Airport Operations, Security, and Maintenance PDF

Certified Member (C.M.) AIRPORT OPERATIONS, SECURITY AND MAINTENANCE MODULE 3 Certified Member 2022 SEVENTH EDITION @All Rights Reserved © 2022 American Association of Airport Executives By Jeffrey C. Price, C.M. and Dr. Jeffrey S. Forrest - Leading Edge Strategies. Jeffrey Price and Jeffrey Forrest are Professors of Aviation and Aerospace Science at Metropolitan State University of Denver. Stephen M. Quilty, A.A.E., wrote the original version of the modules with periodic updates by the AAAE Board of Examiners, AAAE staff and industry experts. 2 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 AAAE C.M. Body of Knowledge Modules Module 3 Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 3 Certified Member Table of Contents Introduction to Module 3....................................................................................................................................5 Airport Safety and Certification...........................................................................................................................6 Safe Airport Operation................................................................................................................................7 Title 14 CFR Part 139 Certification of Airports............................................................................................9 Airfield Maintenance and Safety Standards......................................................................................................16 Pavement...................................................................................................................................................17 Markings, Signs, and Lighting....................................................................................................................24 Other Airfield Inspection Items.................................................................................................................36 Airport Safety Programs.....................................................................................................................................40 Snow and Ice Control Plan (SICP)..............................................................................................................41 Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) Index Requirements.................................................................44 Handling and Storage of Hazardous Substances and Materials...............................................................46 Pedestrians and Ground Vehicles..............................................................................................................47 Wildlife Hazard Management Plan (WHMP)............................................................................................51 Airport Construction Safety Programs......................................................................................................54 Airport Emergency Management and Communications..................................................................................56 Airport Emergency Planning Considerations............................................................................................56 The Airport Emergency Plan (AEP)............................................................................................................58 The National Incident Management System (NIMS) and the Incident Command System......................61 Irregular Operations..................................................................................................................................65 Airport Communications...........................................................................................................................66 Landside and Terminal Operations....................................................................................................................69 Landside Operations..................................................................................................................................69 Parking Lot Operations..............................................................................................................................74 Terminal Operations and The Passenger Experience................................................................................77 Airport Security..................................................................................................................................................83 Historical Context......................................................................................................................................84 9/11 and The Aviation and Transportation Security Act of 2001.............................................................86 Roles, Regulations and Responsibilities....................................................................................................87 Airport Security.........................................................................................................................................93 General Aviation Security..........................................................................................................................98 Summary.................................................................................................................................................101 Acronyms.........................................................................................................................................................102 4 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 Module Objectives Your objectives in reading this material are as follows: Objective 1: Describe the role of the airport operator in ensuring a safe operating environment, particularly as related to Title 14 CFR Part 139. Objective 2: Understand the regulatory requirements of maintaining airport pavement, condition and inspection, and other safety standards such as signs, markings and lighting. Objective 3: Understand the regulatory requirements for certain airport safety programs such as the Wildlife Hazard Management Plan, the Snow and Ice Control Plan, and other related programs required by Part 139. Objective 4: Understand the regulatory requirements related to the Airport Emergency Plan and the elements of incident command. Objective 5: Describe the expectations and desires of passengers, tenants and other stakeholders related to the operation of the terminal and landside areas. Objective 6: Describe the regulatory requirements for airport operators related to the Transportation Security Regulations and the current threat to airports and aircraft operators. Introduction to Module 3 This module provides an overview of airport operations, emergency management, security and maintenance. It is not intended to be an in-depth analysis of each category, particularly airport operations and airport security, as these topics are broad in scope. The resource material focuses on regulations, FAA Advisory Circulars, best practices and industry standards associated with airport operations, safety, security and maintenance. The FAA regulates the airside and some off-airport operations of a commercial service airport. Commercial service airports must maintain specific safety programs, safety standards and inspection requirements to retain their Airport Operating Certificate (AOC). This is done through the FAA-approved Airport Certification Manual (ACM), regular inspections by airport personnel, and periodic inspections by FAA Airports District Office (ADO) personnel. Failure to maintain the regulatory requirements can result in more accidents, the inability to handle incidents effectively, fines, and, ultimately, the revocation of the airport operator’s ability to conduct commercial air operations. Although general aviation airports are not regulated under Part 139, the FAA encourages GA airports to meet the Part 139 standards as part of best practices and as a method to adhere to Grant Assurance 19, Operations and Maintenance. Airport safety maintenance standards and requirements within this module are generally from the regulatory-standard perspective, not from a “how to maintain this item” perspective. Certain maintenance requirements, such as plumbing, diesel mechanic, electrical systems, HVAC systems and others, are the domain of specialized trades and, for that reason, are not included in this module. There are no more important duties for an airport operator than life safety. The Airport Emergency Plan (AEP) is the core document outlining the plans, procedures and priorities during an airport emergency, aircraft-related or otherwise. In 2017, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) updated the National Incident Management System (NIMS). This version of the C.M. modules reflects those updates where appropriate. Although not considered airfield activities, terminal and landside operations are often a considerable revenue generator at commercial service airports. Terminal operations affect the passenger experience and the safety, security, health and efficiency of passenger movement. Landside includes commercial passenger pick-up and drop-off operations, parking lot AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 5 Certified Member management, and revenue-generating strategies. The terrorist attacks on 9/11 pushed aviation security to the forefront. The creation of a new regulatory agency — the TSA — resulted in significant modifications to the operation of an airport and to the airlines. The continuing threat to airports and aircraft operators, and the passenger and baggage screening process changes, require airport operators to continue adjusting their operation to accommodate the regulatory requirements while still attempting to generate revenue and ensure the smooth transition of passengers through the facility. Airport Safety and Certification Objective 1 Describe the role of the airport operator in ensuring a safe operating environment, particularly as relates to Title 14 CFR Part 139. Why is This Important A safe operation is a primary responsibility of any manager of a public facility or transportation provider. An effective safety program can reduce the chance of death or injury, possibly reduce lawsuits, and provide the public a higher level of confidence when traveling by air. Air travel has become one of the safest forms of transportation due to the industry’s focus on learning the lessons taught by tragedy and becoming proactive in safety. Introduction It is said often that safety is everyone’s responsibility. Still, the simple fact is that “everyone” will not be taken to court when someone is injured or killed on airport property. A safe airport operation is the fundamental role of the airport sponsor. For a commercial service airport operator, Title 14 CFR Part 139 Airport Certification requires airfield safety and inspection programs, but operators of non-certificated (i.e., general aviation) airports also should be safety-focused. Tenants, users, and those living in the community desire a safe operating environment and the ability for the airport to respond rapidly in case of an emergency. Spending money on safety-related programs may seem to be an “easy sell” to an airport sponsor, but remember there are many elements that demand time and money from an airport operator, even among competing safety projects. Saying, “We need this for safety reasons,” is hardly a guarantee an item will be approved. Also, airport operators must approach safety from a risk-based perspective. As the cost of safety measures increases, the airport also must generate the revenue to cover those rising costs, so safety becomes a moral, regulatory and financial concern. The primary role of airport management is to operate the airport safely and efficiently and according to industry standards and procedures. This goal is accomplished through proper safety oversight, which includes methods and activities that airport management can employ to ensure effective safety-related standards and procedures. Procedures are contained in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) and the Airport Certification Manual (ACM). Other general industry requirements such as best practices are also integral to a safe operating environment, like those published by the National Fire Protective Association (NFPA) where appropriate, and FAA Advisory Circulars. Safety oversight ensures that an airport meets or exceeds national and international industry standards. Applying a systematic, proactive and welldefined safety program allows an organization to strike a realistic and efficient balance between safety and productivity. 