Ethics 1 Transes PDF

ETHICS 1 TRANSES Utilitarianism ▪ Reason: Five lives hold greater value than o The greater good one life in terms of the net benefit to The Trolley Problem...

ETHICS 1 TRANSES Utilitarianism ▪ Reason: Five lives hold greater value than o The greater good one life in terms of the net benefit to The Trolley Problem society o Narrated by Harry Shearer o Utilitarianism Scenario 2 o Delves into the classical moral and ethical ▪ Support pushing the man off the bridge, thought experiment where a person must choose as it would save five lives between two morally challenging options ▪ Reason: Although this involves a more o Often combines the seriousness of the dilemma direct action, the moral focus is on the with his characteristics dry wit, making the outcome – the net reduction in lives lost philosophical debate more engaging justifies the action Principle of the Trolley Problem o Deontology Scenario 1 o Utilitarian Ethics ▪ Will refuse to pull the lever, as actively ▪ Argues for maximizing overall happiness causing someone’s death violates the or minimizing harm, even if it means moral rule “do not kill” making difficult choices ▪ Reason: While the intention to save five o Deontological Ethics lives is noble, the act of deliberately ▪ Emphasizes adhering to rules and moral causing harm to the one person is principles, even if it leads to worse inherently wrong outcomes o Deontology Scenario 2 Content in Summary ▪ Would strongly reject pushing the man off o Scenario 1 (Switch Dilemma) the bridge ▪ A runaway trolley is heading toward five ▪ Reason: pushing someone to their death people tied to a track is a deliberate violation of their rights and ▪ You can pull a lever to divert the trolley dignity, which cannot be justified even if it onto another track, where only one saves more lives person is tied The Ticking Time-Bomb Scenario ▪ Should you pull the lever, sacrificing one o Ethical thought experiment often used to to save five? examine moral principles o Scenario 2 (Fat Man Dilemma) o Context of extreme situations like terrorism or ▪ A trolley is again heading toward five torture people Principle of the Trolley Problem ▪ This time, you’re on a bridge with a large o Explores the ethics of extreme measures (like man whose weight could stop the trolley if torture) when faces with an imminent, pushed off catastrophic threat ▪ Do you push the man, killing him to save o Whether it is ever morally permissible to violate the five? fundamental principles to prevent a greater harm Key Question Raised o How much weight should be given to human o Is it morally permissible to actively cause harm to rights, dignity, and the rule of law versus save more lives? outcomes in dire situations o Does moral responsibility differ when taking Utilitarianism action versus doing nothing? Focus: Maximizing overall well-being and minimizing o How do emotions, proximity, and personal harm relationships affect ethical decisions? Viewpoint: Justify torturing the suspect if it would o philosophical debate more engaging prevent a catastrophic loss of life Applying Ethical Framework Reason: The temporary suffering of one individual is o Utilitarian Ethics Scenario 1 outweighed by the lives of potentially ▪ In favor of pulling the lever, as sacrificing thousands saved one person to save five minimizes the total harm 1  ETHICS 1 TRANSES Key Argument: The ends justify the means in this ▪ Under international law, it is illegal in all case, as the outcome achieves the greater circumstances and therefore unethical good Utilitarianism as an Ethical Theory Criticism: The reliability of the information gained o Utilitarianism → consequentialist ethical from torture is questionable. If the suspect is theory/framework innocent or lies under duress, the utilitarian o Consequentialism argument collapses. Normalizing such ▪ Identifies the moral value of an action actions could lead to dangerous precedents with its outcome and systemic abuses. ▪ The moral value of an action is not to be Deontology found in itself, but in what it can bring Focus: Adherence to moral duties and principles, about regardless of the consequences Contrast with Viewpoint: Would reject torturing the suspect, even if o Virtue Ethics it could save lives ▪ An action is good if it contributes to the Reason: Torture violates the inherent dignity and formation of a virtuous character rights of the individual, which must be o Deontology respected under all circumstances ▪ An action is good in itself because it Key Argument: It is wrong to treat a person as a mere follows duty means to an end, no matter how dire the Etymology situation o Utilitarianism Criticism: This stance may seem rigid in ▪ Utility – “the quality or state of being emergencies, as it could allow preventable useful” catastrophes to occur. It paces moral rules o Latin “utilis” – “useful” above the lives of countless innocent people o “uti” – “to use” Key Difference Essence o Utilitarianism o Should not be confused simply with a typical ▪ Focuses on outcomes and justifies sense of “usefulness” torture if it saves lives o It refers to valuing the action that brings about the o Deontology “greatest happiness for the greatest number” and ▪ Focuses on principles and condemns that is what is “most useful”, in this sense torture as inherently immoral Classical Utilitarianism Torture o 18th – 19th century o State-Corporate Crime: Torture and the War on o By Jeremy Bentham and Josh Stuart Mill Terror as Justification (Abdinassir Hassan Blogs o Formulated in response to the need for legal and 2012) social reform in Britain Torture: intentional causing of physical or mental Is Characterized by harm on an individual o Hedonism Who is guilty?: the state ▪ “Pleasure” is what is “good” Contradiction: human rights o Impartiality War on terror: torture and human rights violations ▪ The happiness of one counts the same as became ‘serious policy option’ for the US everyone else’s Pro-Torture ▪ It does not matter if it is the agents o Utilitarianism happiness or somebody else’ ▪ An unfortunate but essential tool in the ▪ It does not matter it is the king’s or the fight against terror to ensure a greater beggar’s happiness good o Instrumentality Anti-Torture ▪ Of the action: No action is “morally good” o Utilitarianism or “morally bad” in itself, the important thing is the consequence 2  ETHICS 1 TRANSES Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism If it be public, wide let them extend o From Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Such pains avoid, whichever be thy view Legislation (1789) If pains must come, let them extend to few o Pain and pleasure are the two ‘sovereign masters’ John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism of the human being o From Utilitarianism (1861) o The ultimate cause of a human’s action is to o Adds a qualitative dimension to Bentham’s achieve pleasure or to avoid pain quantitative one Principle of Utility o Mill’s Greatness Happiness Principle – hedonistic o “That principle which approves or disapproves of ▪ Holds that actions are right in proportions every action whatsoever, according to the as they tend to promote happiness, wrong tendency which appears to have to augment or as they tend to produce the reverse of diminish the happiness of the party whose happiness. By absence of pain; by interest is in question” “unhappiness’, pain, and the privation of o “By utility is meant that property of any object, pleasure” whereby it tends to produce benefit, advantage, o But Mill’s version modifies Bentham’s pleasure, good or happiness… or what comes ▪ “Its quite compatible with the principle of again to the same thing… to prevent the utility to recognize the fact, that some happening of mischief, pain, evil or unhappiness kinds of pleasure are more desirable and to the party whose interest is considered: if that more valuable than others” party be the community in general, then the Mill’s Definition of Differences in Quality happiness of the community: if a particular o The opinion of one with experience in different individual, then the happiness of that individual” kinds of pleasures Bentham’s Felicific Calculus ▪ “Of two pleasures, if there be one to Circumstances which all or almost all who have Intensity: How intense? experience of both give a decided Duration: How does the pleasure last? preference, irrespective of any feeling of Certainty: How certain are you that the pleasure moral obligation to prefer it, that is the will occur? more desirable pleasure” Propinquity: how soon will the pleasure be Mills Comparing Socrates and a Fool experienced? o Mill’s famous quote, on comparing Socrates and Fecundity: how many more pleasures will happen a fool on the pleasures they respectively desire because of this one? ▪ “It is better to be a human being Purity: how free from pain is the pleasure? dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to Extent: How many of us will experience the be Socrates dissatisfied that a fool pleasure? satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, is of o One who is faces with deciding on whether an different opinion, it is because they only action is to be done or not must ask oneself know their own side of the question. The whether the action I will bring about greater X other party to the comparison knows both than an alternative action sides” o If more than one of the circumstances are Mill’s Greatest Happiness Principle involved in an action, all the other amounts of o The “greatest” in “greatest happiness principle” pleasure and pain must be accounted for does not just refer to the quantity of happiness (or o If the net amount to be produced by an action pleasure) – it does! – but also to a higher quality leans towards pleasure rather than pain, then or kind of happiness (or pleasure) that everyone that action is “good” affected, regardless of status, could experience Mnemonic Device as the consequences of the action in question Intense, long, certain, speedy, fruitful, pure – Mill’s on Character Formation Such marks in pleasures and in pains endure o Mill on character formation and the