a picture of the art and information such as details of its discovery, associated meanings, and current significance. Your teacher will function as the museum curator who will rate your output based on quality of the brochure printing, organization, accuracy, and creativity. This task can be done in groups. What Have I Learned So Far? 1. How is percussion flaking essential to the Oldowan industry? 2. What distinguished the Aurignacian industry from the earlier industries? 3. Why is the Magdalenian industry referred to as a proto-culture of early humans? Processes of Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution In reference to cultural formation, the Paleolithic stage has provided the bases for the development of complex human groups through the establishment of culture. At this period, we must situate the early humans in terms of their physical environment. This way, we understand the succeeding adaptations that they made which revolutionized how the human species have existed in this planet. By the end of the Paleolithic period, Earth was getting warmer as the Ice Age was already at its last stages. This implies that Earth's surface was changing. The sea level was rising again as the polar caps were melting. Land surface decreased as some parts became submerged in water. The warm climate allowed for the blossoming of new plants and the extinction of others. The same phenomenon was also seen among animals. Early humans have always been dependent on the environment, which made foraging (hunting and gathering) the primary mode of subsistence. With the drastic changes in geography and food sources, early humans were once again faced with the need to adapt new strategies to survive. It was in this setting that the “Neolithic Revolution” (Childe, 1936) spread throughout the planet. The Neolithic Revolution This period is characterized by a major shift in economic subsistence of the early humans from foraging to agriculture. This dramatic shift affected the other aspects of their lifestyle, as foraging made them nomads and agriculture encouraged permanent settlement. This shift in itself changed the entire array of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and corresponding material inventions. Table 2.1. Characteristics of Paleolithic and Neolithic Societies Characteristic Paleolithic Neolithic  Characteristic Paleolithic Neolithic Tools Small and handy for Included a wider array of small mobile lifestyle and bigger tools due to sedentary lifestyle Personal properties Limited to personal Included structures (e.g., accessories and small tools houses), decorative ornaments, that could easily be carried large containers around Art Small and limited to Included the creation of personal ornaments, bigger artworks that required a longer artworks were done but not length of time and a greater within a long time frame number of people (e.g., (e.g., cave paintings) Stonehenge) Subsistence Foraging Agriculture Leadership Not rigid; based on age and Semirigid; based on legitimacy knowledge (religious beliefs, social status) Social divisions None; communal lifestyle Elite vs. working class Population size Small (30–50 people) Large (in thousands) There are generally two perspectives on the impact of the Neolithic revolution on human populations. Traditionally, it is being argued that with the development of agriculture and technology, humans were able to develop sociopolitically, as the existence of systematic food production has resulted in food surplus that enabled members of the population to indulge in self-actualizing activities such as the arts and politics. Opposing this perspective, progressive scholars argue that the same phenomenon of surplus production has had negative impacts on human populations such as social divisions, high population density, and gender inequality.  Fig. 2.14. Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England Source: http://cdn.playbuzz.com/cdn/f404a97c-5dd9-43b3-bc7f- 9f0b19b36ce9/7392bdac-72f3-4e2b-8746-dae6c02dce8e.jpg What Have I Learned So Far? 1. How is Paleolithic art different from Neolithic art? Identify five differences. 2. What are the characteristics of Neolithic tools? 3. How did agriculture influence the course of development of human populations? Early Civilization and the Rise of the State The earliest civilizations rose by the end of the Neolithic period as the complexities brought about by the shift in food production demanded a more rigid social structure that would manage the opposing perspectives of various sectors. As conflicts between groups developed and intensified, the need to create a more cohesive society became definite. Early civilizations were characterized by the presence of city-states, a system of writing, and a ceremonial center where public debates and decision-making were conducted. However, it must be noted that not all societies during this period could be considered as civilizations as not all possessed a political system that could be equated to a state. A state is a political entity that has four requisite elements: territory, sovereignty, people, and government. These elements will be further discussed in Module 5. As to how states rose, there are four primary theories. 1. Divine right theory Rulers ascended to power convinced that their right to rule is based on their filial relationship with supernatural forces and entities. The concept of the god-king that was upheld in the city of Sumer is an example. People were made subjects to these monarchs, as the latter were perceived by the former as direct descendants or representatives of their gods. 2. Force theory A group forces members of another group to subject themselves to their rules. This was observed among the Mayans, as conflict over access to rivers resulted in the subjugation of one group by another. 