6 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 Safe Airport Operation The responsibility for safety (and thus accident prevention) in any organization ultimately rests with airport management. The slogan “safety is everybody’s business” means that each person must be aware of the consequences of their decisions, including safe and risky behaviors. However, while all personnel should be aware of safety concerns, ensuring a safe operating environment is the responsibility of airport management. Management is responsible for fostering motivation and a culture that prioritizes safety so that each employee develops a consistent awareness of safety. Management must provide the proper work environment, appropriate training and supervision, and well-maintained facilities and equipment to facilitate this awareness. A safety-conscious organization actively utilizes: A set of standards, best management practices, and standard operating procedures. Investigations and resolution of incidents or hazards. A reporting system and audits. A system of thorough and accurate record-keeping and documentation. Individuals trained to recognize unsafe conditions and to initiate prompt corrective or mitigating actions. Common accident causes relate to employees working with equipment without sufficient experience, failing to follow safety precautions or instructions in manuals, using unsafe equipment or safety devices, engaging in poor housekeeping, and rushing through a job. In essence, operating a safe airport means that incidents or accidents rarely occur. A good airport operation means that: Airport operations are conducted in conformity with an overall safety oversight program. Hazards are eliminated or reduced; users are informed of non-compliant conditions. Records correctly are maintained. Assessment, evaluation and corrective action continually occur. Employees remain guarded against complacency, as long periods without an accident or severe incident may promote a false sense of security. A critical component of airport safety is the identification and resolution of safety issues. A proper safety oversight system provides for the inspection, follow-up and resolution of all safety issues identified in the airport. Inspectors do not expect to find zero deficiencies, but they expect to find that all safety issues quickly are identified and resolved in a timely and consistent manner. Airport operators should think of this process as a continuous circle: identifying and recording nonstandard or unsafe conditions (inspection); reporting conditions (NOTAMs and other); initiating corrective actions (issue work order); observing corrected conditions (re-inspection); reporting corrected conditions (cancel NOTAMs). All of these must be documented thoroughly and correctly to ensure (and to demonstrate to regulators) that the circle is complete1. Airport operations, safety and maintenance personnel who identify unsatisfactory conditions during their inspections immediately should bring the conditions to the attention of supervisory personnel for corrective action unless they have been trained individually and authorized to correct the condition. Each airport must use individually approved procedures 1 There are many software and web-based systems available to airport operators today to manage airfield safety, inspections, reporting, corrective actions and recordkeeping. Although pen and paper are still an acceptable method, GIS and GPS geo-reference-based systems offer excellent opportunities for airports to effectively operate, maintain, and manage the airfield more time and cost efficiently. These electronic systems are typically scalable and can be adapted to airport size and complexity to meet most budgets. AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 7 Certified Member and certification manuals. All discrepancies and items of noncompliance must be corrected or resolved before the commencement of air carrier service activity. Historically, a high level of safety has been achieved in scheduled airline and airport operations. Subsequent investigations indicated that most of those accidents could have been prevented in the few accidents that have occurred. Accidents that occur despite safety measures already in place may suggest the regulations or measures may have been inadequate, circumvented or ignored. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigations show that an accident is seldom due to any single event but rather a series of events that lead to the result. When each factor is viewed individually, it may appear insignificant. If each minor incident is viewed in combination with other factors, it can complete a sequence of events that result in an accident. This combination and sequence of factors are called the “chain of events” or the “accident chain.” Accident prevention involves identifying hazards and either eliminating them specifically or disrupting the chain of events leading to the hazard. Prevention efforts create safeguard defenses to reduce the possibility of the chain being completed. Accident investigations often reveal how one action led to other actions (or inaction) that ultimately thwarted other safeguards: each action, cause and factor link in a chain of events that lead to the accident. If one of the links is broken, the chain of events is not completed, and the accident likely would not happen. Three things help prevent links in the chain of events from forming: proper design of a component or system, safeguards, and employees making correct safety decisions and actions. Safety Management Systems Safety oversight is best provided through an organization-wide Safety Management System (SMS). SMS helps to manage safety risks through systematic procedures, practices and policies. In November 2005, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) amended Annex 14, Volume I (Aerodrome Design and Operations) to require member states (i.e., countries) to have certificated international airports establish an SMS. While many other areas of the U.S. aviation industry (airlines, charter and corporate aviation, helicopter aviation, etc.) have implemented SMS, either by regulation or through best practices, the FAA has taken much longer in requiring its implementation in airport operations. Since 2005, the FAA essentially has been mired in bureaucracy in establishing SMS for airports. In 2010, the FAA issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) on SMS for airports, then issued a Supplemental NPRM in 2016. In 2021, the FAA reopened the comment period again. Airport operators should stay apprised of future developments in the FAA’s SMS rulemaking. For now, it is important to note that SMS eventually will become a requirement for certain airports. The FAA consistently has held that SMS will apply to small, medium and large hub airports, and airports with more than 100,000 total annual flight operations. SMS is an effective method of reducing risk at airports. Even airports not required to implement SMS should do so. Safety oversight and management are based on the premise that hazards and human errors always exist. SMS establishes processes to improve communication and minimize potential risks, thereby improving the level of safety in an organization. An SMS has at its core, a focus on four distinct elements: 1. Safety policy. 8 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 2. 3. 4. Safety risk management. Safety assurance. Safety promotion. SMS is the formal, top-down, organization-wide approach to managing safety risk and assuring the effectiveness of safety risk controls. It includes systematic procedures, practices and policies for the management of safety risks. Written by senior management, the safety policy communicates management’s commitment to safety and the assurance that safety constantly is being monitored and evaluated by all employees and other airport stakeholders. The policy addresses how the organization is structured to achieve safety goals and lays out the processes and procedures to identify and mitigate safety risks. The use of Safety Risk Management (SRM) techniques in risk identification, assessment, mitigation and tracking are the principal methods for enhancing or increasing an airport’s safety record. The safety assurance aspect of SMS comes with internal and external audits and corrective actions providing feedback on implemented risk mitigation strategies. This information can lead to an assessment of whether safety objectives are being met or exceeded throughout the organization. The main goal of safety promotion is to create a “safety culture” that allows the SMS to succeed. This priority reinforces the basic notion that all employees, not just management, are responsible for safety in and around the airport. All personnel, therefore, must understand the organization’s safety philosophy, policies, procedures and practices. Unfortunately, studies conducted by Landry, AAAE and the Airport Cooperative Research Program have noted that hesitancy to change is the biggest challenge in implementing Safety Management Systems. This challenge is followed by a lack of FAA or regulatory guidance and insufficient time and budget. SMS also has introduced the concept of the Accountable Executive (AE). The AE is the designated individual responsible for implementing and overseeing the SMS processes at airports but more so from a policy perspective. The AE is likely a director-level position and can be different from the SMS Program Manager. The SMS Program Manager is often the individual who plans and implements the SMS programs throughout the airport, is an expert on SMS, and reports to the AE. In a 2021 survey conducted by Landry and AAAE, respondents cited the two biggest challenges to implementation of SMS were overcoming culture and a mindset resistant to change, and no final FAA guidance, resources or requirements. Title 14 CFR Part 139 Certification of Airports Safety standards for commercial service airports evolved from the Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970 and today are embodied in Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 139 Certification of Airports. The primary objective of Part 139 is to ensure safety in air transportation by regulating the operation and maintenance of airports serving scheduled air carrier operations. Part 139 is designed to help prevent accidents and mitigate injuries in the event of an accident. Part 139 addresses the minimum safety and maintenance standards for airports. It requires several accident prevention measures to be followed, such as a snow and ice control plan; signs, marking and lighting plan; a wildlife hazard management program; and an airport emergency plan. Accident mitigation measures include the provision of aircraft rescue and firefighting response, additional emergency response services, and safety area enhancements. While Part 139 applies to commercial service airports, some GA airports have elected to apply for a 139 certificate to AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 9 Certified Member achieve higher safety standards, either for marketing purposes, or to prepare for commercial service operations. Some aircraft operators receive a reduction in their insurance premiums for basing their aircraft at a Part 139 certificated airport. The Part 139 standards are considered a best practice for GA airports when possible. Airport Operating Certificate Part 139 describes rules governing the certification and operation of airports in any state in the United States, the District of Columbia, or any territory or possession of the United States. Commercial service airports must demonstrate they can meet the regulatory standards under Part 139. The FAA inspects the airport before allowing commercial flight operations. If the airport passes the inspection, the FAA issues an Airport Operating Certificate (AOC). Any airport with more than 2,500 annual passenger enplanements must have an AOC. Specifically, an AOC is required for airports that: Serve scheduled and unscheduled air carrier aircraft with more than 30 seats (i.e., a “large” aircraft by Part 139 definition). Serve scheduled air carrier operations in aircraft with more than nine seats but fewer than 31 seats (i.e., a “small” aircraft by Part 139 definition). Are mandated by the FAA Administrator to have a certificate. Clarification: scheduled operations are conducted under Part 121 Domestic and Flag Operations; aircraft operators can conduct unscheduled operations under Part 121: Supplemental (public or private charter) or Part 135 (other charter operations). Clarification: under Part 139, the definition of a “small” aircraft is an aircraft with 10-30 seats. A “large” aircraft is one with 31 or more seats. Within these categories are four classes of commercial service airports2. 