Business Communication Skills - Listening and Types of Listening PDF

Segment: Business Communication Skills Topic: Listening and Types of Listening Topic: Introduction Listening & Types of Listening Table of Contents 1. Listening – Overview........................................................................................................... 5 2. Summary....

Segment: Business Communication Skills Topic: Listening and Types of Listening Topic: Introduction Listening & Types of Listening Table of Contents 1. Listening – Overview........................................................................................................... 5 2. Summary............................................................................................................................. 8 2 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening & Types of Listening Introduction In the previous segment, we discussed the channels of communication, the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different types of channels, and guidelines on how to choose the right channel in a particular business situation. Listening is the most important of all aspects of communication. In fact, listening precedes communication. It occurs more frequently on the job than even speaking, reading, or writing. The new model of business, based on teamwork, requires more effective listening skills than before for greater coordination. A survey conducted on about 400 project managers showed that nearly 80% of the manager's time is spent in face-to-face interpersonal communication with employees. The survey was conducted through interviews and questionnaires. It was found that although the content of the oral message is important, the way in which the message is conveyed, and its credibility is the key to the impact of the message on the receiver. Another survey conducted on more than 300 members of the Academy of Certified Administrative Managers identified 20 important managerial skills which the managers consider for 20:80 rule. Among the 20 skills, the participants rated four as 'supercritical', seven as 'highly critical’, and nine as 'critical'. The four 'supercritical' skills are: Active listening Providing clear effective instructions Managing individual's responsibility Identifying the actual problem The interesting factor of these skills is that all the skills are co-related with communication and listening is given much importance in all these skills. (Source: http://www.accel-team.com/communications/busComms_02.html) In this topic, we will discuss the difference between ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’ and also explore the different types of listening. 3 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening & Types of Listening Learning Objectives At the end of this topic, you will be able to: distinguish clearly between ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’ explain the different types of listening. 4 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening & Types of Listening 1. Listening – Overview Listening is hard work and is more than just sitting passively and absorbing a speaker’s words. According to Lundsteen, “Listening is a highly complex process by which spoken language is converted to meaning in the mind”. Listening has been identified by Stephen Covey as one of the ‘seven habits of highly effective people’, in his book with the same title. This definition implies that listening is a skill that can be cultivated and developed, just like speaking, reading, or writing. Listening involves the following four steps: 1. Hearing – In this step, you need to pay attention to ensure that you hear the message clearly. 2. Interpreting – In this step, you try to analyse the speaker’s words based on your experience, attitude, knowledge, and background. You also give meaning to the words based on the gestures and expressions of the speaker. 3. Evaluating – In this step, you evaluate the information received and make decisions accordingly. 4. Responding – In this step, you let the speaker know whether you have understood the message and respond to it. Listening is often thought to be synonymous with hearing. The difference is that while hearing is a passive process, listening is active. It means being alert to and understanding the meaning behind the speaker’s words. While listening, one is engaged in processing the information, reconstructing the information and also giving meaning to the information. This brings us to a discussion on the different types of listening. Types of listening: There are seven types of listening. Figure 1 depicts the seven types of listening. 5 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening & Types of Listening Fig. 1: Types of Listening Let us now briefly discuss each of the types of listening shown in figure 1. Discriminative listening: This is the most basic type of listening, whereby the difference between the sounds is identified. Unless the differences between the sounds are identified, the meaning expressed by such differences cannot be grasped. Once we learn to distinguish between sounds in our language, we can do the same in other languages. One reason why people belonging to one country find it difficult to speak the language of another country is that they find the sounds similar and cannot understand the subtle differences. Comprehension listening: Once we have learnt to discriminate between the different sounds, the next step is to try to comprehend the meaning of these sounds. To do this, we require a dictionary of words, along with the rules of grammar and syntax. Apart from the verbal communication, we also need to understand the meaning conveyed by the speaker’s non-verbal behaviour. This can be achieved by closely observing various aspects of the speaker’s body language and tone of voice. Evaluative listening: This type of listening involves making judgements about what the speaker is saying. We listen critically and try to assess what is being said as good, bad, worthy, or unworthy. We generally resort to this kind of listening when the other person is trying to persuade us, change our behaviour or convictions. The tendency then is to question what the speaker is trying to say. 6 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening & Types of Listening Appreciative listening: This type of listening could be in the form of paying selective attention to certain kinds of information which might be relevant to us, or which helps to meet our needs and goals. The tendency is to appreciate such information better. Appreciative listening is also used when listening to good music, poetry, or a powerful speech. Empathetic listening: In this type of listening, we try to put ourselves in the other person’s place and understand the moods, beliefs, goals, and feelings behind the speaker’s words. It requires excellent discrimination and paying attention to the nuances of emotional signals. It also requires a high degree of sensitivity and tactful probing on the part of the listener. Empathetic listening is most often needed at the workplace when dealing with customer complaints, employee feedback, and problems. A manager doing a performance appraisal with an employee, for example, should listen to the employee’s point of view and understand the real reasons for lack of performance. Therapeutic listening: In this type of listening, the listener goes beyond merely empathising with the speaker and tries to help the speaker to change or develop in some way. In other words, the listener plays the role of a therapist, by diagnosing the problem at hand and offering a remedy or solution. This type of listening is common in social situations, where family and personal problems are resolved through counselling. It is also important in job situations, where managers try to solve the problems of employees. Taking the same example of a manager doing a performance appraisal, the manager should not only understand the employee’s problems but should also ‘counsel’ the employee by suggesting what measures the employee could take to improve his/her performance in the future. Dialogic listening: As the name suggests, this type of listening involves listening and learning through dialogue. This implies that listening is a two-way, rather than a one-way process. It involves the interchange of ideas and information between the speaker and the listener. This type of listening is active listening, whereby the listener continuously seeks clarifications, gives feedback, and engages in conversation with the speaker. Another name for this is ‘relational’ listening since a relationship is established through the exchange of ideas. 7 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening & Types of Listening 2. Summary Here is a quick recap of what we have learnt so far: According to Lundsteen, “Listening is a highly complex process by which spoken language is converted to meaning in the mind”. Listening involves four steps: Hearing, Interpreting, Evaluating and Responding There are seven types of listening o Discriminative listening o Comprehension listening o Evaluative listening o Appreciative listening o Empathetic listening o Therapeutic listening o Dialogic listening Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening, whereby the difference between the sounds is identified. Comprehension listening can be achieved by closely observing various aspects of the speaker’s body language and tone of voice. Evaluative listening involves making judgements about what the speaker is saying. Appreciative listening is in the form of paying selective attention to certain kinds of information which might be relevant to us, or which helps to meet our needs and goals. Empathetic listening is most often needed at the workplace when dealing with customer complaints, employee feedback, and problems. In Therapeutic listening, the listener goes beyond merely empathising with the speaker and tries to help the speaker to change or develop in some way. Dialogic type of listening involves listening and learning through dialogue. 8 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Segment: Business Communication Skills Topic: Barriers to Listening Topic: Introduction Barriers to Listening Table of Contents 1. Barriers to Listening......................................................................................................................... 4 2. Summary......................................................................................................................................... 6 3. Glossary........................................................................................................................................... 