3. Paternalistic theory The father essentially is the leader of the first political unit, which grew as the number of the members of his family grew. This is true for highly patriarchal, maledominated societies. 4. Social contract The creation of a state was a mutual agreement between the ruler and the ruled to ensure order and security from outside threats. 5. Natural theory  Humans have an innate need to be part of a community. The Greek philosopher Aristotle described humans as “political animals,” as it is in their nature to indulge in politics. Democratization of Early Civilizations The early states were governed by a limited few who ascended to power through wealth, birth right, or religious dogma. This alienated the masses from the daily administration of rules and regulations in their society. As a result, the social cleavage in early civilizations widened and resulted in social clashes. The traditional view on the history of democracy highlights its development among the city-states of ancient Greece, around 507 BCE. It is believed that an Athenian statesman named Cleisthenes proposed demokratia as a political ideology that aimed at dispersing power from the monopoly of the elites to the masses. This allowed for the closing in of social gaps between diverging social groups. Upon its introduction, democracy in Greece was primarily about the inclusion of marginalized sectors of the society in the day-to-day operations of the government. From deciding on laws and implementing rules to deciding on court cases, the masses were given direct access to decision-making activities in the state. Although this narrowed the social gap between the rich and the poor, it did not address other issues such as gender inequality and racism. The new order allowed for the creation of a political identity and citizenship, which was exclusively ascribed to men who were born in Greece by both Greek parents. Hence, women and individuals with multicultural background were not given a seat in decision-making activities. A counter theory to the Greek or Western origins of the concept of democracy was forwarded by Keane (2009), claiming that democracy was first practiced in the Fertile Crescent region, specifically in the sacred city of Nippur. This ancient city lies in the present territories of Iraq, Iran, and Syria. The practice of democracy in this region started as early as the Old Babylonian empire days (1 894 BCE). He further argued that the idea and implementation of democracy could be traced to the Mycenaean settlements of the Peloponnese region between 1 500 and 1 200 BCE. This time frame provides a basis for his theory that democracy may have been initially practiced in West Asia and spread to other societies. Beyond Walls 2.2 Go Online The Neolithic age is a defining moment in human history because of the innovations that shifted the course of human societies. Here is a link to an online quiz on the Neolithic age. After answering the quiz, take a screen capture of your result, and show it to your teacher. http://www.funtrivia.com/playquiz/quiz3736802ac6f88.html The Legacy of Early Humans to Contemporary Population The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is the primary transnational entity that manages and negotiates matters relating to human heritage. It defined cultural heritage as follows: Cultural heritage is not limited to material manifestations, such as monuments and objects that have been preserved over time. This notion also encompasses living expressions and the traditions that countless groups and communities worldwide have inherited from their ancestors and transmit to their descendants, in most cases, orally (UNESCO, 2010). This definition provides us with a two-part meaning of cultural heritage. On one end, there is heritage being tangible in the form of structures, monuments, historical sites, and other artifacts. On the other end, there is heritage being intangible in the form of literature, oral traditions, concepts, and values. Tangible heritage could be divided into two categories: movable and immovable. The primary difference in these two categories is the size of the heritage. For example, the Stonehenge (Figure 2.14) is an immovable tangible heritage, whereas the sarcophagus of the pharaoh Tutankhamun is a movable tangible heritage.  Fig. 2.15. Sarcophagus of King Tutankhamun Source: http://www.egyptreservation.com/assets/images/ehrc/tutankhamun.jpg Movable tangible heritage pieces are often removed from the sites where they were found and transferred to museums for safekeeping and maintenance. Immovable tangible heritage pieces are often left to the elements of nature (i.e., rain, wind, sand, sun), which makes them vulnerable to decay and corrosion. This does not mean that conservation efforts are not being made. However, due to the constant exposure of these objects to these elements, conservation becomes more challenging. The Role of Museums in Preserving Human Heritage Museums are the repository of archaeological finds that allow people from the contemporary period to reconstruct the culture and environment of their ancestors. Unlike immovable tangible heritage objects that are left in the archaeological sites where they have been found, movable tangible heritage objects are often relocated to museums that have jurisdiction or at times legitimacy in housing them. Because history is encapsulated in a venue, which is the museum, ordinary people get to have an access to their ancestors' lives and environment without traveling to archaeological sites, which are often highly inaccessible. In the 2010 Conference of the Museum Association, new roles of the museums were identified, which include (1) fostering community solidarity through shared history and (2) regeneration and development of the local economy. According to the National Geographic Society, the 10 most famous museums with the biggest collection of artifacts and fossils are the following: 1. Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, USA 2. Le Louvre in Paris, France 3. The Acropolis Museum in Athens, Greece 4. State Hermitage in St. Petersburg, Russia 5. The British Museum in London, UK 6. The Prado in Madrid, Spain 7. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, New York, USA 8. The Vatican Museums in Vatican City 9. The Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy 10. Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the Netherlands However, these world renowned museums are not without controversies. For example, the British Museum has been questioned on the legitimacy of its claims of stewardship of artifacts from Egypt such as the Rosetta Stone. The Rosetta Stone is one of the most important archaeological finds in Egypt, as it allowed for the translation of the then undecipherable Egyptian hieroglyphics.  Fig. 2.16. The Rosetta Stone Source: http://www.freemaninstitute.com/NSAmuseum-RosettaStone.jpg Zahi Hawass, the head of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, have been asserting the right of Egypt to reclaim several of its artifacts being the rightful steward of these. However, the British Museum and other museums that are being criticized for this issue have not yielded, asserting that these artifacts were discovered by their citizens and are being excellently maintained and protected in their establishments. Big Idea Material culture is as significant as the intangible parts of culture in providing context to the kind of life that humans had.  In the Philippines, the key museum that houses most of the country's highly valuable artifacts is the National Museum. There are local museums in the country that were built by local governments to address the need of preserving local history and traditions. Extend Your Knowledge A key issue that cultural heritage faces is the loss of artifacts and fossils due to activities such as treasure hunting, which is predicated by individuals and organizations who have a high interest in collecting historical items. This link will lead you to the story of Apo Anno, a stolen mummy from Nabalicong Village in Benguet: http://www.aparchive.com/metadata/youtube/701834dff73771a 1b8b1b7fd1ea123c5 Essentiol Learning Contemporary human populations stand in stark contrast from our ancestors both in biological and cultural characteristics. From strict dependence on the environment for food and survival, we have now learned to manipulate it to produce things that we need. By studying the past, we were able to understand the trajectory of our species, as we combated through technology and social dynamics the harsh elements posed by our environment. A keen protection of the proofs of our past is needed to ensure that the next generations of humans will have the same privilege of knowing the process of our development as a species.  Module Anthropology and the Study of 3 Culture At the end of this module, I can: 1. Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of anthropology. 2. Explain anthropological perspectives on culture. 3. Describe culture as a complex whole. 4. Identify aspects of culture and society. 5. Raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of cultures and societies. 6. Recognize the value of anthropology for the 21st century. Introduction to Anthropology Humans studying humans. This is the field of anthropology. Unlike other disciplines of the social sciences, anthropology promotes a holistic study of humans. Derived from two Greek words antropos (human) and logos (study), anthropology seeks to answer this primary question: What does it mean to be human? This allows for an extensive and inclusive approach such that anthropology studies humans as both biological and social creatures. Biologically, it inquires on the genetic composition of humans, their relationship with other primates, and their evolution. Socially, it inquires on human behaviors, attitudes, and belief systems, which range from birth practices to burial rites. Another key element that makes anthropology holistic is its research time frame, which ranges from the evolution of humans as a species to our current development. It also studies humans from various ethnic groupings and geographic locations.  As such, anthropology can be defined as “the study of people—their origins, their development, and contemporary variations, wherever and whenever they have been found on the face of the earth” (Ember, Ember, and Peregrine, 2010). These points of inquiry are addressed by the five subdisciplines of anthropology: archaeological, cultural, linguistic, physical, and applied. Archaeology examines the remains of ancient and historical human populations to promote an understanding of how humans have adapted to their environment and developed. Cultural anthropology promotes the study of a society's culture through their belief systems, practices, and possessions. Linguistic anthropology examines the language of a group of people and its relation to their culture. Physical anthropology looks into the biological development of humans and their contemporary variation. Applied anthropology attempts to solve contemporary problems through the application of theories and approaches of the discipline. During the 19th century, anthropologists, who were often from western societies, would investigate on the system of beliefs, behavior, and material possessions of non-western, preliterate, and technologically simple societies. One of the classic studies in anthropology, Tristes Tropiques (a memoir), was made by Claude Levi-Strauss, a French anthropologist. This work presented the lives of a non-modern society in Brazil, India, and the Caribbean.  