1. Class I: Serves all types of scheduled operations of air carrier aircraft, including small scheduled (10-30 seats), large (31 or more seats), and any other type of air carrier operations, and must comply with all Part 139 requirements. 2. Class II: Serves scheduled operations of small air carrier aircraft and unscheduled operations of large air carrier aircraft. Class II airports are not permitted to serve scheduled large air carrier operations. 3. Class III: Serves only scheduled operations of small air carrier aircraft. 4. Class IV: Serves only unscheduled operations of large air carrier aircraft. Class I airports must meet all the requirements of Part 139. Class II, III and IV airports must meet various standards at other levels under Part 139 (same regulations, different standards). These differences are beyond the material addressed in the C.M. NOTE: Part 139 does not consider general aviation or military flight operations. Also, Part 139 addresses airfield operations, not the operations of the terminal building(s) or landside operations. Regulatory compliance is obtained by developing an ACM. The ACM must be approved by the FAA, with each page signed and dated. Once approved, the AOC is issued. Once issued, the FAA conducts annual inspections to ensure the airport 2 NOTE: These Classes of commercial service airports should not be confused with ARFF Indexes, as these are mutually exclusive definitions. 10 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 continues to meet federal standards. The FAA also can inspect the airport at any other time, announced or unannounced, and regularly can conduct follow-up inspections to ensure certain time-sensitive items are addressed. Alaskan airports that serve air carrier aircraft with fewer than 30 seats are exempt from federal airport certification requirements. Airports in the state of Alaska that serve large air carrier operations (more than 30 seats) continue to be certificated under Part 139 as Class I or Class IV airports, as appropriate. Many rural airports in Alaska are too small to afford to meet the Part 139 standard. Applying Part 139 standards to U.S. Government-owned airports depends upon whether the airport is a joint-use airport or a shared-use airport. Joint- and shared-use airports may have to adhere to FAA and military operational standards (NOTE: military airfield standards are typically higher than civilian requirements). Limitations typically identify unusual operational characteristics, such as when air carrier operations are limited to specific runways or load-bearing weights due to pavement strength. Limitations are not encountered frequently nor are they imposed on airports that have an AOC. Exemptions provide relief to an airport operator from a particular requirement of Part 139. In some instances, the economic impact of compliance may be too costly, burdensome or impractical for smaller communities. In these cases, the FAA may grant exemptions when issuing the AOC. An exemption is a legal document granting an airport relief from a regulatory requirement of Part 139. A request by an airport manager for an exemption from any requirement of Part 139 becomes a rulemaking action (NPRM) and necessitates a review by the FAA legal staff. An exemption issued to an airport effectively changes how an airport complies with its AOC. Few exemptions are granted. However, a common exemption is to the ARFF requirements for airports enplaning less than one-quarter of 1 percent of the total U.S. enplanements over a year. The FAA typically approves alternative ARFF safety compliance measures for Class III airports, provided comparable safety levels are maintained. However, exemptions from the requirements of Part 139, Subpart D-Operations, cannot result in uncorrected and unsafe airport conditions. The Part 139 certificate holder must confine air carrier operations to those portions of the airport that are not rendered unsafe. This is addressed in Part 139 under Noncomplying Conditions. Deviations occur when an airport must deviate from a regulatory requirement under Part 139 due to emergency conditions. On occasion, an airport operator is faced with a situation that may result in a deviation from the regulations. Whether the deviation results in a violation depends on the circumstances. Deviations can occur to the extent required to address the emergency. Under Part 139, a deviation requires a manager to inform the FAA within 14 days of the occurrence, in writing if requested. Deviations are allowed for circumstances that primarily result from an aircraft emergency, such as allowing an air carrier aircraft low on fuel to use a runway that does not meet the safety requirements of the ACM, while the ARFF equipment already is responding to another incident. However, allowing air carrier operations when firefighting equipment is offairport (e.g., during training exercises or other planned or foreseeable events) is not considered a “deviation,” but instead is a possible violation of Part 139. In other words, poor planning is not considered a deviation. Violations result in FAA administrative action, civil penalty, or the suspension/revocation of an AOC. The FAA Airport Certification Branch inspects all Part 139 airports annually; however, FAR Part 139 authorizes the FAA to inspect at any time. AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 11 Certified Member The Airport Certification Manual The safety oversight function of the FAA is specified in Title 14 CFR Part 139 and the ACM. The ACM is developed by the airport operator and submitted to the FAA for approval; once approved, the ACM becomes the regulation for that specific airport. A violation of an airport’s own ACM is treated as a violation of Part 139. The ACM requirement is a mechanism by which the FAA can fulfill its safety oversight function without monitoring on a daily basis all airports holding a Part 139 certificate. The primary responsibility of an airport operator is to operate the airport safely and efficiently in compliance with regulations. The central purpose of the ACM is to be a reference document for airport personnel on maintaining a safe airport and complying with federal regulations. Part 139 explains WHAT regulations must be complied with, while the ACM explains HOW the airport will comply with them. It is critical for airport operators to understand that upon FAA approval of the ACM (each page is signed by an authorized FAA representative), it then becomes a regulatory instrument describing the specific procedural details that must be accomplished by the certificate holder. If the requirements of the FAA-approved ACM are not complied with, then this becomes grounds for a violation of Part 139. The level of detail within an ACM is contingent upon the training and experience of the personnel it serves. By requiring an airport to develop an ACM, the FAA places responsibility for compliance on the airport operator. The FAA then enforces Part 139 by approving the contents of the ACM and checking periodically to see that the airport complies. The intent of the ACM is to provide all necessary information on how to comply with Part 139 to those personnel who are responsible for operating the airport or those who are otherwise affected by the regulations, such as airport tenants. Since the regulation itself, Part 139, is couched in broad terms to accommodate all airports covered by the regulation, it is not sufficiently specific regarding how an airport should be operated. Therefore, the ACM functions as an extension of the federal regulations and provides the link between the requirements of Part 139 and its application at each airport, considering each specific airport site, activity and configuration. The ACM also includes additional plans such as the Snow and Ice Control Plan, the Signs/Markings/Lighting Plan, and the Pedestrian and Ground Vehicle Operations Plan. Advisory Circular 150/5210-22 guides airports on developing an ACM. While the ACM is not intended to provide complete instructions on how to do a particular job, it should provide enough instruction and direction to result in job performance that achieves and maintains the airport in regulatory compliance. The ACM should be comprehensive yet conservative in its approach by including only the detail necessary to demonstrate regulatory compliance. The ACM should be written in plain language, as though the airport operator were leaving instructions for someone else to comply with the regulations in their absence. An AOC holder must submit in writing a proposed amendment to its Airport Certification Manual to the Regional Airports Division Manager at least 30 days before the proposed effective date of the amendment unless a shorter filing period is allowed by the Regional Airports Division Manager. Considering it can take up to 30 days to receive amendment approval, airport operators are encouraged to have more detailed operational procedure manuals. These manuals, which exist outside of the ACM and are thus not subject to FAA scrutiny, may provide additional information or procedures needed by the airport operator. One example is a Severe Weather Plan. Severe Weather Plans need to be highly flexible, and airport personnel often cannot wait for the FAA amendment process to make authorized changes. When developing, writing or revising the ACM, emphasis is placed on establishing responsibility, authority and procedures 12 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 for Part 139 compliance. This emphasis is accomplished by identifying who will perform the task, what the task will consist of, how it will be performed, and when it will be accomplished. Excessive detail levels beyond those main instructions can restrict the flexibility of airport personnel to meet unforeseen circumstances or even can create unnecessary commitments. Approval of the ACM occurs at two levels: the airport operator level and the FAA level, as indicated by appropriate signatures. An approved ACM generally results in the issuance of an AOC. However, if the airport does not comply with the ACM, the FAA can suspend or revoke the AOC. Overall, the ACM contains those procedures, equipment descriptions, responsibility assignments, and any other information needed by airport personnel to comply with the regulation. Part 139 then requires the airport sponsor to furnish all applicable portions of the airport’s ACM to those personnel or tenants responsible for its implementation. At Part 139 airports, the FAA will hold the certificate holder ultimately responsible for safely operating the airport. AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 13 Certified Member Airport Self-Inspection The core of Part 139 lies in the self-inspection process. Title 14 Part 139 requires the airport operator to have an airport safety self-inspection program that monitors specific airport conditions to identify when prompt corrective actions are required. Once the FAA certifies a commercial service airport and approves the standards by which the airport will be operated through the ACM, the FAA then periodically checks for compliance. It is the airport operator’s primary responsibility to conduct self-inspections to ensure compliance with the ACM. An effective self-inspection program enables an airport operator to conduct uninterrupted day-to-day airport operations in compliance with Part 139 standards. An effective safety self-inspection program includes procedures for reporting and correcting deficiencies. It is essential to use a safety self-inspection checklist