cultivation of Such pleasure seek if private be thy end: high-quality pleasures 3  ETHICS 1 TRANSES ▪ “Utilitarianism, therefore, could only observation, are best furnished with the attain its end by the general cultivation of means of comparison” nobleness of character, even if each The Question of Taxation individual were only benefitted by the o Using Mill’s modification of Bentham’s felicific nobleness of others, ad his own, so far as calculus, what can you say is the net happiness is concerned, were a sheer consequence of you accurately paying for your deduction from the benefit” income tax here in the Philippines? o affected, regardless of status, could experience Pleasures (Positive Consequences) as the consequences of the action in question o Improved Public Services Connection to Virtue Ethics ▪ Accurate tax payments contribute to o Virtue Ethics funding essential services like education, ▪ Focuses on the development of moral healthcare, infrastructure, and social character and virtues, such as courage, programs, enhancing the collective well- generosity, and justice, as central to being ethical living. Virtue ethics emphasizes o Moral Satisfaction being a good person rather than merely ▪ As Mill emphasized the value of moral doing acts and intellectual pleasures, fulfilling your o Mill’s Utilitarianism civic duty may foster a sense of pride, ▪ Mill recognizes that cultivating noble and responsibility, and integrity virtuous character traits contributes o Social Stability significantly to this goal. For him, ▪ Paying taxes fairly promotes equity, trust individual happiness may sometimes in governance, and social harmony, which involve self-sacrifice or a “deduction from benefits society as a whole, including the the benefit” for the greater good” individual taxpayer o The connection between Pains (Negative Consequences) ▪ Mill’s acknowledge that virtues are o Financial Sacrifice essential to achieving the overall ▪ The immediate reduction in disposable happiness of society. Virtuous individuals income may cause discomfort, especially not only improve their character but also for those with tight budgets influence others positively, creating a o Concerns About Corruption ripple effect of well-being ▪ In contexts like the Philippines, where ▪ This recognition aligns utilitarianism with there may be public distrust in how tax virtue ethics by suggesting that the revenues are utilized, the perception of development of good character traits is inefficiency or misuse could reduce the integral to achieving the utilitarian aim of satisfaction derived from paying taxes maximizing collective happiness Net Consequence Mill’s synthesis of the goal of utilitarianism o While there may be short-term financial pain, the o “According to the Greatest Happiness Principle long-term societal benefits of accurate tax ▪ The ultimate end, with reference to and payment—such as better infrastructure, for the same of which all other things are improved social services, and moral desirable… is an existence exempt as far satisfaction—arguably outweigh the negatives. as possible from pain, and as rich as Mill’s emphasis on the quality of happiness possible in enjoyments, both in point of suggests that the moral fulfillment and societal quantity and quality the test of quality, impact of paying taxes honestly contribute to a and the rule of measuring it against higher form of happiness that aligns with the quantity, being the preference felt by utilitarian principle of maximizing the overall those, in their opportunities of good. experience, to which must be added their o The net result, therefore, is positive if tax 4 habits of self-consciousness and self- revenues are effectively managed for public  ETHICS 1 TRANSES welfare. However, the individual's perception of o Ex (fictional): executing super villains: “It does not the net consequence may depend on their trust make us any different from them” in the government’s ability to use taxes wisely Module Summary Utilitarianism VS VE o Utilitarianism as a consequentialist theory o Utilitarianism o Bentham’s utilitarianism: felicific calculus ~ ▪ Focuses on “Act-evaluation” rather than quantity “character evaluation” o Mill’s utilitarianism: qualitative happiness ▪ Will action X bring about the Greatest o Sample scenario: taxation Good for the Greatest Number? o Utilitarianism vs virtue ethics & deontology o Virtue Ethics o A critique of utilitarianism ▪ Focuses on the development of one’s o Act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism character Deontological Ethics ▪ The virtuosity of an act lies in its potential o Ethics of duty contribution to the formation of an Etymology excellent character o Study of the nature of duty and obligation Utilitarianism VS Deontology o dei (Greek) – “it is necessary” o Both focus on the act in question Immanuel Kant o Utilitarianism o Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten (1785) ▪ Focuses on the consequences of an act o Groundwork or Foundation of the Metaphysics of ▪ The act gains moral value depending