Fig. 3.1. Levi-Strauss while in the field Source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_dWq5ZrdU1_l/RoiD3oQEVkl/AAAAAAAAASI/MGJ wyZPOjxl/s320/omslag.jpg In the advent of the 21st century, human experiences diversified. As globalization's effects were felt in almost all societies, anthropology extended its study to cultural and subcultural groups in industrialized societies. Issues that were once the turf of other disciplines like deviance and social organization were studied by anthropologists. Nancy Scheper- Hughes, a professor of anthropology at University of California-Berkeley, studied the lives of survivors of organ trafficking in Brazil. In both studies, the methodology used in gathering information was crucial. Anthropologists need to establish rapport with their host societies before they can extract the life stories of people. This is important as people would not usually discuss personal matters to a stranger. After a significant amount of time, when the key informant is already accustomed to the presence of the anthropologist, questions could now be asked. Key informants are individuals in a society who have significant knowledge on the topic being studied by the anthropologist. Apart from interviews, anthropologists also use the participant- observation method. This method entails the participation of the researcher on the daily practices and rituals of the group being studied. In the cases of Levi-Strauss and Scheper-Hughes, both anthropologists stayed in the field for more than two years and lived in the communities that they were documenting. Fig 3.2. Nancy Scheper-Hughes, with an organ seller in Brazil Source: http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/04/28/celebrating-barefoot-anthropology- nancy-scheper-hughes/ What Have I Learned So Far? 1. How is anthropology different from other disciplines of social science? 2. What elements make anthropology a holistic discipline? 3. What are the methods involved in anthropological research? Culture You have always heard the word culture being used in conversations. At times, it refers to something ethnic; some people think of it as an all- encompassing term that separates humans from the rest of the animal kingdom. But what is it exactly? Culture is everything that a person learns as a member of a society. The three italicized words are important in understanding the concept of culture better. Culture is everything. It is what a person has, does, and thinks as part of society. This implies all of a person's belief system, set of behaviors, and material possessions. As such, it can be said that culture is a powerful agent in shaping the decisions and actions of humans, given a situation. It consists of the material and the nonmaterial. Material culture includes all the tangible and visible parts of culture, which include clothes, food, and even buildings. The types of material culture present in societies differ, as each society is configured by its environment and history. For example, the culinary culture of the Philippines is different from even that of its neighbors in Asia such as Japan; the difference lies in the availability of the ingredients in these areas. Presently, the difference in material culture is becoming less visible due to globalization. The gadgets that are produced in the United States become part of the Philippines through trade. Big Idea Culture is a material and cognitive survival tool for humans as they address the limits of their environment. Nonmaterial culture includes all the intangible parts of culture, which consist of values, ideas, and knowledge. Just like material culture, the belief and values systems of societies differ from one another based on their environment and history. Values are concepts that are culturally determined; it separates what is acceptable from that which is taboo. On the other hand, beliefs are culturally approved truths that deal with the specific parts of human life. For example, the belief in the phrase bahala na, which was derived from the older phrase bathala na, supports the religious values system that is present in the society. Culture is learned. Culture is a set of beliefs, attitudes, and practices that an individual learns through his or her family, school, church, and other social institutions. The process of learning your own culture is called enculturation. As you interact with your immediate family and peers, you learn the values and accepted behaviors in your society. Due to constant interaction between societies, culture can be modified to accommodate desirable traits from other cultures. This process is called acculturation. Music may be one of the most transferred forms of culture from one society to another. For example, the inclination of some Filipinos toward some elements of Korean culture has led to the acceptance of Korean pop songs despite being performed in a foreign language. When the culture of the older generation comes into conflict with the needs and realities of the younger generation, deculturation happens, where the reason for the culture has been lost and even the cultural trait itself is in the process of being forgotten. For example, the tradition in Japan that imposes immense obligation of the firstborn child to be the model child for his or her siblings has been found as an instigator of two phenomena: high child suicide rate and high educational attainment rate among adolescents. These phenomena came to place when the tradition of having a model child clashed with the reality that most couples produce only one child. This propelled the children to work as hard as an eldest child but without the privileges of being one, as they have no siblings (Miermont, 1995). Reflect Upon Today's young people have been branded as the “millennials” and members of “Generation Z” (or simply “Gen Z”) by scholars and other popular culture observers. You and your classmates belong to Gen Z.  