because it constitutes a written record of conditions noted and acts as a check on follow-up actions taken. The airport operator must have a work order system in place to correct deficiencies in an expeditious manner. The operator should, at a minimum, issue a Notices to Air Missions (NOTAM) to report deficient conditions that could have an immediate and critical impact on the safety of aircraft operations. Most airport operators incorporate multiple layers to communicate deficiencies, non-standard conditions, and other critical airfield safety information to users and stakeholders. The FAA does not preclude or discourage these. However, NOTAMS are currently the only “official” method of communicating these to users of the National Airspace System. Inspection of areas that have been assigned to individual air carriers, FBOs, SASOs, or other tenants that are part of the 139 certificated areas, can be delegated to these users, but airport management is required to retain overall supervision and responsibility for the inspection. A successful safety self-inspection program has four key components: 1. Regularly (Daily) Scheduled Inspection: Inspectors must conduct at least one inspection before the beginning of air carrier flight operations during the day and at least one at night if night air carrier operations are conducted. Further, inspectors should review previous self-inspection checklists to watch for continuing issues. If construction is in progress, inspectors should be familiar with the construction safety plan for each project. The airport operator should inspect the airport daily when aircraft activity is minimal to create the most negligible impact on airport operations. Primary attention in a self-inspection is given to operational items such as: Pavement areas. Safety areas. Signs, markings and lighting. Aircraft rescue and firefighting. Fueling operations. Navigational aids. Ground vehicles. Obstructions. Public protection. Wildlife hazard management. Construction. Snow and ice control. 14 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 Primary areas of focus for many self-inspections include: Markings, Signs, Lighting. Obstructions. Pavement Areas. Safety Areas. 2. Continuous Surveillance Inspection: Certain airport activities, such as fueling operations, construction, pedestrian and ground vehicles, snow and ice, public protection, wildlife activities, and foreign object debris (FOD), require continuous surveillance and should be inspected any time inspection personnel are in the Air Operations Area. 3. Periodic Condition Inspection: While some hazardous airport conditions develop instantaneously, others develop gradually. The airport should conduct periodic condition inspections of activities and facilities on a regularly scheduled basis. Depending on the activity or facility, periodic inspection time intervals could be weekly, monthly, quarterly or annually. Periodic condition evaluation can include surveying pavement for: Rubber buildup on the runways. Checking approach slopes and surrounding areas for obstructions such as tree growth. Faded signs, lighting or markings. Fueling facilities and mobile fuelers. Navigational aids not owned by the FAA (i.e., Automated Weather Observation Stations, airfield lighting). Response times for ARFF equipment. Other activities and facilities as needed. 4. Special Inspection: Special inspections of activities and facilities should be conducted after receiving a complaint or when an unusual condition or event, such as a significant meteorological event (rain or thunderstorm) or an aircraft accident or incident, occurs at the airport. Special inspections should be conducted at the end of construction activity to ensure no unsafe conditions exist. A special inspection also should be conducted before construction personnel depart the airport, if corrective actions are necessary. Safety areas should be inspected to ensure stormwater drainage is adequate after a thunderstorm. Pavement should be inspected during snow and ice conditions and after snow removal to update airfield conditions. Special inspections should be documented on the appropriate portions of the regularly scheduled inspection checklist. Personnel Requirements Part 139 requires airports to employ sufficiently qualified personnel to operate the airport in a safe manner. According to the FAA, “sufficiently qualified personnel” exist if all the requirements in the ACM properly are performed. Those individuals who are authorized to carry out the responsibilities of ACM compliance are identified explicitly by job title and are required to be well-trained and educated in the requirements of the ACM and Part 139. Airport personnel who conduct safety self-inspections (referred to as inspectors) must receive training in at least the following areas: Airport familiarization. The Airport Emergency Plan. NOTAM procedures. AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 15 Certified Member Procedures for handling pedestrians and ground vehicles in the movement area. Airport inspection procedures, techniques, and discrepancy reporting procedures. Knowledge and use of correct radio communication phraseology, procedures and techniques, as specified in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Training in driving and operating in the Movement Area. VHF radio procedures. Inspectors also should have a checklist of Part 139 inspection items for their airfield, and an airport layout map. Training and Record-Keeping Part 139 requires those individuals with necessary access to the Movement Area to be trained every 12 consecutive calendar months (CCM). Part 139 also requires those with airfield self-inspection responsibilities to be trained in those duties every 12 CCM3. Part 139 requires airports to keep and maintain records on a number of training, inspection, condition and incident data. The airport must keep airfield inspection records, NOTAMs, fueling inspections, and accident or incident reports for at least 12 consecutive calendar months. Airports certificated under Part 139 must retain the regularly scheduled inspection checklist for 12 CCM. A consecutive calendar month goes to the end of the month, so if a record was generated on June 14, 2021, it must be retained for 12 CCM, or June 30, 2022. Training records for personnel who are allowed to operate in the Movement Area and individuals trained as inspectors under the self-inspection program must be kept for 24 CCM. State or local record-keeping retention requirements may be longer4. Airfield Maintenance and Safety Standards Objective 2 Understand the regulatory requirements of maintaining airport pavement, condition, inspection, and other safety standards such as signs, markings and lighting. Why This is Important A fundamental element of Part 139 are the high safety and maintenance standards that the airport must uphold to retain the AOC. These standards include inspections of pavement and safety areas, as well as runway signs, markings and lighting, along with other items. 3 4 Certain software programs such as AAAE’s Interactive Employee Training (IET) learning management system provide record-keeping functions. Part 139 safety related training may overlap security training for accessing certain areas of the airport. The FAA requires safety training for personnel operating in the movement area, and strongly suggests it for personnel operating in the non-movement area. Whereas the TSA requires security training for personnel operating in the Air Operations Area (AOA), which includes the movement and non-movement area, and other security areas which may include different parts of the airfield. These two agency training requirements often complement one another; however, they are distinctly different training programs as required by different federal regulatory agencies, and should not be confused. 16 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 Pavement is the lifeblood of most airports (with some unpaved runways in Alaska as the exception). While a mile of runway may be able to take you anywhere, it will not be able to do so, if the runway pavement cannot withstand the appropriate aircraft loads or lacks proper maintenance. Without providing a safe and well-maintained place to land and take off, airports are at risk of causing damage to aircraft. Ultimately, aircraft operators may decide to use other airports, resulting in a loss of airport revenue and hindering an airport’s ability to be self-sustaining. Other design standards, such as airfield signs, markings and lighting, are designed to be used by pilots, but airport operators and other personnel frequently must drive on the airfield and must understand how to navigate in the aircraft movement areas. Important note: the information regarding signs, markings and lights is NOT intended to replace an airfield driver training program. Any individual operating in the Movement Area first should receive practical real-application training before operating independently. Introduction Maintenance and safety standards required by Title 14 CFR Part 139 include pavement design and deterioration, airfield signs, marking and lighting, approach light systems, navigational aids, safety areas, runways and taxiways. These operational concerns and topics are critical to supporting the safety, traffic control and air operations on and in the vicinity of the airport (Price, Forrest, 2016, p. 192). Within the context of the module, the topic of maintenance is addressed as it relates to maintaining the required airfield elements, not the actual how-to change light bulbs, paint markings on an airfield, or the specific measurements of an airfield sign. Maintaining an airport is essential to the safe operation of the aircraft. Pilots expect a landing surface free of obstructions or anything that could damage the aircraft. Numerous aircraft accidents have occurred due to poor runway conditions or objects on the runway. Aircraft damage can result in millions of dollars in lawsuits, possibly destabilizing the financial security of the airport. It most certainly will impact the airport’s reputation. In one tragic example, one of the most sophisticated commercial aircraft built to date, the supersonic Concorde, experienced its only deadly accident when Air France Flight 4590 picked up debris while taking off at Paris-Charles de Gaulle airport in July 2000. The debris (which was a metal strip that had fallen off a Continental Airlines DC-10 that had just departed) caused the tire to explode, which in turn sent a piece of rubber into the fuel tank that led to an in-flight fire. The Concorde fleet, which had 27 years of successful service without a major accident, with aircraft that regularly flew at twice the speed of sound and at altitudes of 50,000 feet and higher, experienced its only fatal accident that day as a result of airfield debris. The airport was not held to blame for the accident, but it does exemplify how seriously airport operators must address airfield safety requirements. An airport operator should meet the regulatory standards for airfield maintenance and safety and strive to provide the highest levels of safety for aircraft using the runways and taxiways. Pavement Pavement is a top priority for an airport operator. An airport with poorly maintained runways is exposed to greater liability from potential damage to aircraft and increased incidents and accidents (Price, Forrest, 2016, p. 194). Additionally, Grant Assurances 19, Operations and Maintenance, and 11, Pavement Preventative Maintenance, both relate to the airport operator’s obligation to implement effective pavement maintenance and management programs that run for the useful life of any pavement constructed, reconstructed or repaired with federal financial assistance (FAA 2009, p. 7-3). While all airport pavements are essential for the facility’s safe operation, runway pavement is critical. Runways must be strong enough to support the loads imposed by aircraft taking off, survive adverse weather conditions, and withstand the AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 17 Certified Member abrasive pounding and sudden load that impacts the pavement when an aircraft lands. Runway pavement also must be designed to handle repetitive flight operations in a variety of meteorological conditions. Air carriers expect pavement to be of