on Morals the net effect it has on all moral agents o Aim: supreme principle of morality concerned Kant’s Agenda o Deontology o Since my aim here is directed properly to moral ▪ The moral value lies in the act itself philosophy, I limit the question proposed to this: Critical Questions for Utilitarianism is it not of the utmost necessity to work out for Ivan Karamasov’s Challenge once a pure moral philosophy, completely o “Tell me honestly, I challenge you—answer me: cleansed of everything that may be only empirical imagine that you are charged with building the and that belongs to anthropology? [...] Everyone edifice of human destiny, the ultimate aim of must grant that a law, if it is to hold morally, that which is to bring people happiness, to give them is, as a ground of an obligation, must carry with it peace and contentment at last, but that in order absolute necessity that, for example, the to achieve this it is essential and unavoidable to command “thou shalt not lie” does not hold only torture just one little speck of creation, that same for human beings, as if other rational beings did little child beating her chest with her little fists, not have to heed it, [...] the ground of obligation and imagine that this edifice, has to be erected here must not be sought in the nature of the on her unexpiated tears. Would you agree to be human being or in the circumstances of the world the architect under those conditions? Tell me in which he is placed, but a priori simply in the honestly! concepts of pure reason [...] (4:389) 20th Century Modifications of CU Kant’s Self-ordained Task o Distinguishing between so-called “Act o The present groundwork is, however, nothing Utilitarianism” (AU) and “Rule Utilitarianism” (RU) more than the search for and establishment of Act Utilitarianism the supreme principle of morality, which o focuses on the act itself constitutes by itself a business that in its purpose o more or less the classical version of is complete and to be kept apart from every other Utilitarianism moral investigation Rule Utilitarianism The Grundlegung: an outline o The moral value of an act depends on whether Criteria for a rational moral philosophy the moral rule it follows will result in the greatest o Basis should be pure reason happiness for the greatest number o Source must be good will 5  ETHICS 1 TRANSES o (Inclination: respect for the law) ▪ insofar as it is demonstrated to be o Motive must be duty universally true, it is thus always true, One Categorical Imperative, Three Formulations whoever, whenever, wherever it is claimed o Universalizability o internal validity of the moral command, “Do not o Human-as-end in itself borrow money without intending to pay” o autonomy ▪ insofar as it is demonstrated to be Why must I do the right thing? universally true, it is thus always true, o because it is the right thing to do whoever, whenever, wherever it is claimed How can I figure out what my duty is? Hypothetical Vs Categorical Imperative o By using the universalizability procedure to test o Hypothetical rightness/wrongness of actions ▪ “if the action would be good merely as a Universalizability means to something else the imperative o identify the action to be tested is hypothetical” o Formulate the maxim o Categorical (personal rule: “When I..., I shall...” ▪ “if the action is represented as in itself o Test for universalizability: imagine the good, hence as necessary in a will in itself maxim as a universal law, is there a self- conforming to reason, as its principle, contradiction? then it is categorical” If the maxim were a universal law, is Categorical Imperative, 3 formulations there a self-contradiction? o Act only in accordance with that maxim yes = action is wrong; through which you can at the same time will no = action is right that it become a universal law (4:421). o Concluding by articulating the duty o “So act that you use humanity, whether in Universalizability test demonstrated your own person or in the person of any other, 0. borrow money without intending to pay always at the same time as an end, never 1. “When I need money, I shall borrow it from merely as a means” (4:429). someone without intending to pay it back.” o Act so that [your] “will is thus not solely 2. Suppose everyone were obligated to follow this subject to the law, but is subject in such a maxim, as if it were a universal law: Everyone way that it must be regarded also as ought to borrow money without intending to pay, legislating to itself, and precisely for this when they need money. reason as subject to the law (of which it can No one will lend money, “who are you consider itself as the author)” (4:431). fooling, you ought not pay it back”, money leading Why must I do the right thing? loses its meaning, self-contradictory o because it is the right thing to do 3. What then is the resulting duty? o this is what dignity means, to have “principles” Therefore, do not borrow money without o the opposite of dignity is price, “may presyo ka intending to pay. ba?” Four Observations How shall I do the right thing? 