7 2 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Barriers to Listening Introduction Listening is the most important of all aspects of communication. In fact, listening precedes communication. It occurs more frequently on the job than even speaking, reading, or writing. The new model of business, based on teamwork, requires more effective listening skills than before for greater coordination. In the previous topic, we discussed the difference between ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’ and also looked into different types of listening. In this topic, we will examine the barriers to listening. Learning Objectives At the end of this topic, you will be able to: identify the barriers to listening discuss the barriers to listening. 3 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Barriers to Listening 1. Barriers to Listening As discussed in the previous topic, listening is not easy and there are a number of obstacles that stand in the way of effective listening, both within and outside the workplace. These barriers may be categorised as follows: Physiological barriers Physical barriers Attitudinal barriers Wrong assumptions Cultural barriers Gender barriers Lack of training Bad listening habits Let us now briefly discuss these barriers. Physiological barriers: This was discussed earlier under the barriers to communication. Some people may have genuine hearing problems or deficiencies that prevent them from listening properly. Once detected, they can generally be treated. Other people may have difficulty in processing information or memory-related problems which make them poor listeners. Another physiological barrier is rapid thought. Listeners have the ability to process information at the rate of approximately 500 words per minute, whereas speakers talk at around 125 words per minute. Since listeners are left with a lot of spare time, their attention may not be focused on what the speaker is saying but may wander elsewhere. Physical barriers: These refer to distractions in the environment such as the sound of an air conditioner, cigarette smoke, or an overheated room, which interferes with the listening process. They could also be in the form of information overload. For example, if you are in a meeting with your manager and the phone rings and your mobile beeps at the same time to let you know that you have a message; it is very hard to listen carefully to what is being said. Attitudinal barriers: Pre-occupation with personal or work-related problems can make it difficult to focus one’s attention completely on what a speaker is saying, even if what is being said is of prime importance. Another common attitudinal barrier is egocentrism or the belief that you are 4 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Barriers to Listening more knowledgeable than the speaker and that you have nothing new to learn from the speaker’s ideas. People with this kind of closed-minded attitude make very poor listeners. Wrong assumptions: The success of communication depends on both the sender and the receiver, as we have seen in segment 1. It is wrong to assume that communication is the sole responsibility of the sender or the speaker and listeners have no role to play. Such an assumption can be a big barrier to listening. For example, a brilliant speech or presentation, however well delivered, is wasted if the receiver is not listening at the other end. Listeners have as much responsibility as speakers to make the communication successful, by paying attention, seeking clarifications, and giving feedback. Another wrong assumption is to think that listening is a passive activity, in which a listener merely absorbs the thoughts of the speaker. On the contrary, real listening or active listening is hard work – it requires you to ask questions sometimes, agree or disagree with the speaker, give feedback, etc. Yet another barrier of this type is to assume that speakers are more powerful than listeners. Speakers are seen as being in command of things, whereas listeners are seen to be a weak and lacking authority. According to communication experts, however, the reverse is true. Listeners are as important and as powerful as speakers. David J. Schwartz, writer, and management professor emphasises the importance of listening in his book ‘The Magic of Thinking Big’ by saying “Big people monopolise the listening. Small people monopolise the talking.” Cultural barriers: Accents can be barriers to listening since they interfere with the ability to understand the meaning of words that are pronounced differently. The problem of different accents arises not only between cultures but also within a culture. For example, in a country like India where there is enormous cultural diversity, accents may differ even between different regions and states. Another type of cultural barrier is the differing cultural values. The importance attached to listening and speaking differs in western and oriental cultures. Generally, Orientals regard listening and silence as almost a virtue, whereas Westerners attach greater importance to speaking. Therefore, this would interfere with the listening process, when two people from these two different cultures communicate. Gender barriers: Communication research has shown that gender can be a barrier to listening. Studies have revealed that men and women listen very differently and for different purposes. 5 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Barriers to Listening Women are more likely to listen for the emotions behind a speaker’s words, while men listen more for the facts and the content. Example – A salesperson giving a demonstration of a new type of office equipment may be asked by two colleagues if the equipment will work without any problems and respond by saying ‘Sure.’ A male user may take the salesperson’s answer at face value, whereas a female user may detect some hesitation in the salesperson’s voice. This is because the male user listens for the content of the message, whereas the female user listens for the tone of the message. Lack of training: Listening is not an inborn skill. People are not born good listeners. They have to develop the art of listening through practice and training. Lack of training in listening skills is an important barrier to listening, especially in the Indian context. Lee Iacocca, former Chairman of the Chrysler Corporation in the US, was one of the first to recognise the need for organised training programs in listening skills. Today, many organisations both in India and abroad incorporate listening skills in their training programs. Bad listening habits: Most people are very average listeners who have developed poor listening habits that are hard to shed and that act as barriers to listening. For example, some people have the habit of ‘faking’ attention or trying to look like a listener, to impress the speaker, and to assure the speaker that they are paying attention. Others may tend to listen to every fact. This may result in them not understanding the main point. Yet another habit is to avoid difficult listening and to tune off deliberately if the subject is too technical or difficult to understand. Sometimes, the subject itself may be dismissed as uninteresting, because the listener does not want to listen. Research conducted many years ago found that the organisational level comprehension rating of 100% of listening at the board level is reduced to 20% at the worker’s level. Poor listening can distort the original message. 2. Summary Here is a quick recap of what we have learnt so far: The barriers to listening are categorised as o Physiological barriers o Physical barriers o Attitudinal barriers 6 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Barriers to Listening o Wrong assumptions o Cultural barriers o Gender barriers o Lack of training o Bad listening habits Some people may have genuine hearing problems or deficiencies that prevent them from listening properly. Physical barriers refer to distractions in the environment such as the sound of an air conditioner, cigarette smoke, or an overheated room, which interferes with the listening process. Pre-occupation with personal or work-related problems can make it difficult to focus one’s attention completely on what a speaker is saying, even if what is being said is of prime importance. It is wrong to assume that communication is the sole responsibility of the sender or the speaker and listeners have no role to play. Such an assumption can be a big barrier to listening. Accents can be barriers to listening since they interfere with the ability to understand the meaning of words that are pronounced differently. Studies have revealed that men and women listen very differently and for different purposes. Lack of training in listening skills is an important barrier to listening, especially in the Indian context. Most people are very average listeners who have developed poor listening habits that are hard to shed and that act as barriers to listening 3. Glossary Egocentrism The state or quality of being self-centred. 7 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Segment: Business Communication Skills Topic: Strategies for Effective Listening Topic: Introduction Strategies for Effective Listening Table of Contents 1. Strategies for Effective Listening..................................................................................................... 4 2. Summary......................................................................................................................................... 7 3. Glossary........................................................................................................................................... 8 2 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Strategies for Effective Listening Introduction In the previous topic, we discussed the various categories of barriers to listening: Physiological barriers, physical barriers, attitudinal barriers, wrong assumptions, cultural barriers, gender barriers, lack of training and bad listening habits. Although a number of barriers stand in the way of effective listening, these can be overcome through conscious efforts, training, and practice. In this topic, we will discuss the strategies to be followed for effective listening. Learning Objectives At the end of this topic, you will be able to: improve your listening skills by adopting specific strategies. 