Using a triple Venn diagram, show how your generation's supposed characteristics are different from those of millennials and members of Generation X (your parents). As the diagram demands, you must also write the commonalities that your generation shares with millennials and members of Gen X. Culture is shared. The set of behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs that a person possesses is part of a greater collection of values and ideas that is communally owned and practiced by members of a society. This implies that a particular behavior cannot be considered as a culture if there is only one person practicing it. Culture is shared intergenerationally. Hence, to share a culture, it must be taught to members of contemporary society who will, in turn, teach the younger generation. Figure 3.3 presents the process by which the culture of an individual is formed. As you can see, the individual combines the culture that his or her parents teach him or her with the culture that he or she experiences from other societies. As such, a Filipino living in another country would have a set of knowledge and behaviors that corresponds to the combined culture of his or her parents and that of the adopted society. Fig. 3.3. Diagram on culture formation Culture affects biology. Humans are born into cultures that have values on beauty and body. As such, they alter their bodies to fit into the physiological norms that are dictated by culture. Among the Mursi tribe of Ethiopia in Africa, wearing lip plates is a sign of beauty. Women are the ones who are expected to wear them to appear desirable to men.  Fig. 3.4. Lip plate as worn by a Mursi woman Source: https://Lwarosu.org/data/ic/img/0022/67/1446238679318.jpg One of the most popular traditions in China is that of foot binding among women that ensures their potential for good marriage. These women are subjected to decades of physical alteration that involves the restructuring of their feet to achieve “lotus feet,” which has the ideal length of about 7.5 centimeters (3 inches). The process begins at childhood when young females' feet are bound and broken so as to hamper further growth. In Figure 3.5 you can see that the foot of the old woman is severely disfigured. This disfigurement renders women who underwent the procedure crippled and unable to participate in many social events of their communities.  Fig. 3.5. Lotus feet in China Source: http://cdn.lolwot.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/20-fashion-trends-that- killed-and-maimed-people-4.jpg The interaction between human physiology and culture is not unilateral. As culture affects the physical traits of a person, culture can also be defined by the normative physical characteristics of humans. This can easily be seen in the material culture of a society. The designs of machines and other forms of material culture are based on the physical traits of a given population. For example, the trains that are used in our country's Metro Rail Transit (MRT) are not completely appropriate for the average Filipino physique because the hand rails are too high. The concept of space also varies per culture given the size of the inhabitants of such space. Beyond Walls 3.1 Apply It in Real Life Track: Arts and Design Students have consistently been complaining of the inappropriateness of their uniforms to the weather conditions of our country. Some have argued that their uniforms, though very fashionable, are not comfortable especially during hot and humid days.  Because you are a clothing designer, you have been tasked to develop a set of uniforms for males and females that are conducive to the weather conditions of our country. You know that some schools have more than one set of uniforms because of the various activities that the students engage in. So come up with at least three designs that have different functions. Draw your designs on sheets of bond paper and compile them in a portfolio. You should also write a brief explanation of of the features of each design. Your teacher will evaluate your designs based on creativity, feasibility or practicality, and weather adaptability. This activity can be done in groups. Culture is adaptive. Culture is a tool for survival that humans use in response to the pressures of their environment. Both the material and the nonmaterial parts of culture are influenced by the goal of humans to address their needs as dictated by their environment and their biology. The Inuits of the Arctic region are well-known for building igloos during fishing and hunting expeditions. These dome-shaped homes provide temporary shelter for the mobile group. During summer, they use tupiqs, which are tents made of animal skin, as their temporary homes. Fig. 3.6. Inuit man beside an igloo (left) and a tupiq (right) Another adaptive mechanism that is practiced in most cultures is the creation of food taboos. These are the socially constructed and accepted prohibitions on the consumption of several food items. Among the Muslims, the consumption of pork is not allowed, so cattle is one of their primary sources of meat. In India, on the other hand, cows are venerated, so consuming beef is considered taboo. According to Marvin Harris, these taboos are responses to the environmental pressures on food supply in these areas. For example, the taboo on the consumption of cows in India is rooted on the heavy drought that the country experienced which