1. Consistency from step 0 to 3, or “tuhog” o In an autonomous manner 2. Kant provides a maxim that has a specific Module Summary formulation: When [situation], I shall [action]. o deontology is about acting from a sense of duty = 3. Universalized maxim is not imagined as done by because it is right (moral law) everyone, but an obligation for everyone. o how do I find out what is right? By 4. Test involves not consequences, but internal universalizability procedure validity of the universalized maxim o when I know something is right, I do it because Binding Force of Reason my reason “binds” me to do the right thing (like 1 o internal validity of 1 + 1 = 2 + 1 =2) = moral law o how do I accomplish doing the right thing? autonomously 6  ETHICS 1 TRANSES Is Deontology passe? Old-Fashioned? ▪ Encapsulated in simplicity through the o Only of historical importance, but not of decisive Taijitu symbol (commonly called the Yin- significance in our lives? Yang symbol). Why do people do the wrong thing? ▪ Yin and Yang: o everybody does it anyway. ▪ Yin: Represents the negative o other people do far worse. aspect o if it isn’t illegal, it’s ethical. ▪ Yang: Represents the positive o if i don’t do it, somebody else will. aspect. o i have no choice ▪ Perpetual harmony: Symbolizes Jorge Mario Bergoglio the fluid, interdependent balance o There are saints in the Roman Curia, among the of opposites. cardinals, priests, religious, sisters and laity. They work hard, and also do things that are often De (Virtue/Character) hidden. I know some who concern themselves o An aspect of the Dao’s paradox, guiding with feeding the poor or who give up their free individuals to follow the Dao. time to work in a parish. As always, the ones who o Emphasizes harmonizing with the Dao rather than aren’t saints make the most noise... a single tree defying it falling makes a sound, but a whole forest growing Wei-Wu-Wei (Action Through Non-Action) doesn’t o Wei: Action; Asian Ethical Frameworks and Religious o Wu: Absence or non-action. Conceptions o To act by not acting: Aligning actions with the o focuses on sources of moral reasoning in Asian natural flow of the Dao. context o Example (Boat Analogy) Ethics as a Way of Life o No-action: Keeping the boat stationary, o focusing on one’s role as part of a bigger structure resisting the current. o a metaphysical order (Dao) serves as the way, o Acting by not acting: Letting the boat flow aided by a paradoxical action through non-action naturally with the river (Dao). (Wei-Wu-Wei). For the latter, an anthropomorphic o Core principle: Harmonize with nature’s course of structure (society) serves as the way, guided by action. one’s relations with fellow citizens of the state o Related to the Filipino concept of bahala (Ren) na (letting things unfold naturally). Daoism Paradoxical Virtue (De) Lao Zi & Dao-De-Jing o Quote from the Dao-De-Jing: o Lao Zi authored the Dao-De-Jing, emphasizing o “A person of superior virtue is not the relationship between De (virtue/character) virtuous, and this is why he has virtue. and the Dao (Nature/Absolute Path). A person of inferior virtue never loses o De: Aligning one’s actions and character with the virtue, and this is why he lacks virtue.” flow of the Dao o Meaning: The Dao o Represents the metaphysical notion of Truth and o True virtue lies in practicing it without Reality boasting. o Characteristics of the Dao o Boasting about virtue indicates a lack of ▪ Pervades everything yet is intangible and genuine virtue non-existent in a conventional sense. Confucianism ▪ Paradoxical in nature Main Predicament: Tian-Di-Ren o Symbolism of the Dao o Tian (Heaven): Represents celestial matters (e.g., changing of seasons). 7  ETHICS 1 TRANSES o Di (Earth): Represents earthly/material concerns ▪ Belief in Samsara (cycle of rebirth): The soul (e.g., wealth, surroundings). separates from the body through o Ren (Man): Focus on human affairs, narrowing reincarnation. life’s concerns to relationships and morality. ▪ Goal: Spiritual Liberation by fulfilling one’s Becoming a Moral Gentleman Dharma (duties) to return to Brahman o Achieved by following the Five Virtues as outlined (ultimate reality) by Kong Zi (Confucius) in the Analects o Connection to Buddhism The Five Virtues ▪ Hinduism gave rise to Buddhism, sharing o Ren (Humanity/Benevolence): similarities in belief about Samsara and the ▪ Teaches the Golden Rule (Principle of pursuit of Spiritual Liberation. Measuring Square). o Differences ▪ Two aspects: ▪ Hinduism: Focuses on fulfilling Dharma to o Zhong (Positive Duty): Do to others unite with Brahman. what you want them to do to you. ▪ Buddhism: Emphasizes the spiritual journey o Shu (Negative Duty): Refrain from and release from suffering (Dukkha) to doing to others what you don’t want achieve Nirvana (enlightenment) done to you. Hinduism o Yi (Righteousness/Role): Core Beliefs of Hinduism ▪ Fulfill moral duties to promote societal order. o Brahman (Absolute Being): ▪ Five Basic Relationships: ▪ Everything originated from Brahman, which o Ruler-Subject