3 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Strategies for Effective Listening 1. Strategies for Effective Listening Some of the suggested methods to overcome barriers of effective listening are as follows: Create a conducive environment Select face-to-face channels Be open-minded and avoid distractions Use non-verbal cues to indicate active listening Use verbal communication to indicate active listening Listen first before responding Use the speaker-listener gap constructively Do not be judgemental Let us discuss each of these briefly. Create a conducive environment: To an extent, you can try to control the environment in which communication takes place, so that listening can take place without any distractions. The physical barriers to listening can be overcome by: Ensuring a proper sound system and acoustics so that the speaker is audible. Avoiding places with high levels of activity, loud noises from the outside environment and poor air conditioning systems. Shutting off mobile phones and telephones. Select face-to-face channels: Listening is less accurate in the absence of face-to-face communication. For example, listening to and understanding ideas correctly over the telephone is much harder than through a face-to-face meeting. Take the case of calling a restaurant and placing orders over the telephone for home delivery of a meal. The chances are that your orders may not be understood correctly. Therefore, as far as possible, arrange face-to-face contact to ensure more accurate listening. Be open-minded and avoid distractions: Listening is an exhausting activity that requires the right attitude and mindset. You have to focus your attention completely on what the speaker is saying, without letting your mind wander. This kind of concentration can be developed through various techniques and through constant practice. In addition, it is also important to rid yourself of the 4 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Strategies for Effective Listening notion that you have nothing new to learn from the other person. Even if it is a subject about which you may be knowledgeable, the speaker may offer a different perspective or point of view. Therefore, it is important to listen actively. Use non-verbal cues to indicate active listening: It is important to communicate to the speaker that you are listening actively to what he/she is saying. This can be done even without verbal communication. All the different aspects of non-verbal communication discussed earlier should be used for maximum effect. For example, maintaining steady eye contact with the speaker, sitting up with an erect posture, nodding now and then to show appreciation and understanding, and appropriate facial expressions are some of the ways in which your non-verbal communication can indicate that you are involved in what the speaker is saying. Use verbal communication to indicate active listening: While non-verbal behaviour by itself can communicate that you are an active listener, it is also important to engage in verbal communication with the speaker. Silence is often interpreted as lack of understanding or attention. In order to convey that you have understood the speaker’s message you need to: seek clarifications. give feedback and suggestions. paraphrase in your own words what the speaker has said. Listen first before responding: Always let yourself finish listening before you begin to speak. Avoid the tendency to formulate your response, even before you have listened completely to the speaker’s words. If you are too busy thinking about what to say next, you may miss the main point that the speaker is trying to make. This also gives the speaker the impression that you are pre-occupied or rude. Use the speaker-listener gap constructively: It was pointed out earlier that listeners can absorb information faster than the speakers’ rate of speech. This spare time available to listeners is often misused by letting the mind wander and is one of the physiological barriers to listening. One way of overcoming this barrier is to try to use this spare time to note down what the speaker has said, review what has been said so far and anticipate what the speaker may say next. Thinking ahead of the speaker and trying to guess where his/her talk is leading is a good strategy for effective listening. This is not easy but can be learnt through proper training. 5 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Strategies for Effective Listening Focus on the verbal and non-verbal message: Listening involves not only hearing and understanding the meaning behind the words, but also being alert to the non-verbal behaviour of the speaker. The importance of non-verbal cues has been emphasised throughout this subject. It is important to watch for any positive or negative messages that may be conveyed through the speaker’s tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and outward appearance. Focus on the content, rather than the delivery: To grasp the true meaning of what the speaker is saying, it is important to concentrate on the content of the message, rather than on how the message is delivered. For example, looking at the power point slides during a speaker’s presentation may distract your attention from the main point that the speaker is trying to convey. Similarly, being over critical of the speaker’s accent or mannerisms may make you miss the essence of the message. Ask questions of yourself and make notes: To engage in active listening, you also need to ask certain questions to yourself while listening. For example, “What is the key idea that the speaker is trying to convey?”, “How does this fit in with I already know on the subject?” or “How is this presentation organised?” are some possible questions that you could jot down along with the answers. Do not be judgemental: Judgemental listening can destroy empathy. You can listen non- judgementally by the following measures: Adopt a non-confrontational approach – This will make the other person feel secure and open up. Identify common interests – Common interests help in bonding with the speaker and create an atmosphere of trust. Avoid leading questions – Leading questions can be confrontational and create frustration and anger. Avoid minimising the problem – When you minimise a problem, you appear to be judgemental. 6 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Strategies for Effective Listening The table 1 sums up some of the characteristics of good listeners, based on studies carried out on perceptions of listening behaviour. Table 1: Characteristics of Good Listeners Considers all evidence before jumping to a conclusion. Takes notes when listening, to recall information or understand a difficult idea. Concentrates on what the speaker is saying and not on unrelated thoughts. Is willing to consider the opinions of others. Listens openly when others disagree with him. Encourages others to express their ideas, instead of occupying centre stage. Can grasp the main idea from others’ comments. Is curious about other people and their ideas. Does not interrupt others or change the topic to suit his/her purpose. Makes the speaker feel comfortable while talking. Remembers important ideas given by others, even when he is busy. Does not pretend to understand, when he is confused. Recognises that people may change over time and have something new to offer. Tries to find solutions to others’ problems. Knows when to speak and when to listen. Activity 1: Request a professor or a friend to give you a session on career counselling. Assess your listening skills by questioning the speaker and paraphrasing (i.e., restating what the speaker says in your own words) what the speaker says during the session. 2. Summary Here is a quick recap of what we have learnt so far: Some of the suggested methods to overcome barriers of effective listening are as follows: o Create a conducive environment 7 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Strategies for Effective Listening o Select face-to-face channels o Be open-minded and avoid distractions o Use non-verbal cues to indicate active listening o Use verbal communication to indicate active listening o Listen first before responding o Use the speaker-listener gap constructively o Do not be judgemental The physical barriers to listening can be overcome by: o Ensuring a proper sound system and acoustics so that the speaker is audible. o Avoiding places with high levels of activity, loud noises from the outside environment and poor air conditioning systems. o Shutting off mobile phones and telephones. Listening is less accurate in the absence of face-to-face communication. Therefore, as far as possible, arrange face-to-face contact to ensure more accurate listening. Judgemental listening can destroy empathy. You can listen non-judgementally by the following measures: o Adopt a non-confrontational approach – This will make the other person feel secure and open. o Identify common interests – Common interests help in bonding with the speaker and create an atmosphere of trust. o Avoid leading questions – Leading questions can be confrontational and create frustration and anger. o Avoid minimising the problem – When you minimise a problem, you appear to be judgemental. 3. Glossary Paraphrasing Restating a text using different words that convey the same meaning. 8 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Segment: Business Communication Skills Topic: Listening in a Business Context Topic: Introduction Listening in a Business Context Table of Contents 1. Listening in a Business Context....................................................................................................... 4 1.1 Listening to Customers............................................................................................................ 4 1.2 Listening to Employees........................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Listening during Job Interviews.............................................................................................. 6 2. Effective Questioning...................................................................................................................... 6 3. Summary....................................................................................................................................... 10 4. Glossary......................................................................................................................................... 10 2 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening in a Business Context Introduction Effective listening is one of the essential qualities of a successful manager. Studies conducted on the skills considered most crucial for managerial ability has indicated that ‘active listening’ is rated as the most important. According to the University of Missouri, in business, people spend about 70%-80% of their time in some form of communication. Another study conducted on about 800 people working in hospitals, universities, businesses, the military, and government agencies found that virtually all of the people believed that their communication is as or more effective than their colleagues. In other studies where business people were asked to describe the communication skills that they considered most important and that they wished they had been taught in college, listening figured on top of the list. Listening is therefore crucial in a business environment. It can boost quality, profits, and, productivity, whereas poor listening has the exact opposite effect. Listening mistakes can lead to costly errors such as retyping of important documents, rescheduling of important meetings, etc. Learning Objectives At the end of this topic, you will be able to: explain the importance of listening in a business context ask the right questions while listening. 