adequate strength, level, dry and well-maintained. Pavement Type and Design Pavement falls within two general categories: flexible or rigid. The two types of pavement, asphalt and concrete, have different characteristics. Asphalt can be laid without expansion joints and is generally less expensive and faster than concrete to install, but it requires higher maintenance. Since asphalt is primarily a petroleum product, it is susceptible to oxidation from the sun’s ultraviolet rays and the solvent action of fuel or oil. Asphalt-type pavement does not necessarily wear out, but it ages through the oxidation of the asphalt binder and by water loosening the fine surface aggregates. Flexible pavements such as asphalt tend to compress under loads, while rigid pavement resists such compressibility. Grass, dirt and gravel also can be surfaces for landing purposes and are considered flexible landing surfaces. These types of surfaces for air carrier aircraft are usually only found in Alaska or other remote areas in the U.S. Concrete, a rigid form of pavement, is poured into distinctive slabs that require seams or joints to allow for expansion and contraction, thus contributing to its higher cost. However, the advantage of concrete is that it can withstand much higher aircraft loads than an equivalent thickness of asphalt. It also resists weathering and oil or fuel spillage. Pavement Condition Once any pavement is installed, it is subject to erosions and other forms of deterioration. Title 14 Part 139 requires that airport management maintain and promptly repair any pavement surface available for air carrier use. If the airport is not certificated, any airport obligated by grant assurances requires a similar level of pavement care. Ultimately, pavement longevity is highly dependent on an airport Pavement Management Program (PMP), addressed in the next section, that focuses on preventative maintenance. The PMP includes any regular or recurring work necessary to sustaining airport pavement in good condition. These processes include routine cleaning, crack sealing, patching, seal coating, pavement edge grading, and restoring pavement markings. Airport pavement traditionally is engineered for a minimum of a 20-year structural life, provided that the airport operator performs regular and routine maintenance. A pavement maintenance program aims to provide safe and operable pavement for the least possible cost. Effective maintenance programs will provide the owner with sufficient information to assess the greatest return for funds expended, hence, the PMP. The FAA places a high priority on the upkeep and repair of all pavement surfaces in the aircraft operating areas. This ensures continued safe aircraft operations. While the airport cannot completely prevent pavement deterioration due to usage and environmental exposure, a timely and effective maintenance program can reduce this deterioration. Lack of adequate and timely maintenance is the most significant single cause of pavement deterioration and, as a result, loss of federal investment. The failure of airport pavement and drainage design is directly attributable to the absence of an inspection program (FAA, 2009, p. 7-4). Airport management must prevent the over-stressing of airport pavements. Should pavement failure occur because the airport allowed aircraft operations that exceeded the pavement limitations, the cost to restore the pavement to satisfactory condition may not be eligible for federal funding. 18 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 On October 10, 2014, FAA Advisory Circular 150/5380-6C, Guidelines and Procedures for Maintenance of Airport Pavements, was revised; this A/C guides understanding the surface condition of flexible and rigid airfield pavements. The A/C established the Pavement Condition Index (PCI); this procedure is considered an industry standard for qualifying airfield pavements. The PCI is determined by procedures contained in ASTM D 5340, Standard Test Method for Airport Pavement Condition Index Surveys. The primary metric of a PMP is the PCI rating system. The PCI is a rating of the surface condition of the pavement and indicates the functional capability of the surface course. By conducting periodic PCI determinations, changes can be detected in performance levels and can help indicate when optimal rehabilitation will be necessary. A PMP evaluates the present condition of the pavement and can be used to forecast future conditions. By projecting the rate of deterioration, a PMP can assist in planning for maintenance that occurs at optimal periods. Maintenance that occurs too early results in the airport operator spending money before necessary and not benefitting from the entire lifespan of the pavement. Maintenance that occurs too late results in significantly increased maintenance pavement deterioration, meaning that it will cost incrementally more money the longer the airport waits to repair the pavement. Pavement Deterioration Pavement deterioration generally has two causes: environmental (due to weather and aging) and structural (caused by repeated air traffic loads). Often, these forms of deterioration work together, as they do in the formation of a pothole. Potholes are formed when water erodes the base of a pavement overlay, causing a hole to form underneath the pavement. Repeated stress loads caused by aircraft and vehicle traffic then cause the pavement to collapse into the hole. Pumping occurs when water collects underneath the pavement, and an aircraft load is imposed on top. The water shoots upward and sometimes out of the pavement (this phenomenon is known as pumping). Pumping also can occur with extreme variations in the ground and air temperatures. Regardless of the pavement type, concrete or asphalt, one of the biggest antagonists of pavement is moisture intrusion into the subgrade. It’s been said that, “If you take good care of the pavement surface, then the bottom of the pavement will take care of itself.” This is an insightful statement that suggests the importance of routine joint seal replacement, crack sealing, patching and seal coat to prevent the intrusion of moisture into the subgrade. Pavements that are designed and maintained to accommodate good drainage and subgrade intrusion will last longer. Pavement deterioration is affected by the amount and weight of traffic imposed upon it, original construction, maintenance and weather. Poor construction materials and the chemical composition of soils and aggregates, such as high alkali levels used in construction, also can shorten pavement lifespan. Asphalt-related deterioration includes: Cracking (longitudinal, transverse, alligator, etc.). Longitudinal cracking is more severe than transverse due to the propensity of an aircraft tire to get stuck in the crack. Disintegration (raveling, potholes, etc.). Distortion (ruts, depressions, swelling, pumping5). Loss of skid resistance (polished aggregate, contaminants, fuel/oil spillage). 5 Pumping occurs when there is so much water in the underlying layers, below the asphalt paving surface, that water is physically pumped up to the surface through small cracks and pores under heavy moving loads, or through the expansion and contraction due to varying temperatures. Pumping can also move water under and around the pavement which can undermine the base materials. AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 19 Certified Member Concrete-related deterioration includes: Cracking (longitudinal, transverse, shrinkage, shattered slab). Disintegration (scaling, map cracking, crazing [i.e., hairline cracks throughout the upper surface of the pavement], Alkali-Silica Reaction [ASR] see below, and Spalling [slab breakdown]). Distortion (pumping, settlement, and shoving — produced by an unstable concrete mix). Loss of Skid Resistance (polished aggregate, contaminants, fuel/oil spillage). In some regions of the country, alkali levels are extraordinarily high, resulting in a circumstance known as Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR). ASR occurs when concrete is made using certain aggregates that react with alkali. ASR occurs between the cement paste and the surface aggregate, forming a layer of silica-gel. The gel readily absorbs water, swells in size, and causes cracks in the pavement. In unrestrained concrete (concrete without any reinforcement), ASR causes characteristic “map cracking” or “Isle of Man cracking.” ASR further may be accelerated by using certain aircraft and runway deicing materials (e.g., Potassium Acetate, Sodium Acetate, and Sodium Formate). Alkali-Silica reaction can be controlled using certain supplementary cementitious materials. In proper proportions, silica fume, fly ash, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag significantly have reduced or eliminated expansion due to alkali-silica reactivity. Pavement Management Program (PMP) Implementing a comprehensive maintenance program is the most effective means of preserving airport runways, taxiways, and other paved areas. Sponsor assurances require airports to address preventative maintenance for project applications involving airfield pavements. The airport must assure the FAA that the airport has implemented an effective PMP for any pavement replacement or reconstruction. Furthermore, the FAA states, “The goal of any maintenance program is to provide a safe and operable pavement system at the least feasible cost.” Therefore, in addition to the daily pavement inspection conducted by airport personnel, airports should have a comprehensive PMP to ensure that issues are addressed as soon as possible, and there is a long-term strategic plan for the ongoing maintenance and replacement of paved surfaces. A PMP is a set of defined procedures for collecting, analyzing, maintaining and reporting pavement data. A PMP assists airports in finding optimum strategies for maintaining pavements in a safe, serviceable condition over a given period for the least cost. The PMP can quantify information and recommend specific actions to maintain a pavement network at an acceptable level of service, while minimizing the cost of maintenance and rehabilitation. A PMP evaluates the present condition of pavement and predicts its future condition through pavement condition indicators. Pavement generally performs well for the majority of its life, after which it reaches a “critical condition” and begins to deteriorate rapidly. Maintaining and preserving pavement in good condition versus rehabilitating a pavement in fair to poor condition is four to five times less expensive and increases pavement useful life. The components of a PMP generally include a database on the airport pavement inventory, structure, history, condition, aircraft operations and aircraft type, and the maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R) history. This information assists with timing and budgeting for pavement M&R projects. Timely maintenance renews the condition of airport pavements and prolongs their life. According to the FAA, every $1 spent for preventative maintenance early in the life of the pavement is equivalent to $4 to $5 in repairs spent later in the life of the pavement. The goal of a PMP is to maintain the pavement in excellent condition with the least amount of 20 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 expenditure and determine the optimum frequency to use funds for maintenance effectively. Aircraft weight is a vital factor in pavement wear and tear. Airport operators better can determine the potential damage an aircraft may cause depending on its weight, wheelbase, and number of landing gear. Acceptable aircraft weights are identified in the runway data table on the airport layout plan. The ACN-PCN (Aircraft Classification Number/Pavement Classification Number) classification system provides a standardized international airplane/pavement rating system. It replaced the various S (single), D (dual), T (tandem), DT (dual tandem), LCN (load classification number), and other rating systems used throughout the world. The PCN reports the relative bearing strength of an airport pavement, and the ACN expresses the relative effect of an airplane on the pavement. The ACN-PCN system only applies to pavements with bearing strengths of 12,500 pounds or higher. For pavements with lower bearing strengths, an older system using letters still applies in the