divided itself into a multitude of pieces. o Father-Son ▪ The Atman (inner-self): The part of Brahman o Husband-Wife within each creation, aiding in the return to o Superior Brother-Inferior Brother Brahman. o Senior Friend-Younger Friend o Samsara (Cycle of Rebirth): The process of o Li (Propriety): reincarnation driven by Karma (chain of cause ▪ Concerns proper manners, behavior, and and effect). customs. o Maya (illusion) and Avidya (falsehood): The ▪ Difference from Yi: deceptive world we are trapped in. o Yi: Internalized moral character. o Goal: Escape from Samsara and unite with o Li: Externalized proper conduct. Brahman in the realm of Vidya (truth) o Zhi (Wisdom): Purusharthas (Four Ends of Life) ▪ Sharing wisdom with others. o Artha (Material Wealth): o Xin (Faithfulness): ▪ Refers to the resources needed to sustain life. ▪ Integrity and moral consistency in words and o Kama (Pleasure/Gratification): actions. ▪ Represents positive emotions and desires. ▪ Comparable to the Filipino concept of ▪ Warning: Excessive attachment to Artha and palabra de honor. Kama prevents progress to higher ends Ethics as Spiritual Liberation ▪ Practice Niskamakarma (no-pleasure-action): o Hinduism Acting without attachment to pleasure or ▪ Origin: India; considered the oldest religion in personal gain to break free from Karma. the world. o Dharma (Duty/Nature): ▪ Polytheistic: Features the greatest number of ▪ Determines one’s role in society, based on deities among all known religions. their origin from Brahman: ▪ Brahmin (Head): Leaders and scholars. 8  ETHICS 1 TRANSES ▪ Kshatriya (Arms): Warriors and rulers ▪ Right Mindfulness maintaining social order. ▪ Right Concentration ▪ Vaishya (Thighs): Merchants and providers of Nirvana nourishment. o Achieved by embodying the Eight-Fold Path. ▪ Shudra (Legs): Laborers and supporters of the o Often referred to as "Absolute Nothingness," state. though it has no direct English equivalent. o Moksha (Spiritual Liberation): o Etymology: "Wearing off heat from burning coal" ▪ The ultimate end where one escapes — symbolizes the gradual release of suffering. Samsara and unites with Brahman, achieving o Key Understanding: Nirvana is an experiential eternal truth (Vidya) state rather than a concept or a place. Buddhism Ethics as Religious Conceptions Siddhartha Gautama (The Buddha) o Common Origin: o Born as a wealthy prince, shielded from suffering. ▪ Both Islam and Christianity are Abrahamic o Upon witnessing suffering (pain, hunger, death), religions, sharing the monotheistic belief in renounced his wealth and became a wandering the Abrahamic God beggar. o Key Differences in Teachings: o Achieved enlightenment while meditating under a ▪ Jesus in Christianity: Bodhi tree. ▪ Believed to be the physical form of o Discovered the Middle Way: Avoiding extremes of God (the Son of God). richness and poverty as the path to ▪ Central teaching: Preached Agape enlightenment. (unconditional love for one The Four Noble Truths another). o Dukkha (Suffering): o Jesus in Islam: ▪ Suffering exists in various forms: old age, ▪ Regarded as a prophet sent by God, not sickness, death, and negative emotions divine. (sadness, anger, fear, etc.). o Muhammad in Islam: o Dukkha Samudaya (Origin of Suffering): ▪ The last prophet sent by God to guide ▪ Suffering arises from attachment to things humanity. that cause it. ▪ Central teaching: Be conscious of Allah o Dukkha Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering): (Taqwa) and submit to His will. ▪ Detachment from these causes leads to the o Significance of Islam: end of suffering. ▪ Youngest monotheistic religion in the world. o Dukkha Nirodhagaminipratipat (Path to Cessation ▪ Emphasizes submission to Allah and living in of Suffering): accordance with His guidance. ▪ Follow the Eight-Fold Path to overcome o Significance of Christianity: suffering ▪ The largest religion globally by number of The Eight-Fold Path followers. o Wisdom (Prajna): ▪ Centers on Jesus as the divine savior and the ▪ Right View embodiment of God’s love ▪ Right Intention ▪ Brahman, achieving eternal truth (Vidya) o Virtue (Sila): Islam ▪ Right Speech Core Teaching ▪ Right Action o Islam, the religion of peace, emphasizes ▪ Right Livelihood submission to Allah, the one true God. o Meditation (Samadhi): o Taqwa: Consciousness and mindfulness of Allah ▪ Right Effort in all actions 9  ETHICS 1 TRANSES Human Composition ▪ Jesus summarized the commandments into o Akhlak: The spiritual self (nature and character) two key teachings: that must align with Allah's will and resist vices. ▪ Love of God: Covers the first three o Khalq: The material self. commandments. o Study of this duality is called Ilm-Al-Akhlaq ▪ Love of Neighbor: Covers the remaining (science of the human soul) commandments. Five Pillars of Islam ▪ Tone shifted from prohibitions (“Thou shall o Shahada: Declaration of faith ("There is no God not”) to positive actions (“Love your but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger"). neighbor,” “Love your enemies”) o Salah: Daily prayers. Agape (Selfless