3 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening in a Business Context 1. Listening in a Business Context Good listening skills can help you locate job openings, do well in job interviews, and be selected for the job. Once you are on the job, listening becomes even more important. As a manager, you will have to listen to superiors, subordinates, customers, and other stakeholders. Listening is particularly important in certain professions and industries. The service industry, which is a fast growing industry both in India and abroad, is one such example. In the insurance industry, it has been found that good listening has led to career advancement. In the banking sector, good listening skills have been found to distinguish a good bank manager from a bad one. In the healthcare industry, listening to patients has been useful in gathering more accurate information about them. According to a Judi Brownwell a professor at Cornell, one of the top universities in the U.S., “Good service, in many respects, is good listening. To thrive in highly competitive, rapidly changing environments, service employees must learn to listen well.” Tom Peters, business consultant and co-author of the book “In Search of Excellence”, emphasises the importance of listening to customers. He says “Find out what the customers really care about and then act. Listening– that’s the key.” Let us discuss the importance of listening to customers. 1.1 Listening to Customers Organisations today are beginning to recognise the importance of being customer oriented. Customer orientation means identifying and then satisfying customer needs, which in turn involves listening to what the customer really wants. When measuring customer satisfaction, it is also important to listen to and respond to customer complaints. This is because a dissatisfied customer can create negative word-of-mouth publicity for your product and company. Therefore, it is important to satisfy and retain your existing customers, so that they remain loyal to your company. We will discuss some approaches for handling customer complaints and listening to customers. The different approaches are as follows: Believe the customer – There is a saying that “The customer is the king.” Therefore, it is important to take the customers at their word, even though they may not be telling the truth, rather than doubt what they are saying. Even if the customers’ complaints may not be justified, it is important to make an attempt to solve their problems. 4 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION  Listening in a Business Context Listen actively – Make your customers feel that you are showing empathy, or putting yourself in their place. When a customer starts to complain, it is important to hear out the complaint completely, before responding or offering a solution. Sometimes a customer may be rude, angry, and frustrated, but he/she needs to be handled tactfully. Once he/she has vented his/her feelings, it would be a good strategy to repeat the problem accurately, to show that you have heard and understood clearly. Consider the following example of how a sales assistant in a medical shop deals with an angry customer: “What you are saying is that you entered the shop, asked for, and paid for 20 headache pills. When you got home, you discovered that you had been given only 10, is that correct?” This is the best way to show the customer that you have listened to and registered the complaint. Apologise – Even if the customer and not the company are at fault, it is always a good idea to apologise to your complaining customer. From the customer’s perspective, he/she is right and therefore expects an apology. A sincere apology will go a long way in calming down an angry customer. A general statement of apology such as “We are sorry for the inconvenience caused to you” will be sufficient in such a situation. A written letter of apology would also be effective in regaining the customer’s trust and confidence in the company. Satisfy – There is a saying that “A satisfied customer is the best advertisement for your product.” This is because such a customer will spread positive word-of-mouth publicity about your product to others. Therefore, it is important to identify your most valuable customers, listen to them, and make efforts to retain them, by offering them special privileges from time to time. Thank – Even if the customer has launched a complaint, it is important to thank the customer for bringing it to your attention, so that a solution can be found. A customer complaint should be looked at positively - as an opportunity to solve a problem that did not exist earlier. In the absence of the complaint, you may not have been aware of the problem in the first place and this could have damaged the reputation of the organisation. 1.2 Listening to Employees Earlier we discussed the importance of upward communication through which subordinates give feedback and suggestions to their superiors. This type of communication should be encouraged and not suppressed, since valuable suggestions may sometimes come from employees. Superiors need to be open to the suggestions and complaints of employees. This is an indication 5 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening in a Business Context that they are listening to their employees. Listening also means inviting suggestions and personal opinions of employees through regular downward communication. Another situation where listening to employees is of prime importance is during a performance appraisal. This is also part of downward communication. A manager doing a performance review of a subordinate should take care not to do a destructive review, where the subordinate is criticised for poor performance. On the other hand, a constructive review, through which a manager hears out the employee’s problems and reasons for lack of performance, is an indication of listening to the employee. In this case, he/she listens with empathy and understanding, which we defined earlier as ‘empathetic listening’. In such a situation, the manager should also practice ‘therapeutic listening’, whereby the manager counsels the employee on how to improve performance. 1.3 Listening during Job Interviews Listening is also a skill that is needed by both job interviewers and interviewees, in order to make the interview a success. Ideally, listening should take up half the interviewing time, although this rarely happens in reality, since one person or the other fails to listen for some reason or the other. We have discussed the barriers to listening in detail. The relative importance of listening may vary, depending on the type of interview. In an employment interview where the purpose is to assess how well an applicant will perform on the job through discussion, listening will be equally important for both the interviewer and the interviewee. On the other hand, in an ‘exit’ interview, where the purpose is to gather feedback from the employee regarding the reasons for leaving the organisation, the interviewer may have to do more of the listening. 2. Effective Questioning Effective Questioning facilitates effective listening. Asking the right questions enables us to understand the subject better. Effective questioning can help in uncovering needs and analysing problems. It can also help you in negotiating. The different forms of questions that help in effective questioning are: Open questions Closed questions 6 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening in a Business Context Probing questions Leading questions Hypothetical questions Let us now discuss these types of questions in greater detail. Open questions: Open questions help in obtaining detailed answers. They discourage ‘yes’ or ‘no’ kind of answers. These questions help you to gather a lot of information. They usually begin with any of the following: What Why When Where Who How Some examples of open-ended questions are: What are your areas of responsibilities? What are your plans for the coming month? Why do you think you are a good candidate for this position? How will you integrate Process A with Process B? Open questions have the following advantages: They help a person to open up. They are a powerful negotiating tool. They help in obtaining additional information. They make you a better communicator. Open questions have the following disadvantages: The answers obtained are not very specific or reliable. The answers cannot be used exclusively. 7 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening in a Business Context Closed questions: Closed questions are those questions that can be answered in one or two words. They yield quick but incomplete information. They are often used in surveys as they limit the respondent’s answers. Closed ended questions usually begin with one of the following verbs: Are Did Will Won’t Didn’t Aren’t Some examples of closed questions are: Are you evaluating different suppliers? Can you deliver the product by the end of the month? Will you accept an annual salary of Rs 4,50,000? Closed questions have the following advantages: They can be easily analysed. They are more specific. They take less time to answer. They help in obtaining definite answers. They narrow the focus of the conversation. Closed questions have the following disadvantages: As they result in very short answers, they are not very reliable. Many questions are required to obtain complete information. Closed questions are usually asked at the end of the negotiation or conversation. Probing questions: Probing questions are follow-up questions that seek additional information. You can use probing questions to elicit more information and explore an issue in greater detail. These questions help in filling the gaps identified by the initial questions. You can use probing 8 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening in a Business Context questions to understand the needs of your prospects. They help to reduce misunderstandings. You can use the word ‘exactly’ to probe further. Some examples of probing questions are: When exactly will you submit the report? You say that you cannot complete the project by the end of the month. Why is that? What did you best like about this training programme? Probing questions have the following advantages: They help you to obtain clarification and understand an issue thoroughly. They help you to obtain information from people who do not want to reveal it completely. Leading questions: A leading question is a question that implies an answer. You can use a leading question to indicate an answer and make the other person agree with you. The disadvantage of leading questions is that it discourages the respondents from thinking on their own. Leading questions can be implicit or explicit, verbal, or non-verbal. Some examples of leading questions are: I assume you liked the presentation? How great was the service provided by our customer service department? We can offer a discount of 5 percent if you purchase more than 1000 units. I am sure this is O.K. with you? You can use leading questions to: get the answer you desire. close a sale. Leading questions must be used with care. If you use it for your own self-interests you may appear to be dishonest and manipulative. Hypothetical questions: Hypothetical questions describe a fictitious situation and seek your response to it. You can use a hypothetical question to gauge response and to determine the position of your negotiating partner. Interviewers can use hypothetical questions to identify key competencies. Some examples of hypothetical questions are: 9 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Listening in a Business Context If you had a conflict with your manager, how would you resolve it? Imagine you are approaching a deadline, but the work is only 70 percent complete. What would you do? Assume that I am giving you two more weeks to complete the order. Can you assure me that you can deliver quality products? Hypothetical questions have the following advantages: They help you to explore possibilities. They help you in making a choice when you have many options to solve a problem. They help you in testing your suppositions and hunches. 