United States. An aircraft having an ACN equal to or less than the PCN can operate without restriction on the pavement. Therefore, the PCN is the maximum pavement bearing strength for unrestricted aircraft operations. Pavement Inspection Part 139 requires a daily inspection of airport pavements in the Movement Area. The FAA also requires a schedule of periodic inspections to ensure the pavement is checked thoroughly. Proper corrective actions are recommended, particularly for those areas that do not come under daily observation. In addition to the daily inspections, the airport should conduct periodic maintenance inspections at least twice a year. Postponement of a minor maintenance issue quickly can develop into a major repair project. The airport’s paved surfaces are included in the self-inspection program. The condition of pavement surfaces is an important part of airport safety. All paved areas that are the responsibility of the airport operator, or as specified in the FAA-approved Airport Certification Manual, must be inspected daily before the beginning of commercial flight operations and again at night, if the airport conducts night air carrier operations. A daily pavement inspection must include: A check for any pavement edges exceeding three inches between abutting pavement or other areas, as well as cracks or holes that could impair directional control. A hole is defined as an opening larger than five inches in diameter, exceeding three inches in-depth, with an inside side slope greater than 45 degrees. Personnel should determine if any cracks are wide enough to cause directional control problems for an aircraft and then report and monitor these cracks. A check for any pavement crack or surface deterioration that produces loose aggregate or other contaminants. Such issues must be immediately repaired. Signs of surface deterioration or hazards to aircraft include spalling, raveling, alligatoring, debris and foreign objects that could damage an aircraft. A check for any pavement-edge obstruction that could impede water runoff, the presence of soil erosion at runway edges, allowing water to seep underneath, and vegetation growth through open or silted-in joints or cracks. A check for rubber build-up from aircraft tires (usually near the first-third portion of the runway). A check of the condition and visibility of pavement markings. Asphalt tends to fade over time, which can cause the airfield markings to blend into the pavement. A check for vegetation growth along runway and taxiway edges that may impede drainage from the pavement surface; vegetation growth in cracks can impede snow removal efforts, water runoff and exacerbate pavement cracks. A check for loose joint seal material in concrete pavement, indicating an area where water easily can penetrate and AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 21 Certified Member begin the erosion of pavement base. Pavement Friction Measurement The operator of any airport with jet aircraft traffic should schedule annual friction evaluations of each runway that accommodates jet aircraft. Depending on traffic volume and type (weight) on the runways, evaluations may become more frequent and necessary. Two basic types of friction-measuring equipment are available for conducting friction surveys on runways during winter operations — Decelerometers (DEC) and Continuous Friction Measuring Equipment (CFME). Decelerometers are either mechanical or electrical and are used to assess the friction properties of runways. The FAA recommends using electrical decelerometers over mechanical and recommends that airports with mechanical decelerometers upgrade to electrical as soon as possible. Mechanical decelerometers still can be used as a backup when necessary. Decelerometers are placed or mounted inside the inspection vehicle. The driver conducts a series of stop/starts in an airport vehicle, noting the various readings from nine different locations on the runway (first-third, second-third, and third-third in terms of distance). Electronic decelerometers eliminate potential human error by automatically computing and recording friction averages for each one-third zone of the runway. It takes longer to conduct a friction assessment using a mechanical decelerometer (which is also less accurate) than an electronic decelerometer. Decelerometers are recommended over CFME only when the airport’s operational characteristics are such that a complete, end-to-end friction survey cannot be completed due to the inability to shut down an entire, long runway during flight operations (FAA, 2016, p. 1-7). CFME devices provide a continuous, graphic record of the pavement surface friction characteristics with friction averages for each one-third portion of a runway length. The devices either are towed or installed in ground vehicles capable of conducting the friction test at speeds of 40 mph or 60 mph for the full length of the runway (this compares with a speed of 20 mph for decelerometers). Several CFME devices can carry water and provide self-wetting capabilities for conducting and evaluating wet pavement conditions. Both DECs and CFMEs are eligible for federal funding under the AIP program. Assessing the friction properties of pavement is a problematic issue for airport operators, but it is of utmost importance to airport users. Pilot braking action reports are the source of braking action information for most pilots. The inherent problem with these reports is that they can vary significantly depending on the individual pilot’s overall experience, the type of aircraft being operated, and where the aircraft landed on the runway. However, assessments based solely on the values generated by friction measuring equipment do not provide a consistent and usable correlation between friction measurements and aircraft braking performance. Using a truck or auto to estimate aircraft braking action is also highly subjective. Many prior methods of determining the slipperiness of a runway have been inadequate or have failed to prevent runway excursion incidents. As a result, runway excursions are the leading cause of aviation accidents worldwide. In 2016, the FAA rolled out the Runway Condition Assessment Matrix (RCAM) to use in runway condition reporting. Based on the Takeoff and Landing Performance Assessment (TALPA) working group, the new method is believed to be a more comprehensive and standardized method of assessing and reporting surface conditions. TALPA improves how the aviation community assesses runway conditions based on contaminant type and depth, which provides an aircraft operator with the correct information to anticipate airplane braking performance. TALPA is the attempt to rectify the discrepancy between airport-reported friction measurements and pilot-reported braking actions. The critical tool in TALPA is the RCAM. Airport operators use the RCAM to categorize runway conditions and friction 22 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 measurements, while pilots use it to interpret reported braking actions and the overall runway condition. The RCAM is presented in a standardized format, based on airplane performance data supplied by airplane manufacturers for each of the stated contaminant types and depths. The RCAM replaces subjective judgments of runway conditions with objective assessments tied directly to contaminant type and depth categories. RCAM enables the industry to tie runway contaminant types and depths to aircraft performance and be a functional tool for both aircraft operators and airport operators. The airport operator will assess surfaces, report contaminants present, and determine the numerical Runway Condition Codes (RwyCC) based on the RCAM. The RwyCCs may vary for each third of the runway, if different contaminants are present. However, the same RwyCC may be applied when a uniform coverage of contaminants exists. RwyCCs will replace Mu numbers, which will no longer be published in the FAA’s NOTAM system. Pilots can enter the reported information into their flight computers in a standard format to be able to conduct pre-landing and pre-departure assessments. Unpaved Areas Unpaved Areas within Part 139 pertain only to those locations used by commercial service aircraft for takeoff, landing and taxiing. Outside of Alaska, very few unpaved commercial landing areas exist. Where unpaved areas exist, the airport operator must maintain and promptly repair the surface of each gravel, turf, or other unpaved runway, taxiway, or loading ramp and parking area available for air carrier use on the airport. Slopes from the full-strength surfaces downward to the existing terrain may be steeper than 2:1. Full-strength surfaces must have adequate crown or grade to assure sufficient drainage that ultimately will prevent pooling. The surface must be compacted adequately and be sufficiently stable to prevent rutting by aircraft or the loosening or build-up of surface material that could impair directional control of aircraft or drainage. The full-strength surfaces must have no holes or depressions that exceed three inches in depth and are of a breadth capable of impairing directional control or causing damage to an aircraft. The airport must promptly remove Foreign Object Debris (FOD) from the surface. Safety Area Inspection Standards As described in Module 2, Safety Areas are the ground areas around runways and taxiways that are prepared and suitable for reducing the risk of airplane damage in the event of an undershoot, overshoot or excursion from the runway. Part 139.309(b) (4) requires the removal of all objects in the safety areas except those required due to their function. Signs, lights and navigational aids are necessary, while personnel, vehicles, equipment or facilities are not. Necessary items in the safety areas (airfield lights, etc.) must have frangible breakaway points no higher than three inches above grade. Safety areas are to be cleared, drained, compacted and graded because they must be able to support an aircraft, if it veers off the pavement or over/undershoots the runway. Safety area inspection is considered a regular inspection item. Other items to watch for during a safety area inspection include: Checking the storm sewer system to verify that inlets are not clogged, and drainage channels are free of debris. Noting any standing water. Ensuring all inlet covers are in place and sewer covers are at grade level. Conducting a special inspection before reopening a runway or taxiway following any construction or maintenance that has been performed in or around that safety area. AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 23 Certified Member Checking any time an aircraft has left the pavement and entered a safety area. Check to ensure that no ruts or holes have been made by the aircraft tires or personnel and equipment during the recovery operation. Checking for construction and maintenance activities to ensure no hazardous conditions are created (equipment left in safety areas, unacceptable pavement lips created by ground alteration work, ruts from mowing equipment, etc.). Inspecting engineered materials arresting system (EMAS), if installed, for damage or deterioration. Driving or walking the safety areas to check for any discrepancies, particularly changes in safety area gradient. Winter operations where sand is used can affect the grade. Markings, Signs, and Lighting Airport signs, markings and lights (SML) provide relevant information to pilots, air traffic controllers, and vehicle operators on the airfield, specifically in the Movement Area. Signs, airfield markings and lighting configurations help pilots and vehicle operators identify their location on the airfield and provide direction on how to reach their desired location. For pilots, they enhance the visibility of the Movement Area during takeoff, landing and taxiing operations. Many pilots rely on airfield signs the most to determine their location and destination on the airfield. Airfield signs, markings and lighting have different meanings and symbols than signs, markings and lighting on city streets and highways. Understanding airfield signs, markings and lighting are critical to the airfield’s safety, particularly for personnel who drive on the Movement Area. The FAA requires any individual who drives on the Movement Area to receive training every year. The training must include