made eating the cow impractical as this animal is low-maintenance (eats grass and not human food), works the farm, and is a sustainable supply of milk. Hence, to consume cows instead of other animals would be illogical. Culture is maladaptive. Culture can also cause problems for the people who subscribe to it. These problems arise when the environment has changed and culture has remained the same. For example, the “car culture” present in most societies is getting maladaptive as the environment gets more polluted. In the Philippines, the car industry remains active despite the economic turmoil it faces as a developing country. This culture is highly maladaptive given that roads for vehicles are not wide enough. As such, traffic problems are constant in the country. However, Filipinos appreciate the value of having cars in the performance of their economic and personal functions, not to mention the feeling of prestige and sense of accomplishment that a car brings to its owner. Thus, although considered as somewhat maladaptive, car ownership is still very much popular in the Philippines.  Fig. 3.7. Traffic congestion in EDSA Source: http://maxtein.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/manila_traffic.gif Culture changes. The final characteristic of culture is that it is never static. This dynamism of culture is due to the changing needs of humans as they interpret and survive in their environment. As such, culture is continuously reinvented by people. From the clothes that we wear to the food that we eat, culture can be seen as ever changing. What Have I Learned So Far? 1. Why is culture a tool for survival? 2. How can culture pose a threat to the survival of its practitioners? 3. How can culture affect one's body? Theories on Culture  Theories are established perspectives that are essential in shaping an analysis about a particular issue. In the field of anthropology, one of the key points of discussion is the concept of culture. The following table presents seven theoretical orientations in anthropology and the ideas on culture that they espouse. Table 3.1. Comparison of Theories on Culture Theory Perspective on Culture Cultural evolutionism All cultures undergo the same development stages in the same order. The main classifications include savagery, barbarism, and civilization. Diffusionism All societies change as a result of cultural borrowing from one another. Historicism Each culture is unique and must be studied in its own context. Psychological Personality is largely seen to be the result of learning culture. anthropology Functionalism Society is thought to be like a biological organism with all of the parts interconnected. Existing institutional structures of any society are thought to perform indispensable functions, without which the society could not continue. Neo-evolutionism Culture is said to be shaped by environmental and technological conditions. Cultures evolve when people are able to increase the amount of energy under their control. Materialism Culture is the product of the “material conditions” in which a given community of people finds itself. Note: Definitions on the perspective on culture for each theory are directly lifted from Ferraro and Andreatta (2010). Anthropology in the 21st Century The key strength of anthropology as a discipline of the social science is its holistic approach to the study of humans. It is holistic in the sense that it studies (1) humans, both as biological and social creatures; (2) human behavior from the time the species existed to the time that it will desist; (3) human behavior from all regions of the world; and (4) all forms of human actions and beliefs. Such lens in understanding the human species allows anthropology to provide a comprehensive insight into the nature of humans and the trajectory of their behaviors. The discipline's arm in the applied sciences addresses the contemporary issues of a globalizing world and informs public policy. For example, ethnographic research on social issues provides international organizations and governments with key indicators for policy reforms and implementation. With the discipline's engagement with the ordinary and the mundane parts of human interaction, anthropology provides a degree of keenness to its learner such that everyday things are contextualized and understood within the frame of culture. This develops acuity among students of anthropology. Extend Your Knowledge There is a growing distribution of alternative facts and the rise of extremist beliefs that divide society. Thus, anthropology plays a crucial role in lending the public its “lens” of critical analysis. This link will lead you to an article that discusses the role of anthropology in today's world as a source of social critique: http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/653127 After reading this, write a 500-word essay on how you can use the “lens” of anthropology to address a social issue that our country is facing today. Essential Learning The field of anthropology has started as a field of inquiry on the difference between western societies and those that are technologically simple. However, through the continuous study of the variance of human populations and their cultures, anthropology transitioned into a tool for social critique in contemporary societies. Culture, being the prime unit of analysis in anthropology, has been observed as possessing universal traits — adaptive, communal, and holistic, to name a few. An understanding of cultural variation allows for a more inclusive and accepting approach in societies and their members.  Module Sociology and the Study of Society 4 At the end of this module, I can: 1. Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of sociology. 