3. Summary Here is a quick recap of what we have learnt so far: Effective listening is one of the essential qualities of a successful manager. Customer orientation means identifying and then satisfying customer needs, which in turn involves listening to what the customer really wants. Listening is also a skill that is needed by both job interviewers and interviewees, in order to make the interview a success. Effective Questioning facilitates effective listening. Asking the right questions enables us to understand the subject better. The different forms of questions that help in effective questioning are: Open questions, closed questions, probing questions, leading questions and hypothetical questions 4. Glossary Hypothetical Based on a surmise Performance It is a process which involves reviewing and discussing an employee's appraisal performance of assigned tasks and responsibilities. The review is done depending on results performance of the employee in his/her job, not on the physical characteristics. 10 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Segment: Business Communication Skills Topic: General Principles of Writing Topic: Introduction General Principles of Writing Table of Contents 1. General Principles of Writing........................................................................................................... 5 1.1 Writing Methodology.............................................................................................................. 5 1.2 Tips on Writing Style............................................................................................................... 7 1.3 Active vs. Passive Voice......................................................................................................... 13 1.4 Spelling and Punctuation...................................................................................................... 14 1.5 Common Errors in English..................................................................................................... 16 2. Summary....................................................................................................................................... 18 3. Glossary......................................................................................................................................... 19 2 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing Introduction In the previous topics, we discussed the meaning of listening, some obstacles to listening and methods that can be adopted for better listening in the workplace. Writing skills are equally crucial and critical similar to listening skills in business communication. Errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation and typing can affect the business communication significantly. Any inconsistency in writing the message might lead to misunderstanding or miscommunication. Therefore, in business communication, clarity and concreteness of the message are very vital. You might lose your customer if you fail to communicate the information correctly and completely. At the same time, you must remember that general writing is very different from business writing in terms of tone, language, and degree of formality of the communication. Some of the do’s and don’ts of business writing will be highlighted in this topic. This will lay the foundation for writing business letters and reports which will be discussed in the later topics. We cannot say that all business communications are positive. Some experts have noticed that technological advancements have made communication simpler and more efficient. This has gradually reduced the formal writing skills of business people. Marty Blalock, in his article 'Why Good Communication is Good Business' has pointed out that ineffective communication is expensive. According to the National Commission on Writing, American businesses spend about $3.1 billion a year to train their employees on writing. Blalock has also pointed out that the Commission supports the requirement of effective business communication skills in employers. About two-thirds of jobs in large American companies are based on writing duties. Many American companies have involved 'assessment of writing skills of job seekers' as part of their hiring process. (Source:http://www.ehow.com/list_7440247_trends-business-communication- today.html#ixzz1dl0YlibM) 3 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing Learning Objectives At the end of this topic, you will be able to: evaluate your writing style identify common errors in English usage recognise the appropriate use of active and passive voice, grammar and punctuation. 4 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing 1. General Principles of Writing Written messages must be made as readable as possible. We need to make them uncomplicated and easy so that even an average person can understand their meaning. Readability in turn is largely determined by the length of words, sentences, and paragraphs. A common mistake made by writers, especially Indian writers, is to try to impress the reader by using flowery language and an oratory style of writing. Two broad principles of writing are” Write to express, not to impress” and “Keep it short and sweet.” A good writer is one who follows these principles and asks himself/herself even before framing a sentence “What am I trying to say? What words will express it?” Let us try to understand these principles first by discussing the different stages of writing. We will then become familiar with some tips on writing style, followed by some specific rules regarding English language usage, spelling, and punctuation. 1.1 Writing Methodology Writing methodology comprises of three stages: Prewriting Writing Reviewing Figure 1 depicts the three stages of writing. Fig.1: Stages of Writing Methodology (Source: Reproduced from Guffey, M. E., and Loewy, D. (2011). Business Communication: Process and Product, 7th ed. USA: South-Western Cengage Learning) 5 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing Let us now discuss them in brief. Prewriting: Prewriting is a structured thinking process that helps you to explore and understand what you have to write. The techniques of prewriting help you to determine the approach to choose and plan to implement it. Usually, a prewriting plan enables you to explore a topic from different perspectives. It also helps you to discover new and original ideas for writing the topic. In the pre-writing stage, you analyse your audience to determine your audience’s requirements, anticipate the audience’s knowledge, and design the strategy that can be adapted to communicate. For example, what language you have to use to convey the message to the audience, whether it will be formal or conversational? Writing: After knowing the audience and developing strategies you can research the topic and gather essential data. Once you gather the required data, you can organise your content i.e., decide the flow, group similar facts, identify the important facts to be mentioned, etc. Later, you begin to compose or write i.e., construct sentences and paragraphs. First you write a draft. While drafting, you write the information that you have researched in your own words. You build sentences and paragraphs even though they are not 100 percent perfect. You read what you have written and check whether what you have written is what you mean. You then get the document reviewed by others and ask for suggestions to improve the content. Reviewing: In this stage, you revise, proofread, and evaluate the message. You check whether the sentences are complete and if your content is correct. You check for spelling, capitalisation, punctuation, grammar, and parallelism. You will check for clarity of the content written and ensure that no errors are present in the content. Figure 2 depicts the inverted pyramid of review steps. 6 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION  General Principles of Writing Fig. 2: Review Steps The four steps shown in figure 2 can help you to make your review process effective. The four steps can be explained as follows: 1. Review for strategy – Review whether the document adheres to the design strategy. For example, whether objectives are accomplished, the main idea is conveyed first or last, the technicalities are defined as per target audience requirements, the language style used is as per audience requirement, credibility is established, logical flow, etc. 2. Review for macro issues – Review the document as a whole before reviewing sentence by sentence. For example, document design, the connection between sections and subsection, the effectiveness of paragraphs or sections, etc. 3. Review for micro issues – Review the sentences and words, for example, check for wordiness, long sentences, complex and incomplete sentences, clarity of sentences, etc. 4. Review for correctness – Review for the correctness of the content with respect to grammar and punctuation, for example, parts of speech, parallelism, incorrect use of a comma, etc. 1.2 Tips on Writing Style You can improve your writing style by choosing the right words for conveying the meaning. Some of the common problems include the use of complicated words, the use of jargon, slang, and colourful language and mistakes in using the parts-of-speech. 