instruction on reading airfield signs, markings and lighting (configuration, patterns, colors, etc.). Runway incursions often occur because an individual fails to understand a particular sign, marking or lighting system (Price, Forrest, 2016, p. 211). On August 27, 2006, Comair Flight 5191 crashed on takeoff from Blue Grass Airport in Lexington, Kentucky. The pilots mistakenly attempted a takeoff from the wrong runway. The crash killed 49 of the 50 people on board. The NTSB concluded there were adequate visual cues on the airport surface to provide information to the pilots to navigate to the proper runway. However, the NTSB noted that enhanced taxiway centerline markings and surface painted holding position signs provide pilots, in general, with additional awareness about the runway and taxiway environment. The NTSB further recommended that the FAA require all Part 139 airports to implement enhanced taxiway centerline markings and surface painted holding position signs at all runway entrances. This case shows the importance of airport signs, markings and lighting to pilots and the important positional information provided during takeoff, landing and taxiing. Airfield Lighting Runway lighting systems are classified according to their intensity or brightness. Depending on the type of approach, the systems will either have High-Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL), Medium-Intensity Runway Lights (MIRL), or Low-Intensity Runway Lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL systems have different intensity levels or “steps,” whereas the LIRL systems have one intensity setting or step. Many airports, either without a control tower, or when the control is closed, install pilot-controlled lighting systems. “Keying” the aircraft’s radio microphone switch a specified number of times within a given interval, on a predetermined and published frequency, activates the lights. Depending on the type of lighting system, pilots sometimes can affect the intensity of the lights. Pilot-controlled lighting systems provide a greater degree of pilot safety and reduce the airport’s operating and maintenance costs. 24 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 Airfield lighting systems include the following types: Runway edge lights for runways with visual or non-precision approaches are white. On precision instrument runways, yellow edge lights replace the white lights in the direction of landing for the last 2,000 feet or for one-half of the runway length, whichever is less. This provides visual safety information to a pilot as they approach the end of the runway. Runway centerline lights are white in the direction of landing. On a precision instrument runway, the lights change to alternating red and white, beginning at the last 3,000 feet of the runway for a distance of 2,000 feet. At 1,000 feet remaining, the centerline lights switch to all red. Touchdown zone lights (TDZs) are installed on some precision instrument runways to indicate the aircraft touchdown zone. TDZs consist of two rows of transverse light bars on either side of the runway centerline. The system consists of steady-burning white lights that start 100 feet beyond the landing threshold and extend to 3,000 feet beyond the landing threshold or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less. Taxiway edge lights have solid blue lenses, or when lights are unavailable, taxiways can be marked with blue rodshaped reflectors. Taxiway centerline lights are green. Taxiway Lead-on, Lead-off lights are in-pavement lights that alternate green and yellow, lead from the runway centerline onto a taxiway, or vice-versa. Some airports have green taxiway center lights marking the complete route between the terminal and the active runway. Exact specifications vary depending on the type of instrument approach for which the runway is certified, and that discussion is beyond this module’s scope. Threshold lights, which mark the end of the runway, are a colored split lens. The lens indicating the end of a runway to a departing aircraft is red, while the lens indicating the beginning of the runway for landing aircraft is green. Obstruction lights are red and identify an obstruction to navigable airspace. Runway lights are directional through a Fresnel lens. This lens requires the light bases to be aligned properly with the runway and angled toward the landing approach. Airfield lights usually are maintained by airport maintenance personnel (as opposed to FAA personnel, who maintain the approach light system and other navigational aids). Tolerance for lighting outages should be listed clearly in the ACM. Snow, ice or other conditions obscuring the lights or causing outages may make the system inoperative. A NOTAM is required whenever standards are not met. AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 25 Certified Member Figure 1: Airfield Lighting To enhance taxiing capabilities in low-visibility conditions and to reduce the potential for runway incursions, Advisory Circular 120-57A, Surface Movement Guidance and Control System, (SMGCS), requires a low-visibility taxi plan for any airport that has scheduled air carrier takeoff or landing operations in visibility less than 1,200 feet runway visual range (RVR). SMGCS is a system of guidance, control and regulation of all aircraft, ground vehicles and personnel on the Movement Areas during low-visibility conditions. It allows air traffic control personnel to regulate and guide aircraft throughout the Movement Area by turning on and off various airfield lights. SMGCS prevents collisions and ensures traffic flows smoothly and freely in low-visibility conditions. Guidance and regulation of aircraft are through surface markings, stop-bar lights, runway status lights, clearance-bar lights, hold-position lights (i.e., Runway Guard Lights), and training. In-pavement lights help distinguish the hold-position line on Category II and III ILS runways (explained later). For airports required to have SMGCS, the stop-bar lights are red. Some lights and enhanced markings used for SMGCS also are used at airports without SMCGS, to further enhance safety. The airport’s Rotating Beacon helps to identify the airport location and area to a pilot. The light emitted from a beacon is angled from 2 to 10 degrees above the horizon, depending on the surrounding terrain. Civil land airports have a whitegreen beacon. As a safety measure, beacons are designed and built so that, if one bulb burns out, a backup bulb will activate. The system also provides information by a secondary light or signal that indicates a bulb has burned out. If a beacon is activated during the day, it represents conditions below Visual Meteorological Conditions. It could be that the ceiling is below 1,000 feet and/or the visibility is less than three miles. Any changes to the lighting systems of a public-use airport, including pilot-controlled lighting, require revision in the Chart Supplements (i.e., Airport Facilities/Directory (A/FD)). Approach Systems and Lighting 26 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 Approach Lighting Systems (ALS) are designed to facilitate the pilot’s transition from instrument flying to visual identification of the landing runway. ALS is designed for pilots to see the lighting before they see the runway. When an aircraft is at its minimum descent altitude, the pilots may not see the runway but will see the approach lighting system. The lights allow the aircraft to continue its approach to the runway to a lower altitude, where the pilot may see the runway. Depending on the system installed, the ALS can include: Sequenced Flashing (SFs) lights. Runway Alignment Indicator Lights (RAILS). Centerline Lights. Approach lights. Crossbar lights. Threshold lights. Terminating Bars. A Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) or precision approach path indicators (PAPI). Runway End Identifier Lights (REILs). Omnidirectional Approach Light System (ODALS). Threshold Lights are a row of green lights extended across the runway, commonly at the beginning of the landing area. In some cases, the lights may be up to 10 feet from the landing surface (or more). Centerline Lights are rows of five lights across, spaced 100 feet apart and to a distance of up to 3,000 feet from the Threshold. Centerline lights may burn steadily, or be Sequenced Flashing lights. Sequence Flashing (SF) are a series of centerline lights, five lights across, that extend past the 1,000-foot mark of the approach lights. Flashing in sequence and in one direction in order to help guide the pilot’s eyes toward the runway, they are commonly referred to as “the rabbit” because they lead the aircraft toward the landing runway, just as a rabbit leads race dogs around a track. Runway Alignment Indicator Lights (RAILS) are a series of single lights extending beyond the Sequenced Flashers. The Crossbar lights are a series of lights positioned perpendicular to both sides of the centerline lights. The Crossbar lights provide scale, scope and dimension as the pilot approaches the runway. They can be used by pilots as an aid in leveling their wings. They also provide distance information to the runway since they are positioned at fixed distances from the threshold. Approach Lights (or side row bars) mark an undershoot zone in which approaching aircraft should not land. The approach lights uniformly extend from the threshold out to a point where the pilot can make a timely transition from flight instruments, to visual reference. The Approach Lights are red lights, positioned on either side of the centerline lights, and begin when there is 1,000 feet remaining to the Threshold Lights. Termination Bars are a row of red lights on either side of the centerline and 200 feet from the runway threshold. Pilots typically may not descend below 100 feet unless the Termination Bars are in sight. Visual glideslope indicators are available to assist pilots as they approach the runway for landing and provide vertical height information on both visual and instrument runways and help to indicate the pilot’s angle of approach so as to prevent an overshoot or undershoot. Most visual glideslope indicators work on the principle of color differentiation between red and AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 27 Certified Member white. Visual Approach Slope Indicators (VASIs)6 are older technology but still in place at many airports. They can be in a twoor three-bar system. The predominant type is a two-bar, four-light unit (VASI-2), which is located 250 feet parallel to the runway centerline. One unit is approximately 800 feet from the threshold, whereas the other is at 1,200 feet. VASI units are positioned to define a normal three-degree approach slope, the same as a common glideslope. On approach, if a pilot sees all white lights from both units, the aircraft is too high. If the pilot sees all red lights from both units, the aircraft is too low. A combination of red lights on the far VASI unit and white on the nearer VASI unit, defines a proper glideslope (meaning the aircraft should touch down on the first third of the runway). The airport’s obligation is to monitor light operation and ensure that no obstruction or outage of the light signals occurs. A more simplified and precise visual approach lighting system is the Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI). PAPIs have either two or four lights with split red and white lenses. They are installed in a row perpendicular to the runway, and each light has a slightly different angle. A pilot seeing all white is above the glideslope. An all-red indication would have the aircraft below the glideslope. A pilot is on the glideslope when two red and two white lights are visible. An even simpler visual approach slope indicator is made of three panels. Found at some general aviation airports, they are called Approach Path Alignment Panels (APAP). The panels are placed adjacent to the touchdown point of a runway with the middle panel raised and staggered from the two on the ends. From the air, a pilot on glideslope will see the panels aligned evenly across. Any deviation from the glide path and the stagger becomes evident. Runways with visual or non-precision approaches may use other approach light aids to help pilots. Runway End Identifier Lights (REILs) are lighting units located on both corners of a runway