Love) o Zakat: Giving alms to the less fortunate. o Definition: Highest form of love; self-sacrificial o Sawm/Saum: Fasting during Ramadan. and other-centered. o Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca to pray before the o Origin of the Term: Ka’aba (sacred relic) ▪ In Ancient Greece: Brotherhood among Halal and Haram citizens as members of one family. o Halal: Permissible actions or food (e.g., properly ▪ In Christianity: Humanity as children of God, prepared food, excluding pork). brothers, and sisters. o Haram: Prohibited actions or items, like o Biblical Reference: consuming alcohol or pork ▪ John 15:13: "There is no greater love than to Jihad lay down one’s life for his friends." o Means peaceful striving to spread Allah's o Jesus’ Sacrifice: teachings through preaching, education, and ▪ Demonstrated Agape by allowing himself to other non-violent means. be crucified, saving humanity from sin and o Misunderstood as violent extremism, but it eternal damnation explicitly excludes force, terrorism, or harm Conclusion Christianity o Daoism: The Fall of Man ▪ Live in harmony with nature and the Dao by o Story Origin: Narrated in the Old Testament of the understanding one’s role in the greater Christian Bible, with parallels in the Islamic picture. Qur’an and Hebrew Torah. o Confucianism: o Temptation and Sin: ▪ Emphasizes one’s role in society through ▪ Adam and Eve succumbed to the temptation duty, relationships, and moral virtue to of eating the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge promote harmony. of Good and Evil. o Hinduism: o Result: ▪ Achieve spiritual bliss by fulfilling one’s ▪ Exile from the Garden of Eden, separation dharma (duty) and transcending worldly from God. attachments. ▪ Barred from the Tree of Immortality. o Buddhism: ▪ Humanity inherited pain, hunger, death, and ▪ Strive to detach from suffering and desires to sin. walk the Middle Way and attain o Significance: enlightenment (Nirvana). ▪ Central to Christianity as the reason o Islam: humanity must seek forgiveness to reunite ▪ Attain a peaceful life by submitting to Allah’s with God and attain paradise will and practicing mindfulness (Taqwa). Forgiveness o Christianity: o Old Testament: ▪ The greatest act is to love God and others ▪ Achieved through obedience to the 10 selflessly, embodying Agape love Commandments (Exodus). Main Takeaway from the Module o New Testament: 10  ETHICS 1 TRANSES o Recognize and respect the diversity of beliefs and o At what point is ‘human life’ to be valued and practices in Asia. protected to the same degree as the lives of o Uphold the goal of Ethics: human beings who are already born? ▪ Openness: Demonstrate openness to o Who has absolute rights during pregnancy, the different views, especially in resolving moral conceptus or the mother? disagreements. When does human life begins? ▪ Respect: Acknowledge the perspectives and o Daniel Callahan: the developmental view in contexts that shape individuals’ values and understanding the conceptus. beliefs. o Yes, there is life present from conception but a Bioethics o An overview possibility that there maybe a later different point Areas in bioethics at which such a life can be considered to be o Academic bioethics human o Public policy and law bioethics o At what stage can we say that the conceptus is a o Clinical ethics Et human life? Every stage is vital, but the closer the Reasons for bioethics’ progress conceptus gets to viability, the more human o Revolutionary (technological) developments in qualities are present. biomedical knowledge o Antiabortionists: human life is an actuality at any o Growing concern about “power” of doctors and stage. scientists o Fetus (after the 12th week): brain structure is o Recent legal case actually complete and one can pickup by Kinds of bioethical issues electrocardiograph heart activity o “Beginning-of-life” issues o But: isn’t the fetus just dependent to the mother ▪ reproduction and pre-birth for life? o “Sustenance-of-life” issues o But, but: some actual human beings are ▪ healthcare dependent to some person or machine to stay o “End-of-life” issues ▪ Death alive o Information and research issues o “once born, now human” -- is this true then? ▪ patient information o Problem: the answer to the question, ‘when can ▪ human experimentation we consider the conceptus a human person” is Beginning-of-life issues not just colored by biological or genetic data but o reproduction and pre-birth actually reinforced by moral biases or Abortion assumptions. o Zygote: cell resulting from union of sperm and egg o Prolife: life begins at conception o Embryo: developing human individual -- 2nd -7th o Prochoice: human life does not have any value week of pregnancy until birth o Fetus: developing human individual – 8th week to Arguments against abortion birth o Genetic view of the beginning of human life o Conceptus: coined by Daniel Callahan; “that ▪ genetic makeup is available at conception which has been conceived” and programs the creation of a unique o Viability: the conceptus that is able