7 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing Simple vs. complex words: As far as possible, the sender should select words that are within the receiver’s vocabulary. If the words used are outside the vocabulary of the receiver, the latter may not get the message at all, or get the wrong message by guessing the meaning incorrectly or wonder whether the sender intentionally selected a complicated word for making an impression. Therefore, it is important to consider the educational level and the knowledge of the reader. Hence, it is better to rely on plain, simple words, such as the ones shown in the first column, rather than in the second column of table 1, even though they mean the same thing. Table 1: Some Simple Word Equivalents for Complex Words Simple word equivalent Complex word About Approximately Do Accomplish Improve Ameliorate Show Demonstrate Change Modify Ask Interrogate This is because short and simple words convey ideas more effectively and require less time and space. They also invite the sender to concentrate on ideas, rather than calling attention to the words themselves. Jargon, slang and metaphors: ‘Jargon’ refers to technical terms that belong to a particular subject area or discipline. For example, medical jargon would include terms that only medical practitioners can understand. These terms cannot be understood by the common man. Some of the terms in the medical jargon are, ’agonal’ meaning a major negative change in a patient’s condition, FX for fracture, and IM for intramuscular. Such terms are to be avoided in general writing since they would be out of context. The only instance where jargon can be used and might be essential is in highly technical reports, where the reader is in a position to understand these terms. For example, computer jargon such as browser, bus, cache, chip, cookie, CPU, crash, database, dot pitch, download, driver, and file can be used only while writing reports related to computer technology. 8 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing ‘Slang’ refers to casual words that are not accepted and recognised in a standard English dictionary. For example, ’ace’ means very good, ’action’ means excitement, ’blown away’ means greatly impressed, ’flip out’ means losing control, and ’glitch’ means defect. While they could be used in a limited way in general or informal writing, they are to be avoided in business writing, which needs to be formal in nature. A ‘metaphor’ is a figure of speech and refers to colourful comparisons that evoke visual images. For example, consider the following sentences: 1. He is ‘rock solid’ in his support. 2. We provide an ‘umbrella of insurance’ product for your security. While such comparisons may be used in informal writing or in the language of advertising, they are to be avoided in business communication which has to be objective and formal. Parts of speech: In the same way that use of big, complicated words may result in receipt of the wrong message, use of small words in the wrong way grammatically could have the same result. Such problems exist in all parts-of-speech categories. Some of the parts of speech which we will be discussing in this topic are: Nouns Pronouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Let us now briefly discuss each of these parts of speech. Nouns: Just as the main actor in a film is the most important character, the subject in a sentence is the most important noun. There are two categories of nouns – ‘abstract nouns’ or nouns that cannot be visualised and ‘concrete nouns’ or nouns that can be visualised. A message will be understood more clearly if concrete nouns are used as subjects in a sentence, rather than abstract nouns. For example, consider the following two sentences: 1. ‘Cancellation’ of the contract will be done in March. (Use of abstract noun as subject) 2. The ‘contract’ will be cancelled in March. (Use of concrete noun as subject) 9 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing In this example, the second sentence, using ‘contract’ as the subject, is likely to be understood more clearly by the receiver. Not only is ‘contract’ something which can be visualised, it also emphasises the main idea in the sentence. Let us consider another example. 1. That ‘decision’ can be made only by the supervisor. (Abstract noun as subject) 2. Only the ‘supervisor’ can make that decision. (Concrete noun as subject) Pronouns: Sometimes, using the masculine form of a pronoun might be taken in an offensive way by the receiver, especially if the receiver happens to be a woman. Even if the receiver is not a woman, the use of a masculine pronoun may convey the impression of being sexist. For example, consider the following sentence: “You need to consult your professor on that subject, but he has to be a specialist in the area of Finance”. In this sentence, the use of the masculine pronoun ‘he’ conveys the unintentional message that professors can only be men and not women, which could be taken as an offense. Such offensive pronouns can be avoided in the following ways: 1. Avoid the usage of pronouns completely For example, “you need to consult your professor on that subject, but a specialist in the area of Finance is required.” 2. Repeat the noun For example, “you need to consult your professor on that subject, but the professor has to be a specialist in the area of Finance.” 3. Use a plural noun For example, “you need to consult some of your professors on that subject, but they have to be specialists in the area of Finance.” (The use of ‘they’ avoids implying that professors can be only men). 4. Use pronouns from both genders For example, you need to consult your professor on that subject, but he or she has to be a specialist in the area of Finance. Another principle regarding use of pronouns is to avoid excessive use of the first-person pronoun ‘I’, since this gives the impression that one is always talking about oneself. Never sound too pleased with yourself or boast of your own achievements. This is especially true of business writing, where it is important to be objective, rather than subjective. 10 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing The second person pronoun ‘you’ also needs to be used with care. A rule of thumb is to use the second person pronoun when emphasising a positive idea or message and to avoid the second person when presenting a negative idea. The following two sentences illustrate the usage of second person pronoun: 1. ‘You’ made a good presentation. 2. ‘You’ made a number of mistakes in the report. The first sentence contains a positive idea. Therefore, the second person pronoun should be used, since it gives credit to the person who made the presentation. But, the second sentence contains a negative idea and emphasises that ‘you’ are responsible. This should be avoided by framing the sentence differently, such as “The report contained a number of mistakes.” Verbs: Since verbs are action words and action is an essential part of a sentence, correct use of verbs is important. Senders of messages must use verbs that agree in number with the subjects of the sentence. The following sentences illustrate the misuse and the correct use of verbs in sentences: 1. Only one of the students ‘are’ present. (Wrong usage) Only one of the students ‘is’ present. (Right usage) 2. Each of the following reports ‘have’ been modified. (Wrong usage) Each of the following reports ‘has’ been modified. (Right usage) Note that the singular form of the verb and not the plural should be used in both the above sentences, to agree with the subject, which is in singular form (‘Only one’ and ‘Each’). Verbs must also agree in person. The most common errors are made in agreement with the third person and the second person. For example, the following two sentences illustrate the usage of verbs in agreement with person: 1. He ‘don’t’ like to work late. (Wrong) He ‘doesn’t’ like to work late. (Correct) 2. You ‘was’ informed that the exams begin next week. (Wrong) You ‘were’ informed that the exams begin next week. (Correct) Thirdly, since verbs indicate the time of action – past, present or future, they should be used in the correct tenses. The tenses should also be used consistently. The following sentences illustrate the misuse of tenses: 1. He ‘listens’ to the presentation and ‘gave’ his feedback. 11 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing 2. The manager ‘spoke’ to the customer, but ‘does not respond’ to his complaint. In both the sentences, it is not clear whether the event is past or present, since the tenses are not used uniformly. It is better to use two present tense verbs or two past tense verbs, but not one of each in the same sentence. Thus, sentences 1 and 2 can be written as follows: 1. He ‘listens’ to the presentation and ‘gives’ his feedback. 2. The manager ‘spoke’ to the customer but ‘did not respond’ to his complaint. Adjectives: Adjectives give information about or describe nouns. Although they play a less important role in a sentence compared to verbs and nouns, they must be used with care. A common tendency is to use very strong adjectives, too many adjectives, or superlatives. The following sentences illustrate the misuse of adjectives: 1. Sales this year have been absolutely ‘incredible’. 2. That is the most ‘wonderful’, ‘powerful’, and ‘moving’ speech that I have heard in a long time. 3. Ours is the ‘best’ product in the market today. In the first sentence, if a sales report is being written or presented, it would be better to give details about sales figures, rather than describe sales as ‘incredible’. In the second sentence, a single adjective could have been used in place of three adjectives, which are too many. The third example is a claim that needs to be defined (i.e., best in what way?), or supported with adequate proof. Adverbs: In the same way that adjectives describe nouns, adverbs describe or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Therefore, the same principles apply when using adverbs – i.e., avoid the use of adverbs that are too strong, or are superlatives. For example, consider the following sentences: 1. Sales have been ‘fantastically’ high this year. The adverb ‘fantastically’ describes the adjective ‘high’ and is too strong to be credible. 2. This secretary types the ‘fastest’. Here, the adverb ‘fastest’ describes the verb ‘types’ and is a superlative, which is to be avoided, unless it can be defined or supported with proof. 12 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION  General Principles of Writing 1.3 Active vs. Passive Voice In the previous section, we studied the correct usage of verbs. Verbs may also be classified as ‘active verbs’ and ‘passive verbs.’ Using the ‘active voice’ means that the subject is the doer of the action and that the verb is active. On the other hand, a sentence in ‘passive voice’ means that the subject is the receiver of the action and that the verb is passive. For example, consider the following sentences: 1. John ‘wrote’ the report. (Active voice) 2. The report ‘was written’ by John. (Passive voice) Note that in the first sentence, the use of the active voice draws attention to the doer of the action namely ‘John’. This gives a sharper picture to the receiver of the message. In the second sentence, the subject, i.e., the ‘report’, is emphasised more than the doer of the action, giving a less clear picture to the receiver. In most cases, the active voice is preferable to the passive, since it conveys ideas more vividly. However, there are instances when the use of the passive voice is more appropriate. They are as follows: When the doer of the action has to be subordinated, rather than highlighted – For example, this is the case when writing research reports. It is more important to emphasise what has been done, rather than who has done it. Therefore, it would be better to say, “A questionnaire was prepared, and interviews were conducted among a small sample.” rather than saying “I prepared a questionnaire and conducted interviews among a small sample” This makes the report more objective, rather than subjective. When an unpleasant or negative idea has to be subordinated – Generally, negative thoughts should be de-emphasised and not highlighted. The passive voice is useful in such cases, as illustrated in the following sentences: o The corrections in the report have not been carried out. (Passive voice) o You have not carried out the corrections in the report. (Active voice) The first sentence downplays a negative idea – the fact that the changes in the report have not been included and are, therefore less annoying to the receiver than the second. Expressing the 13 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION  General Principles of Writing same idea in an active voice may seem like pointing fingers at the doer of the action and is likely to upset human relations. 1.4 Spelling and Punctuation The important point to remember concerning spelling is the difference between British English and American English. Certain words are spelt differently in British and American English. Table 2 illustrates some of these differences. Table 2: Some Differences in Spellings between British and American English British American Humour Humor Colour Color Analyse Analyze Organisation Organization Programme Program Centre Center Cheque Check Generally British spellings should be used, unless you are addressing an American audience. In any case, either British or American spellings should be uniformly used and not mixed, to ensure greater readability. Another common mistake made with spellings is to confuse the noun form with the verb form. Table 3 shows the differences in spellings of the noun and verb form of some words. Table 3: Differences in Spellings of Noun and Verb Form Noun Verb Licence License Advice Advise Practice Practise 14 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing Some words may sound the same but have different meanings when spelt differently. Some words may include a single vowel that makes them sound different and have very different meanings. It is important not to get confused with the spellings of such words. For example, 1. ‘Compliment’ means to praise someone, whereas ‘complement’ means to go with (for example, “your jewellery complements your outfit”). 2. ‘Stationery’ refers to paper, pencils, etc., whereas ‘stationary’ means ‘still or not moving’. Punctuation: Correct use of punctuation is important in both general writing and business writing. Let us now discuss the main categories of punctuation and their uses. Apostrophe: Apostrophe is used to form the possessive singular form of words. For example, ‘the Company’s profits’. It is used to form the possessive plural of words ending in ‘s’. For example, ‘the dealers’ margin’. It is used in expressions that indicate ownership. For example, ‘last year’s record’. Parentheses or Brackets: Parentheses or brackets can be used to separate a phrase from the main section of a sentence when it is not related to it grammatically. For example, “The Indian team tried their best (God knows it) but lost in the finals.” Colon: Colon is used to suggest that a list will follow a statement in sentence form. For example, “For three reasons, we have decided to expand our market: 1) 2) 3).” Comma: Comma is used for the following purposes: To separate words in a series. For example, “The main punctuation categories are the full stop, the comma, the colon, the semicolon, and the apostrophe.” To separate two adjectives that modify the same noun. For example, “The MBA exam is a long, difficult, and objective type exam.” Dash: Dash is used to separate the words in a sentence that are not necessary for its structure. For example, “His answer – the correct answer – was supported by examples drawn from his own experience.” 15 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION  General Principles of Writing Full stop or period: Full stop or period is used: at the end of a sentence. after abbreviations. For example, Dr., No., Jr., etc. Quotation marks: Quotation marks are used for the following purposes: To enclose what is stated by others, verbatim. For example, the manager said, “I will review your progress every month.” To enclose titles of magazine and newspaper articles. For example, “Progress in Stem Cell Research.” Semicolon: Semicolon is used to express a pause that is longer than that expressed by a comma and is used to separate clauses of a compound sentence when they have a comma. For example, “We would like the material to be delivered in the morning hours, but before 5 pm will also be convenient.” (Without using semicolon) “We would like the material to be delivered in the morning hours; but if this is not possible for you before 5 pm will also be convenient.” (Using semicolon) 1.5 Common Errors in English ‘Indian English’ tends to be prone to some common mistakes which should be avoided, to make the communication clear and easily understood by the receiver. Some of these mistakes include ‘redundancies’, ‘cliches’, and ‘frequently misused words’. We will discuss each of these briefly. Redundancies: Redundancies refer to phrases that contain repetitive or unnecessary words to express the same meaning. This is a common mistake that occurs across the world and must be avoided. Consider the following sentences: 1. In the first class, the professor taught the ‘basic fundamentals’ of Marketing. 2. I have to ‘return back’ home before midnight. 16 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing The phrases ‘basic fundamentals’ and ‘return back’ are redundancies. In the first sentence, ‘basic’ is an unnecessary word, since fundamentals themselves are basic; in the second sentence, it is sufficient to say, ‘return home’ and ‘back’ is an unnecessary word. A few more examples are: True facts Past history Exactly identical Personal opinion Other alternative Redundancy does not serve any purpose and is a mistake since it wastes words. Cliches: Cliches are phrases that are overused and should be avoided since they make reading monotonous. They should be substituted with more original expressions. Some commonly used clichés are: 1. ‘Last but not least’, I would like to thank all the students for attending this session. 2. ‘Thanking you in advance’, I remain …. 3. Looking forward to meeting and discussing this with you ‘at an early date’. 4. ‘No problem’. In the first sentence, ‘last but not least’, which is a worn expression, could be substituted by ‘finally’. The cliché ‘thanking you in advance’ is presumptuous, since it assumes that the reader will do whatever has been asked. It seems to say that instead of thanking later, you will save time by expressing your thanks now. Therefore, it is better to say, ‘I shall appreciate your (action)’ or ‘If you will (action), I shall be grateful.’ In the third example, the expression ‘at an early date’ is too vague and should be substituted with ‘soon’ or with a specific date. The fourth example ‘No problem’ is a cliché used commonly by Indians. Although it denies that there is a problem, the problem exists. You might have said for example, that you did not have enough cash to pay for something, in response to which the shopkeeper may have said ‘No problem, we accept credit cards’. Therefore, this expression is avoidable. 17 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing Frequently misused words Certain words which sound similar or are spelt slightly different, tend to be used in the wrong context. Some examples are as follows: 1. ‘All together’ and ‘altogether’ – ‘All together’ means ‘in one group’, whereas ‘altogether’ means ‘completely’. For example, The answer is ‘altogether’ wrong. The students were ‘all together’. 2. ‘Already’ and ‘all ready’ – ‘Already’ means ‘at a previous time’, whereas ‘all ready’ means ‘everything is ready’. For example, He had ‘already’ left when I called. The computers are ‘al ready’ to be used. 3. ‘Eminent’ and ‘imminent’ – ‘Eminent’ means ‘well known’, ‘imminent’ means ‘about to happen’. For example, An ‘eminent’ lawyer will handle the matter. A midterm election is ‘imminent’. 4. ‘Lose’ and ‘loose’ – ‘Lose’ means ‘to fail to keep carefully’, ‘loose’ means ‘not tight’. For example, Don’t ‘lose’ the money. The shirt is too ‘loose’ for him. 5. ‘Principal’ and ‘principle’ – ‘Principal’ means ‘main or primary’, ‘principle’ means ‘rule.’ For example The ‘principal’ reason for leaving early is the peak hour traffic. One of the subjects studied in the first semester of MBA is ‘Principles’ of Management. 2. Summary Here is a quick recap of what we have learnt so far: Writing methodology comprises of three stages: Prewriting, Writing and Reviewing 18 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION General Principles of Writing Prewriting is a structured thinking process that helps you to explore and understand what you have to write. You can improve your writing style by choosing the right words for conveying the meaning. Some of the common problems include the use of complicated words, the use of jargon, slang, and colourful language and mistakes in using the parts-of-speech. Jargon’ refers to technical terms that belong to a particular subject area or discipline. Adjectives give information about or describe nouns. Redundancies refer to phrases that contain repetitive or unnecessary words to express the same meaning. Cliches are phrases that are overused and should be avoided since they make reading monotonous. 3. Glossary Parallelism Similarity of construction or meaning of clauses placed side by side. Phrase Two or more words in sequence that form a syntactic unit that is less than a complete sentence. Presumptuous Going beyond what is right or proper. 