2. Describe society as a complex whole. 3. Identify aspects of culture and society. 4. Raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of societies. 5. Recognize the value of sociology for the 21st century. 6. Explain sociological perspectives on culture and society. The Sociological Perspective Another branch of the social sciences is the discipline of sociology. Categorically, sociology is the “scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture” (Calhoune, 2002). The operative term scientific refers to the methodological and theoretical rigor that sociology applies in its study of society and human behavior. The term sociology was coined by Auguste Compte in 1830 to refer to a scientific inquiry that covers human social activities. The inclination toward the use of common sense in understanding human populations and their activities was challenged by the more accurate and tested conclusions provided by the sociological perspective. In 1959, C. Wright Mills coined the phrase “sociological imagination” to refer to the ability of sociologist to understand society systematically. This ability involves the process of detaching oneself from the common understanding of society and creates an alternative approach that would situate a behavior or an event within a great social framework. Mills further argued that this imagination could be the conceptual tool by which people could unpack the maladies of their society and address them. Big Idea Sociology is a cognitive tool to understand society, institutions, and their impact on human behavior. The clamor for social understanding due to the rapid changes in social and economic structures brought upon by the French and Industrial Revolutions in Europe cemented the prominence of sociological perspective in the field of social sciences. Beyond Walls 4.1 Read and Answer The Industrial Revolution has been one of the primary catalysts for the institution of sociology as a social science discipline. Here's a link to a summary of the Industrial Revolution written for the Encyclopedia Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution After reading the article, answer the following questions: 1. What is the Industrial Revolution? 2. What are the main features of the Industrial Revolution? 3. What are the parallelisms of the first and the second Industrial Revolutions? Sociological Concepts Just like anthropology, sociology also has discipline-based concepts that aid in the understanding of human behavior and groups. The basic concept that sociology interprets is that of society. Society  Society can be defined as a product of human interactions as humans subscribe to the rules of their culture. It is an organization that caters to a human's need for belongingness in a group. The following table presents the varying understanding of society as prescribed by sociologists. Table 4.1. Comparison of Theories on Society Sociologist Perspective on Society August Comte Society as a social organism possessing a harmony of structure and function. Emile Durkheim Society as a reality in its own right. Collective consciousness is of key importance to society, which society cannot survive without. Talcott Parsons Society is a total complex of human relationships in so far as they grow out of the action in terms of means-end relationship. George Herbert Mead Society is an exchange of gestures that involves the use of symbols. Morris Ginsberg Society as a collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of behavior that marks individuals off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behavior. George Douglas Cole Society as the complex of organized associations and institutions with a community. Robert Maclver and Society as a system of usages and procedures of authority and Charles Page mutual aid of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behavior and liberties. Source: Shandra (2007) Notice that the common terms that surfaced in these definitions are the following: social, structure, function, complex, collective, relationships, symbols, exchange, behavior, institutions, and system. What Have I Learned So Far? 1. What is a common theme in all the definitions of “society”?  What are the historical contexts that paved for the development of 2. sociology? 3. How does the “sociological imagination” frame our understanding of society? Reflect Upon When people talk about Filipino society, the common themes that are usually associated with it are (1) Filipino hospitality and (2) Filipino cheerfulness. With the ever increasing globalization, we can assume that Filipino society today would not be the same for the next generation. Through a collage, present how you envision 21st century Filipino society. Social Interaction Within the framework of society is a process called social interaction. This is a compilation of ways and means by which humans interact with each other within the confines of a society. Hence, the prevailing culture within a society dictates the forms of interaction used by individuals with one another. Interaction is not merely defined by an actual physical contact, as it covers every human interchange that is within a mutually subjective orientation. This implies that as long as the parties involved are aware of each other, interaction is possible.  Fig.4.1. Filipino protesters facing the anti-riot police force in front of the US Embassy Source: http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/10/19/1635234/pnp-looking-violent- dispersal-outside-us-embassy In a public protest such as shown in Figure 4.1, there are layers of social interaction transpiring simultaneously. First, there is the dialogue among protesters about their stand regarding the issue. Second, there is the dialogue between the protesters and the government representatives (police and politicians). Third, there is the dialogue among the protesters, the police, the politicians, and the media. Finally, there is the interaction between the protesters and the US government. In all these layers, several points can be made about social interaction: 1. Space is not an issue. The protesters who are making a dialogue with the US government are separated from it by about 3 000 kilometers. 