threshold; they provide synchronized flashing to identify the end of the runway approach system (and the beginning of the runway). Omni Directional Approach Lights (ODALs) are a single series of sequentially flashing approach lights, installed off the approach end of the runway. They are visible from any direction. ODALs are an omnidirectional ALS consisting of seven flashing lights in the approach area of a non-precision approach runway. They help a pilot to locate the airport and the runway approach from any flight direction, and commonly are used for non-precision approaches. If ODALs are located away from the runway to help define a VFR path through congested or noise sensitive airspace, they are referred to as Lead-In lights (LDIN) and are designed to overcome problems associated with hazardous terrain, obstructions, or noise sensitive areas. They may be placed at intervals of 3,000 feet to highlight a curved, straight or combination pathway to a runway threshold or ALS. Different types of approach lighting systems exist, depending on the needs and requirements of the airport, its users and the FAA. The different approach light configurations are beyond the scope of the Certified Member Modules. A full description of approach light systems is found in AC 150/5340-14, Approach Light Systems or in the Aeronautical Information Manual. Personnel who inspect airport lights must ensure they are operable, no vegetation or foreign material deposits are interfering with illumination, and they are the proper color and orientation. Personnel must report or repair all lights that are missing or appear dim. 6 Some approach aids are airport-owned but still calibrated by the FAA. 28 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 Markings Similar to signs, pavement markings provide information that is useful to both pilots and ground vehicle operators. They are grouped in four categories: runway, taxiway, holding position and others. Runway markings are determined by the runway’s approach category, use and type of aircraft. Markings common to all runways include centerlines, designator and holding indications. Additional markings are used as the approach category increases from Visual, Non-Precision to Precision. Notes: Figure 2: Runway Markings AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 29 Certified Member Runway markings are white, except for taxiway lead-in markings, which are yellow. Taxiway markings are yellow. Usually, the designation is the runway’s magnetic heading, after dropping the last zero. For example, a runway heading of 290 degrees is marked as runway “29”. If there are two parallel runways, one will be marked “29L “and the other “29R”. If there are three parallel runways, then the center runway is marked “29C”. If there are four or more parallel runways, the next closest magnetic heading is chosen. For example, Runways “29L, 29C, 29R and 30.” Visual Runways are runways without an existing or planned instrument approach procedure. Visual Runways are marked with a dashed Centerline, and the Runway Designation (or Landing Designator). Threshold Markings are required on runways serving approach categories C and D airplanes, and for runways used, or intended to be used, by international commercial air transport. Runway threshold markings are several parallel longitudinal lines (usually eight, but as many as 16, depending on runway width) that identify the beginning of a runway. An Aiming Point is required on 4,200-foot or longer runways serving approach categories C and D airplanes. Aiming points are located 1,000 feet past the approach end of the runway where a jet aircraft on a normal glide path will touch down. Runway Edge Markings are included, if the full pavement width is not available for landing. Edge markings are white stripes painted on both sides of the runway border. A Threshold Bar is required if there is in excess of 5 feet of pavement prior to the start of the runway threshold. A threshold bar is a single white bar and extends the runway width. Non-Precision Runways are runways with at least one end having a non-precision approach procedure. Non-precision runways do not have an electronic glideslope. A non-precision instrument runway includes a Runway Designator, a Centerline, Threshold Markings, and on runways of 4,200 feet or greater, an Aiming Point marking. An Aiming Point is included if a visual runway is 4,200 feet or longer. Runway Edge Markings are included, if the full pavement width is not available for landing. Precision Runways have both electronic lateral and vertical approach aids. Precision Approach Runway markings include a Runway Designator, a Centerline, Threshold Markings, an Aiming Point, plus Touchdown Zone Markings and Runway Edge Markings. Touchdown zone markings are spaced at 500-foot intervals from the runway threshold, extending to a distance of 3,000 feet (or half the distance of the runway for runways that are less than 6,000 feet long); TDZs provide distance information to pilots, according to the number of rectangular bars. Taxiways at public-use airports are required to have taxiway centerlines and runway hold-position markings. A taxiway centerline is a single continuous yellow line, even where it extends onto the runway (called lead on/off lines). Where a taxiway ends, a taxiway-ending marking and/or sign is normally installed. Taxiway Edge Lines are two parallel, continuous yellow lines on taxiways edges. An exception is where a taxilane is defined next to an apron area. The dashed taxiway edge marking is used where there is an operational need to define the edge(s) of a taxi route on or contiguous to a sizeable paved area that permits pilots to cross over this surface marking. A common application for this surface marking is a taxi route along the outer edge of a terminal apron. A Displaced Threshold Bar is necessary when siting a threshold other than at the runway end. This relocation can be for obstacle clearance, obstruction in the runway approach, noise abatement, construction or other purposes. It is a white bar, 10 feet in width across the runway. Arrows and arrowheads help to identify and locate a displaced threshold. If the arrows 30 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 are used in a displaced threshold, they are white in color. A Demarcation Bar distinguishes a displaced threshold from a stopway, blast pad or taxiway that precedes the runway. The bar is 3 feet wide and painted yellow. Leading up to the demarcation bar are a series of yellow chevrons indicating an unusable area for landing, takeoff or taxiing. Shoulder Stripe markings are used on both runways and taxiways to provide a visual contrast between the usable and adjacent unusable pavement surface. A shoulder stripe marking is one continuous, solid white line on runways. Side stripes are required on precision instrument runways and on runways when the full runway pavement width may not be available for use as a runway. Runway Holding Position markings (often called a “stop-bar,” “hold short bar,” or “hold short line”) are four yellow parallel lines — two dashed lines and two solid ones. The two dashed lines are closest to the runway. The holding position marking denotes the entrance to a runway from a taxiway, the approach hold position on a taxiway, or Land and Hold Short holding position on a runway. Aircraft, vehicles and personnel on the dashed side are in the Movement Area and either on the runway or in the protected area of the runway. Aircraft, vehicles and personnel on the solid side are in the Movement Area but are on a taxiway and require permission from air traffic control to cross the holding position marking to enter the runway (or its protected area). At non-towered airports, extreme vigilance is used when approaching a hold-position marking. Safe practices require the pilot or vehicle operator to announce over the radio his or her entry to the runway before crossing the hold lines, and call clear of the runway after exiting and crossing the holding position marking. An ILS Critical Area Marking denotes the entrance to an area protecting an ILS signal. It features two parallel yellow lines, with yellow perpendicular lines in between, and resembles a ladder. The Non-Movement Area Boundary is a single solid yellow line, parallel to a single dashed yellow line. Aircraft, vehicles and personnel on the dashed side are in the Movement Area. Aircraft, vehicles and personnel on the solid side are in the NonMovement Area and require permission from air traffic control to enter the Movement Area. Enhanced Taxiway Centerlines provide visual cues to taxiing pilots to help them identify the location of the runway holding position. They are dashed markings, parallel and to either side of the taxiway centerline, beginning 150 feet prior to the holding position marking. Closed runways and taxiways are marked by yellow X’s placed on the pavement to obscure each runway number or at the beginning and end of a taxiway. Raised, lighted X’s also can be used. Permanently closed runways or taxiways also require disconnecting lighting circuits and obliterating pavement markings. To ensure visibility and meaning, the marking of construction areas requires special attention in the construction safety plan. At airports with authorized Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO) for two intersecting runways, or where the runway is used as a taxiway to another runway, a yellow double solid and double dash hold-position marking extends across the runway to identify the hold-short position. The LAHSO is supplemented with signs (white letters on a red background) adjacent to the runway. VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings allow the pilot to check aircraft instruments with navigational aid signals. They consist of a painted circle with an arrow in the middle; the arrow is aligned in the direction of the checkpoint azimuth. This marking AAAE Certified Member (C.M.) - Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance / 31 Certified Member and an associated sign are located on the airport apron or taxiway at a point selected for easy access by aircraft but where other airport traffic is not to be obstructed unduly. A Compass Rose is a surface painted marking located in an area large enough for an aircraft to maneuver and align to the different magnetic headings indicated on the pavement. The compass rose is used to help calibrate the aircraft magnetic compass, which needs to be periodically adjusted to account for the Earth’s magnetic flux. Vehicle roadway markings are intended to reduce the risk of an aircraft and vehicle accident on the Movement Area. Driving lanes are similar to those on highways (solid, white boundary lines with a white broken centerline). An alternative (required for SMGCS) is to use white “zippered” markings. Outside of the Movement Area, markings should conform to those in the Department of Transportation’s Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Glass beads in the paint, as well as black outlines, are required to be used for certain airfield markings, as designated in AC 150/5340-1. Also, airfield signs can be painted on the paved area and are known as Surface Painted (Holding Position, or Taxiway Direction, or Taxiway Location, etc.). Personnel inspecting airfield markings must check for correct color-coding, and evaluate for possible peeling, blistering, chipping, fading, obscured location or positioning. Personnel should ensure hold position markings are visible, new markings properly are assembled after construction, and reflectivity or markings are operating well during hours of darkness. Figure 3: Airfield Markings 32 / American Association of Airport Executives Module 3 Airfield Signs Airfield signs provide useful information to ground vehicle operators while they are driving on the airport, and to pilots during takeoff, landing or taxiing (for examples, see Figure 6). Airfield signs, normally located on the left-hand side in the direction of travel (except for runway exit signs), are intended to provide easy determination of a pilot/ground operator’s location, where they need to go, and/or where they need to stop until further clearance is given. Signs and markings also identify boundaries of approach areas, Instrument Landing System critical areas, ru

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