19 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Segment: Business Communication Skills Topic: Principles of Business Writing Topic: Introduction Principles of Business Writing Table of Contents 1. Principles of Business Writing..........................................................................................................4 1.1 Tone.........................................................................................................................................4 1.2 Emphasis and Subordination...................................................................................................5 1.3 Write at an Appropriate Level of Readability...........................................................................7 2. Summary..........................................................................................................................................8 3. Glossary...........................................................................................................................................9 2 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Principles of Business Writing Introduction In the previous topic, we discussed the general principles of writing. We understood these principles first by discussing the different stages of writing. We also discussed some specific rules regarding English language usage, spelling, and punctuation. In this topic, we shall discuss the specifics of business writing. As pointed out earlier, the language, style, and tone of business writing are very different from general writing. Therefore, we will examine these aspects in detail. Learning Objectives At the end of this topic, you will be able to: distinguish between general and business writing compose a piece of business communication confidently. 3 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Principles of Business Writing 1. Principles of Business Writing Having dealt with writing in general, we will now discuss the specifics of business writing. As pointed out earlier, the language, style, and tone of business writing are very different from general writing. Therefore, we will examine these aspects in detail. 1.1 Tone We discussed the tone of voice or ‘paralanguage’, in segment 2. You learnt that the spoken words, however perfect, can convey a negative message if the tone of voice is not consistent with what is said. The tone is equally important in conveying written messages, particularly business- related messages. In written communication, tone refers to the way a statement sounds, which in turn, depends on the choice of words. A sentence or statement may be grammatically perfect but may convey a negative message if the choice of words is wrong. For example, “You failed to meet the sales target”. This statement has a negative tone since it emphasises what could not be achieved. The same idea could be expressed in a more positive tone, by emphasising what could have been done instead. For example, “With a little extra effort, you could have achieved the target”. This example shows that even a negative idea can be expressed in positive language through the use of appropriate words. The tone of business communication should also be confident. You should avoid language that makes you sound unsure of yourself. For example, “I hope you will agree that my qualifications match your job profile”. Beginning the sentence with ‘I hope’ creates the impression that you lack confidence in yourself. It might be better to say “On reviewing my bio-data, you will find that my qualifications match your job needs in the following respects…” While it is important to be self-assured, avoid sounding overconfident and pompous. For example, “I am sure you will agree that our Company has the best reputation for quality and service”. Instead, you can write the same as “We shall try to live up to our reputation for quality and service.” 4 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Principles of Business Writing Another aspect of tone is to sound courteous and sincere. This builds goodwill and good relations and increases the likelihood of a message achieving its objectives. Avoid statements such as the following: You sent your complaint to the wrong department. You should have sent it to the shipping department. This sounds very discourteous and rude when responding to a customer complaint. Instead, it might be better to say, “We have sent your complaint to the concerned department, which will be contacting you shortly.” Sincerity also means avoiding exaggeration and flattery, especially when communicating with customers. Consider the following examples: 1. We are more interested in your satisfaction than in making profits. 2. You are such a valued customer that we shall go to any lengths to earn your satisfaction. The first sentence sounds insincere since the main objective of any organisation is to make profits. The second sentence is exaggerated and unduly flatters the customer. It should be toned down by saying something such as “We value your goodwill and will make quick efforts to ensure your satisfaction.” Finally, the tone of business writing should be non-discriminatory. This means that the language that is used should not be offensive, irrespective of gender, religion, or race. One way of ensuring this is to avoid ‘sexist language’ by using neutral job titles, or titles that do not imply that a job is held only by a man. For example, ‘Chairperson’, instead of ‘Chairman.’ ‘Salesperson’, instead of ‘Salesman.’ If the reader’s gender is not known, use a non-sexist salutation such as ‘Dear Customer, Investor, or Advertiser’, instead of ‘Dear Sir or Madam.’ Personal titles and salutations such as ‘Dr.’, ‘Professor’, etc., should be used wherever appropriate. 1.2 Emphasis and Subordination A business writer can be compared to an artist or a musician. Just like an artist or a musician, a business writer too tries to make certain elements stand out and others to get little attention. An important principle of business writing is to emphasise important ideas and to downplay 5 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Principles of Business Writing unimportant ideas, so as to make the reader understand what you consider to be significant. Generally, pleasant and important thoughts are emphasised, while unpleasant and insignificant thoughts are subordinated or de-emphasised. The techniques that a business writer can use for emphasis are: Place the idea in the first paragraph or in the last paragraph, in order to get attention. Put the word that you wish to emphasise first or last in the sentence. For example, ‘Success’ comes through sincere efforts. ‘Failure’ will result without them. Or, the event was a ‘success’. Without your efforts, it would have been a ‘failure’. Use the active voice to emphasise the doer of the action and the passive voice to emphasise the receiver of the action. For example, ‘John’ made the presentation. (Active) ‘The presentation’ was made by John. (Passive) Use words such as ‘primary’, ‘major’, and ‘significant’ to lay emphasis. For example, “Cost is a ‘significant’ factor to be taken into consideration.” Use repetition. For example, “The Tata Nano is an ‘inexpensive’ car. It is ‘inexpensive’ to purchase and ‘inexpensive’ to maintain.” Number the ideas, so as to rank them in the order of importance. For example, the main reasons for his poor performance are – 1) Lack of training 2) Lack of team skills and 3) Lack of motivation. Use visual elements such as bold type, capital letters, bigger font size, and underlined words to emphasise key ideas. For example, “The Reva electric car is ‘25% LESS POLLUTING’ than other cars”. Use compare and contrast to convey the similarities and differences. For example, “Although oranges and apples grow in trees, oranges are citric fruits”. 6 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION  Principles of Business Writing Use parallelism, where a noun is listed with other nouns, an -ing form with other -ing forms, etc. For example, Sentence 1: Tom plays the piano. Sentence 2: Tom plays the violin. Parallelism: Tom plays the piano and the violin. Another point to be remembered regarding emphasis in business writing is to stress what is known as the ‘you attitude’, rather than the ‘me attitude.’ This means explaining the benefits to the reader, understanding his situation, and answering his unspoken question ‘How is it relevant to me?’ For example, instead of saying, ‘Our bank will be open 24 hours’, say ‘You will be able to avail round-the-clock banking service. 1.3 Write at an Appropriate Level of Readability The third very important rule of business writing is to tailor your writing to your audience and to make it simple enough for even a layperson to read and understand. As pointed out in an earlier section, readability is determined by the length of words and sentences. Robert Gunning developed what is known as the ‘Fog Index’ or a readability formula to measure the readability of a piece of writing. According to this formula, the appropriate reading level in business writing should be between 8 and 11. Calculation of the Fog Index involves the following steps: 1. Select a written passage of approximately 100 words. 2. Calculate the average length of a sentence by dividing the total number of words in the passage by the number of sentences. 3. Find the number of difficult words. A word may be defined as difficult if it contains three or more syllables (example, ‘communication’). Determine the number of difficult words per 7 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Principles of Business Writing hundred, by dividing the total number of words in the passage into the number of difficult words, then by multiplying this figure by 100. 4. Add the number of difficult words per hundred and the average sentence length. 5. Multiply the figure obtained in step 4 by 0.4, to calculate the reading grade level for which the passage was written or the Fog Index. Ideally, the Fog Index should be between 8 and 11 for most business writing, indicating that a reader between the eighth grade and the eleventh grade should be able to understand it without difficulty. Activity 1: Select an article from any business publication and measure its readability by calculating the Fog Index. Is the level of readability appropriate for the audience? Common parallelism mistakes made: 1. We often forget to complete the second construction. For example, “Sheela likes to run and swim”. The correct sentence is “Sheela likes to run and to swim”. 2. We do not maintain consistency in the pronouns and verbs used. For example, “Raju wanted a cookie, but the last one was eaten by Ram”. The correct sentence is “Raju wanted a cookie, but Ram ate the last one”. 2. Summary Here is a quick recap of what we have learnt so far: Tone is equally important in conveying written messages, particularly business related messages. An important principle of business writing is to emphasise important ideas and to downplay unimportant ideas, so as to make the reader understand what you consider to be significant. Generally, pleasant and important thoughts are emphasised, while unpleasant and insignificant thoughts are subordinated or de-emphasised. 8 ©COPYRIGHT 2019, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MANIPAL ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION Principles of