to survive individual outside mother’s womb o Sanctity/value of life argument conceptus not General problems in Abortion only has a right to life but also has absolute rights o ‘Value of life’ vs. ‘individual freedom’ o Dangers of abortion to mother’s life o When does human life begin? ▪ medical dangers: medically-approved vs self- induced 11  ETHICS 1 TRANSES ▪ the conceptus is not a tumor simply to be o The dead’s family to veto organ donation even plucked out! though the dead clearly had plans to donate ▪ psychological dangers his/her organs. o Pregnancy is relatively safe because of latest o Legal restriction – it is illegal to ask for money in trends in medicine exchange for organs o There are alternatives to abortion: adoption Genetic Medical Procedures o Irrelevance of economic considerations o On Genetic Testing & Screening ▪ one cannot use financial problems as reason ▪ One’s genetic info is confidential and to take a conceptus’s life therefore should be voluntary and with o Responsibility for sexual activities informed consent. ▪ one cannot sacrifice an innocent human life ▪ Issue: access of third-party health providers because of carelessness or indiscretion ▪ Can be a source of discrimination or morally o Absolute right of woman over her own body questionable decision. ▪ any conceptus is part of the woman’s body. ▪ Ex. Employment | A mother knowing her Therefore, she has absolute say whether it baby’s genetic information should continue to live in that body. o On General Therapy and Genetic Enhancement o Birth is the beginning of human life ▪ GT: correction or prevention of disease o Problem of unwanted or deformed children through addition and expression of genetic ▪ adoption is a poor solution: one has to go still material. with the 9 mos. of pregnancy; both mother ▪ GE: genetic modification which improve the and child might go to psychological issues function of some system. ▪ lack of humane institutions (orphanages, ▪ Issue 1: genetic modification may lead to PWD-friendly sanctuaries, etc.) genetic determinism. o Abortion is relatively safe ▪ Issue 2: may lead to a wider gap in ▪ medical aspect: the only dangerous abortions discrimination. are those self-induced; abortion in the first 12 ▪ Example: “Designer Babies” weeks is a minor procedure End-of-life issues ▪ psychological aspect: guilt can be overcome o death with good counselling; what will happen of Etymology of Euthanasia children who feel unwanted by their mothers? o Eu – good o Danger of pregnancy to mother’s life o Thanatos – death o Rape and incest related pregnancies Distinctions between o Abortion is a form of responsibility for sexual o Allowing someone to die = natural death without activities any intrusion of science o Abortion as woman’s choice o Mercy death = assisted suicide (with patient’s ▪ it is the woman who undergoes pregnancy, consent) not others o Mercy killing = terminating a patient’s life without Sustenance-of-life issues the former’s consent o health care Contemporary Concerns Organ Transplantation Issues o Is assisted suicide a constitutional right? Does it o Procurement of organs constitute an exercise of one’s liberty? ▪ Cadaveric procurement o Persistent Vegetative State or Irreversible Coma – ▪ Legally: the person should consent persons are awake but they do not have ▪ Issue: moral priority of the dead over the consciousness interests of the living. o Brain death: irreversible due to an accident. 12  ETHICS 1 TRANSES ▪ without brain activity, the patient is reduced o Against to a body with a beating heart and breathing ▪ Direct violation of the ‘value of life’ principle lungs. ▪ mercy killing is nothing less than ▪ 1986 study at Harvard Medical School: if premeditated murder patient is declared brain dead in an ▪ Possibility of finding cures official/medical sense, any equipment can be o For disconnected; no culpability for one who ▪ Mercy for the ‘living dead’ does it. ▪ Financial and emotional burdens ▪ how can a person pronounced medically ▪ “patient surely wants to die” dead be allowed to die or undergo mercy killing? On allowing someone to die o Against ▪ Abandonment of patients ▪ The possibility of finding cures ▪ Interference with God’s plan – we must do everything to further someone’s life o For ▪ Individual rights over bodies and lives ▪ but what about mentally incompetent? ▪ Shortening of the period of suffering ▪ The right to die with ‘dignity’ o Pope Pius XII (1957): “ordinary means vs. extraordinary means” o Extraordinary or heroic means: respirators, unnecessary medicines o Ordinary means: oxygen, food, necessary medicines On mercy death o Against ▪ Irrationality of person wanting to die ▪ Religious argument: killing is killing, regardless of motive ▪ caveat: murder is motivated by selfish agenda; mercy death is motivated by love and mercy for the person suffering ▪ Justice argument: burden and guilt of the one to assist ▪ Possibility of finding cures o For ▪ Individual freedom and rights ▪ Shortening of the period of suffering ▪ The right to die with ‘dignity’ On mercy killing 13