2. There could be multiple and simultaneous interactions. An interaction could be participated in by at least two parties or by tens of thousands. Each party could be engaged in multiple interactions with other parties.  3. A dialogue could have an active and inactive end. In the social interaction between the protesters and the US government, note that the US government did not respond to the demands and statements made by the other party. Nevertheless, despite the silence of the other party, such an encounter is still considered as a social interaction. 4. Subject-positionality is present in any interaction. The responses (or the nonresponses) that individuals make in relation to an interaction is determined by his or her perception of his or her position in relation to the other party. It is therefore understandable that the US government did not respond to the protesters. It did not negotiate with them because they are not of the same position. 5. The meanings we ascribe to the actions of others are informed by the values and norms that are upheld in our society. The protesters were moved to action due to the US government's critical stance against President Duterte, who is being accused of sponsoring extrajudicial killings. Social Organization This concept refers to the interrelationship of parts of society. As a society is an organization in itself, it is structurally divided into layers of contexts and positions that help perpetuate its existence. The positions created within a society constitute the category of status. This may include being a student, a son, and a parent. Each status prescribes a set of accepted behaviors that define the individual's responses and inclinations. This set is called roles. The role of a government official is to ensure that the people's needs are addressed through government projects and policies. If the government official fails to perform this role, then a conflict occurs as the norm was not followed. In some instances in our country, government officials were evicted from their positions (statuses) as they failed to perform the roles expected of them. A group is a basic unit of an organization. It involves at least two individuals who are in constant interaction based on their statuses and roles. Your school typically consists of two groups: teachers and students. You interact with your teachers based on your role as a student. Hence, your manner of speaking and the content of your statements are different when you are interacting with your classmates from when you interact with your teachers. Institutions are established when roles, statuses, and groups are perpetuated within the context of a society. Institutions are the building blocks of a society, as it is through these that norms are produced from the consistent exchanges of individuals and groups. These institutions are also in constant recreation as human interactions are affected by external forces such as environmental shifts. Family, marriage, education, religion, and government are all examples of institutions. To be more specific, the concept of a parent and a child (family) is well-established as an institution in the Philippines. As such, activities that do not conform to the prescribed behavior of individuals toward the creation of a family are frowned upon by society. These activities include abortion, separation of spouses, and extramarital affairs. Social Structure and Agency This is the foundation of every society from which emanates the possible roles, statuses, institutions, and organizations. It can be said that social structure is the determining factor by which every other part of a society gains its context. The common analogy used to describe social structure and the elements of society is that of a building. The building in itself can be considered as the society. The pillars and foundation of the building is equated to the social structure. Remember that these parts provide the general framework of the building—these determine its height, width, and shape. What provides the building with its design and body are the institutions, statuses, groups, and roles. The concept of culture can be equated to the concept of social structure as it functions in the same capacity. This is to say that culture defines the norms, values, institutions, groups, and individual behavior within a society. Note that this perspective renders individuals to be incapable of asserting themselves in a society, as they are bound by the rules of its structure or, in this context, their culture. A divergent perspective to this accommodates the concept of agency. According to Inden (2000), agency is the realized capacity of people to act upon their world and not only to know about or give personal or intersubjective significance to it…. the power of people to act purposively and reflectively, in more or less complex relationships with one another, to reiterate and remake the world in which they live, in circumstances where they may consider different courses of action possible and desirable, though not necessarily from the same point of view. This definition provides the argument that though structures in place define the conditions in which an individual interacts with others and institutions, the individual is capable of “remaking the world.” Individuals are cap