Early Science in Mesoamerica PDF

2. THE MESOAMERICAN TECHNOLOGY IN PRE-COLUMBIAN TIMES  2 Learning Outcomes: At the end of the course, the student will be able to: ▪ Identify the technologies that shaped Mesoamerica in pre- Columbian times. ▪ Recreat...

2. THE MESOAMERICAN TECHNOLOGY IN PRE-COLUMBIAN TIMES  2 Learning Outcomes: At the end of the course, the student will be able to: ▪ Identify the technologies that shaped Mesoamerica in pre- Columbian times. ▪ Recreate a 3D miniaturized replica of one Mesoamerican technology that remains relevant to modern society using readily available materials. ▪ Discuss how the use of the above technology evolved through time.  3 Major References: Cartwright, Mark. (2018). “Olmec Civilization.” Retrieved from: https://www.ancient.eu/Olmec_Civilization/ Jarus, Owen. (2017). “The Maya: History, Culture and Religion.” Retrieved from: https://www.livescience.com/41781-the-maya.htm “Pre-Columbian civilizations”. Encyclopædia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/pre-Columbian-civilizations The Arizona Museum website https://www.arizonamuseumofnaturalhistory.org/explore-the- museum/exhibitions/cultures-of-the-ancient-americas/mesoamerica "The Technology of the Incas and Aztecs." Science and Its Times: Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery. Retrieved from: https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and- maps/technology-incas-and-aztecs  4 Module Outline I. What is Mesoamerica? B. The Mayan Architecture II. A Timeline at the Height of Power B.1. Pyramid at Chichen Itza of each Civilization B.2. Sayil Palace III. Summary of Mesoamerican Contribution B.3. Temple of Inscriptions to Science and Technology B.4. Ball Courts IV. The Olmecs C. The Mayan Religion A. Olmec Cities and Trading D. The Mayan Agriculture B. Olmec Religion D.1. The Rubber C. Olmec Art E. The Mayan Medicine D. Olmec Colossal Heads F. The Decline of the Mayan E. The End of the Olmecs F.1. The Mayan People Today V. The Maya VI. The Aztecs A. Mayan Contributions to Science and A. The Aztec Religion Technology B. Aztec Engineering and Hydrology A.1. The Mayan Calendar B.2. The Aztec Aqueduct A.1. The Mayan Units of Time C. Sustainable Agriculture: The Aztec Way A.2. The Mayan Mathematics C.1. Aztec Canoe A.3. The Mayan Language and D. The Aztec Architecture Writing System E. The Aztec Calendar and Dates  5 F. Aztecs Heiroglyphs VIII. Activity 2: Quiz on Mesoamerica G. Aztec Math and Number System IX. Activity 3: Rebuilding Mesoamerica H. Aztec Education I. The Aztec Ballgame J. Chocolates K. What Happened to the Aztecs VII. The Inca A. Inca Government and Administration A.1. Inca Government Organization A.2. The Inca Tax B. Inca Architecture C. The Inca Road System D. Inca Food and Agriculture E. The Decline of the Inca Empire  6 I. What is Mesoamerica? ▪ What does it mean? Meso = middle America = North and South America ▪ Where is it located? Mesoamerica is the region that is now Mexico and Central America. In pre-Columbian times, it was the most densely populated region of the Americas. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  7 ▪ Mesoamerica includes the Region in North America and central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala , Nicaragua, Honduras El Salvador, and northern Costa Rica ▪ Within this region pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries where they caused mass genocide of the people there ▪ This region is home to the Olmec, Maya, Aztec & Incan civilization. Map of the pre-colonial Mesoamerica region PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  8 II. A Timeline at the Height of Power of each Civilization 1200 B.C. – 600 A.D. First known civilization to form in Central and Latin Olmec America. 250 A.D. – 900 A.D. Maya Developed in what is now called the Yucatan Peninsula. 1200 A.D. – 1521 A.D. Aztec Built their capital on what is now Mexico City. 1438 A.D. – 1533 A.D. Inca Developed in the Andes Mountains in what is now Peru. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  9 III. Summary of Mesoamerican Contribution to Science and Technology ▪ Calendars ▪ Mathematics ▪ Architectural Wonders ▪ Agriculture ▪ Engineering/Hydrology ▪ Chocolates ▪ Medicine PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  10 IV. THE OLMECS (1200 B.C. – 600 A.D.) ▪ The Olmec lived along the Gulf Coast of modern-day Mexico in tropical rain forests and lowlands from around 1200 BCE to 400 BCE. ▪ Both the Maya and the Aztecs were influenced by the Olmec civilization, the earliest known civilization in Mesoamerica. ▪ The Olmec are known for the immense stone heads they carved from a volcanic rock called basalt. Archaeological evidence also suggests that they originated the Mesoamerican practices of the Mesoamerican Ballgame—a popular game in the pre-Columbian Americas played with balls made from solid rubber—and that they may have practiced ritual bloodletting. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  11 A. Olmec Cities and Trading Olmec prosperity was initially based on exploiting the fertile and well-watered coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico to grow such crops as corn and beans (often twice-yearly) which allowed for an agricultural surplus. By c. 1200 BCE significant urban centers developed at San Lorenzo (the earliest), La Venta, Laguna de los Cerros, Tres Zapotes and Las Limas. San Lorenzo reached its peak of prosperity and influence between 1200 and 900 BCE when its strategic position safe from flooding allowed it to control local trade. The three sites of San Lorenzo, La Venta and Principal Olmec Settlements Laguna de los Cerros all had a bilateral symmetry in their planning and at La Venta the first pyramid in Mesoamerica was constructed. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  12 Typical Olmec trade goods included obsidian, jade, serpentine, mica, rubber, pottery, Jadeite Olmec Mask feathers and polished mirrors of ilmenite and magnetite. Trading helped the Olmec build their urban centers of San Lorenzo and La Venta. These cities, however, were used predominantly for ceremonial purposes and elite activity; most people lived in small villages. Individual homes had a lean-to—sort of like a garage shed—and a storage pit for storing root vegetables nearby. They also likely had gardens in which the Olmec would grow medicinal herbs and small crops, like sunflowers. The Great Pyramid in La Venta PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  13 B. Olmec Religion Religion has become the unifying force of each civilization that thrive in Mesoamerican region and for the Olmecs, it serves as an energy that bind them as one to their ruler and to the Gods that they believe into. There are no direct written accounts of Olmec beliefs, but their notable artwork provide clues about their life and religion. There were eight different androgynous—possessing male and female characteristics— Olmec deities, each with its own distinct characteristics. For example, the Bird Monster was depicted as a harpy eagle associated with rulership. The Olmec Dragon was shown with flame eyebrows, a bulbous nose, and bifurcated tongue. Deities often represented a natural element and included the following: The Maize deity Surviving art, like this The Rain Spirit or Were-Jaguar relief of a king or chief found in La The Fish or Shark Monster Venta, help provide clues about how Religious activities regarding these Olmec society deities probably included the elite functioned. rulers, shamans, and possibly a priest class making offerings at religious sites in La Venta and San Lorenzo. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  14 C. Olmec Art The Olmec culture was defined and unified by a specific art style. Crafted in a variety of materials—jade, clay, basalt, and greenstone, which is an archaeologist's term for carved, green-colored minerals—much Olmec art is naturalistic. Other art expresses fantastic anthropomorphic—human-shaped— creatures, often highly stylized, using an iconography reflective of a religious meaning. Common motifs include downturned mouths and cleft heads, both of which are seen in Olmec hollow baby figurine. Realistic ceramic objects, such as this portrayal of an infant, illustrate representations of were-jaguars and the rain the highly skilled artistic style of the Olmec culture. deity. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  15 D. Olmec Colossal Heads The most striking art left behind by this The Olmec brought these boulders from culture are the Olmec colossal—very the Sierra de los Tuxtlas mountains of big—heads. Seventeen monumental Veracruz. Given that the extremely stone representations of human heads large slabs of stone used in their sculpted from large basalt boulders production were transported over large have been unearthed in the region to distances, requiring a great deal of date. The heads date from at least human effort and resources, it is thought before 900 BCE and are a distinctive that the monuments represent portraits feature of the Olmec civilization. All of powerful individual Olmec rulers, portray mature men with fleshy cheeks, perhaps carved to commemorate their flat noses, and slightly crossed eyes. deaths. The heads were arranged in However, none of the heads are alike, either lines or groups at major Olmec and each boasts a unique headdress, centers, but the method and logistics which suggests they represent specific used to transport the stone to the sites individuals. remain uncertain. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  16 The Olmec are considered a “cultural hearth” by historians. This first civilization had enormously influence the next civilizations to thrive within the region This sculpture, which stands almost eight feet tall The stone head statue that was unearthed in Mexico from the Olmec and weighs about 24 tons, is typical of the civilization colossal heads of the Olmec. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  17 The Olmec population declined sharply between 400 and 350 BCE, though it is unclear why. Archaeologists speculate that the depopulation was caused by environmental changes, specifically by the silting-up of rivers, which choked off the E. The End of water supply. the Olmecs Another theory for the considerable population drop proposes relocation of settlements due to increased volcanic activity as the cause rather than extinction. Volcanic eruptions during the Early, Late, and Terminal Formative periods would have blanketed the lands with ash and forced the Olmec to move their settlements. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  18 V. THE MAYA (250 A.D. – 900 A.D.) ▪ The Maya lived in modern-day southern Mexico and Central America. Including the areas that are today Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. ▪ They were an agriculture-based society. They grow corn, beans, and squash, and practice many of the same crafts, such as weaving and pottery. ▪ Their central location made it very easy for the Map of the ancient Mayan civilization Maya to trade and interact with other cultures from North and South America. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  19 ▪ The Maya built a large and complex system of roads to stay connected with other cities and people. These roads were used for trading goods inside and outside the Mayan empire. ▪ Mayan civilization left behind important architectural wonders which includes the ruins of huge ziggurat and observatories used by astronomers. ▪ The Maya excelled at agriculture, pottery, hieroglyph writing, calendar- making and mathematics, and left behind an astonishing amount of impressive architecture and symbolic artwork. ▪ Most of the great stone cities of the Maya were abandoned by A.D. 900, however, and since the 19th century scholars have debated what might have caused this dramatic decline. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  20 A. Mayan Contributions to Science and Technology A.1. Created a 365 day calendar by watching the stars Consists of two parts: 1. Solar calendar with 365 days, divided into 18 months with 20 days each with 5 extra days at the end 2. Lunar calendar and a Calendar based on the movement of the Planet Venus. This was a sacred calendar with 260 days and 13 weeks of 20 days each. A depiction of Mayan calendar PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  21 A.1.1. The Mayan units of time are as follows: The Kin figures equate to one day and were numbered 0-19; The Uinal equate to 20 kin or days and were numbered 0-17; The Tun equate to 18 Uinal of one Earth year (365 days) and were numbered 0 - 19; The Katun equate to 360 Uinal or 7,200 days and were numbered 0-19; The Baktun equate to 400 tun or 144,000 days and were numbered 1-13. "The Long Count has a cycle of 13 baktuns, which will be completed 1.872.000 days (13 baktuns) after 0.0.0.0.0. This period Read more at: equals 5125.36 years and is referred to as https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/mayan.html the “Great Cycle” of the Long Count" PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  22 A.2 The Maya used math and were the first people to use the zero The Mayan and other Mesoamerican cultures used a vigesimal number system based on base 20 (and, to some extent, base 5), probably originally developed from counting on fingers and toes. The numerals consisted of only three symbols: zero, represented as a shell shape; one, a dot; and five, a bar. Thus, addition and subtraction was a relatively simple matter of adding up dots and bars. After the number 19, larger numbers were written in a kind of vertical place value format using powers of 20: 1, 20, 400, 8000, 160000, etc (see image on the right), although in their calendar calculations they gave the third position a value of 360 instead of 400 (higher positions revert to multiples of 20). PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  23 A.3. Developed an advance languange, glyph writing system and books. The Mayans formalized their language into a codified writing system. Their glyphs were used much like those of A glyph found in one of Mayan temple ruins Ancient Egypt, to represent words, sounds, and syllables through the use of pictures and other symbols. The Mayans used around 700 glyphs to do this and, incredibly, 80% of their language can still be understood by their descendants today. The Mayans also developed a form of an early book that recorded the exploits of their gods, daily life, news and many more subjects. The last two pages of the 'Paris Codex' one of the few surviving Mayan Their books were written on bark and folded books. into fan-like structures. Many of these were sadly destroyed by the Conquistadors but thankfully some have survived to this day. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  24 B. The Mayan Architecture ▪ The Mayan built towering temples, pyramids, plazas and palaces around the empire. ▪ The ceremonial centers usually consisted of pyramidal mounds with temples or other buildings on top. On top of the temples, priests performed religious ceremonies and sacrifices while people watched from the plazas below ▪ These structures were grouped together around an open plaza. The core of the structures was built of stone rubble and lime concrete. The exterior facade was faced with finished limestone blocks or stucco. Carved wood was used for door lintels. A corbel-like vault was developed that required very heavy walls and narrow interior spaces. Windows, if present at all, were very small. Both the interior and exterior walls were colorfully painted. Many of the structures acted as astronomical markers to track the movement of the heavenly bodies. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC B.1. Pyramid at Chichén Itzá The Maya incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. The pyramid at Chichén Itzá in Mexico, for example, is situated according to the sun’s location during the spring and fall equinoxes. At sunset on these two days, the pyramid casts a shadow on itself that aligns with a El Castillo (the Castle), Chichen Itza, carving of the head of the Mayan Yucatan, Mexico. 9th-13th century. serpent god. The shadow forms the serpent’s body; as the sun sets, the serpent appears to slither down into the Earth. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  26 B.2. Sayil Palace (600-900 A.D) Ruins of Sayil Palce at Puuc Route south of Merida in the western Yucatan, Mexico Sayil Palace is one of the oldest palaces in Maya history. The palace is a three-story building with each story set back from the one below. Instead of stacking the rooms one above the other, they were built side by side. The whole palace was made from stone and concrete in the Puuc architectural style. The building known as El Mirador on the site is believed to have been used as an observatory. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  27 B.3. Temple of Inscriptions (A.D. 675-A.D. 683) The Temple of the Inscriptions is the largest stepped pyramid in the region, situated in the heart of Palenque. It was built to commemorate the ruler K’inich Janaab’ Pakal. It is one of the best sources of archeological information of the Maya civilization with the inscriptions on its walls telling us much about this great civilization. It has five entrances at the front with carved walls, and the staircase was built to reach the crypt situated at a higher level. Various tablets have been found in the temple which tell us how the Maya understood The Temple of Inscriptions, Palenque, Mexico. the notion of time. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  28 B.4. Ball Courts Ball courts, as the name suggests, were used to play traditional Mesoamerican ball games. The games had their own rules and regulations where two teams tried to bounce a rubber ball through a ring without using their arms and legs. The ball court usually had sloping sides, but in Uxmal, the sides were vertical; in Tikal, the court was a triple court and the walls were L-shaped. The ball games were believed to be based on religion, and the courts were built with their sacred nature in mind. The games were played One of the walls and goals of the ball court in from north to south, and the loser of the game the Maya-Toltec cityof Chichen Itza. 1050-1200 CE. had to make a sacrifice to the gods. The sport was particularly popular in Copan. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  29 C. The Maya Religion High priests The Maya were deeply religious, and performing worshiped various gods related to nature, religious rituals including the gods of the sun, the moon, rain and corn. At the top of Maya society were the kings, or “kuhul ajaw” (holy lords), who claimed to be related to gods and followed a hereditary succession. Maya religious They were thought to serve as mediators inscriptions between the gods and people on earth, and depicting performed the elaborate religious ceremonies one of their and rituals so important to the Maya culture Gods were they practice human sacrifice. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  30 D. The Mayan Agriculture Although somewhat limited by their geographical location and local plant species, Mayan farmers were expert agriculturists. Their main crop staples included Corn (maize) but they also cultivated beans and squash, which were often grown together with corn to provide mutual support for each crop. As their population grow there is a need to double up their production of crops thus this factor drives the Mayans to mass produce the crops they have been utilizing to withstand the growing population of the empire. Some of the crops cultivated by the Maya PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  31 Recent discoveries also indicate Mayan farmers grew manioc (cassava), a highly nutritious and energy-rich root vegetable and an excellent source of carbohydrate. It turns out that their cultivation of cassava might solve a long-standing mystery as to how they were able to sustain such a large civilization and population given their lack of metal tools and locale. The Mayans were highly accomplished engineers and employed their skills to develop innovative farming techniques including raised farm beds and terrace farming. These techniques were vitally important in providing means of reducing water runoff and erosion and turning mountainous regions into productive farmlands.  32 D.1. The Rubber  Another unusual Mayan crop was rubber.  The Maya cut slits in the bark of the rubber tree and collected its sap. They used the dried sap to make water-resistant shoes and clothing.  Rubber was also used to make balls. The Maya played games in enclosed, I-shaped courts with the rubber balls. These ball games took on a ritual significance and were an important part of Mayan culture. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  33 ▪ An image of a ball court at Xochicalco, a pre-Columbian archaeological site in the western part of the Mexican state of Morelos. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  34 E. Mayan Medicine For the Mayans, like other ancient civilizations, medicine was a mixture of religion and science. Medicinal activities tended to be practised by priests who inherited their positions and received extensive training. For the Mayans, health and ill-health was a matter of balance and imbalance. Balance equalled health and imbalance sickness. They believed this was always controlled by the diet, gender, and age of a person. They knew about stitches and often used human hair to suture wounds. They also regularly made casts to speed the healing and recovery of fractures and other bone breakages. By all accounts, they were particularly skilled at dentistry and used iron pyrite as tooth fillings. Mayan 'witch doctors' were also skilled in creating prosthetics made from jade and turquoise and used obsidian for making cuts. Obsidian is noted for its near-monomolecular edge whose use, when compared to other materials, has the ability to accelerate healing and reduce scarring. It is still in use today by some surgeons performing specialist operations. The Mayans also had extensive knowledge of their local plant ecosystem and used over 1500 different plants to treat a variety of ailments. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  35 Despite the Maya’s remarkable scientific achievements, their culture began to decline toward the beginning of the 11th century. Cause of the civilizations decline are as follows: Maya were wiped out by war; F. The Decline of the Maya Disruption of their trade routes; Maya’s agricultural practices and dynamic growth resulted in climate change and deforestation; Maya culture was subsumed by the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  36 F.1. The Mayan People Today Descendants of Maya people More than 2 million descendants of Maya people live in Guatemala and southern Mexico today. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  37 VI. THE AZTECS (1200 A.D. – 1521 A.D.) Aztec people settled in the Valley of Mexico and what is now Mexico City. The capital city of Aztec empire is “Tenochtitlan” There are approximately 30 million people living in the entire empire. Map of the ancient Aztec empire PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  38 ▪ From their magnificent capital city, Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs emerged as the dominant force in central Mexico, developing an intricate social, political, religious and commercial organization that brought many of the region’s city-states under their control by the 15th century. ▪ Aztec was known also as Toltec and thus some would refer the Aztec empire as Toltec empire.They were fierce warriors who used military power to build a huge empire and starts to collect taxes from the people they conquered which mounted the wealth of the empire. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  39 A. The Aztec Religion The Aztec faith shared many aspects with other Mesoamerican religions, like that of the Maya, notably including the rite of human sacrifice. Depiction of Aztec human sacrifice In the great cities of the Aztec empire, during religious magnificent temples, palaces, plazas and ceremonial rights statues embodied the civilization’s unfailing devotion to the many Aztec gods, including Huitzilopochtli (god of war and of the sun) and Quetzalcoatl (“Feathered Serpent”), a Toltec god who served many important roles in the Aztec faith over the years. The Great Temple, or Templo Mayor, in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, the rain god. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  40 B. Aztecs Engineering and Hydrology B.1. THE WONDER OF AZTECS CAPITAL CITY TENOCHTITLAN ▪ At the height of Aztec civilization there were over 300,000 people living in the capital city of Tenochtitlan and approximately 30 million living in the entire empire. How did the Aztecs build a city in the center of a lake? ▪ Tenochtitlan was built on an island; ▪ It was connected to the mainland by causeways leading north, south, and west of the city; The pre-columbian city of Tenochtitlan ▪ The city was interlaced with a series of canals, so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or by canoe. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  41 Tenochtitlan, as pictured at the time of The present day “Tenochtitlan” , the city of conquest. The city was built in an island Mexico. with causeways around for accessibility. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  42 B.2. The Aztec Aqueduct ▪ Two aqueducts served the city, rather than one. While the other aqueduct piped in fresh water from outlying springs, the other could be cleansed of mud and silt. For this reason, continuous water supply is served in the city. ▪ Excrement was collected, the solids rowed out in barges and used as manure, and urine was used to make dyes fast. The present day Aztec aqueduct pipe seen around and in the outskirts of Mexico city. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  43 ▪ The copious quantity of used water that resulted from the Aztec fondness for taking baths was filtered through charcoal before being allowed to return to the aquifer. ▪ Fluctuations in the level of the lake were dealt with by a system of canals, sluices, and—crucially— dykes, which had roadways atop them and drawbridges and causeways connecting them. Pictured Aztec aqueduct with dykes, roadways atop and a drawbridge. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  C. Sustainable Agriculture: The Aztec Way ▪ The Aztecs were the first to develop the “floating gardens.” Later, it was given a name called “chinampas.” ▪ Chinampas are artificial islands that were created by interweaving reeds with stakes beneath the lake's surface, creating underwater fences. A buildup of soil and aquatic vegetation would be piled into these "fences" until the top layer of soil was visible on the water's surface. ▪ These agricultural lands received this nickname due to the illusion they caused. The bodies of land appeared to be "floating" on the water because the canals surrounded the chinampa plots. Aztec people crafting a chinampa in freshwater lakes of Xochimilco and Chalco PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  45 ▪ Chinampas is still seen today around lake Xochimilco and Chalco ▪ Prior to this time, farmers maintained small-scale chinampas adjacent to their households and communities in the freshwater lakes of Xochimilco and Chalco PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  46 C.1. Aztec Canoe Aztecs has developed special boats called canoes which made transportation through streams and rivers easier. This mode of transportation was thus extensively used throughout the Aztec Empire. They dug many small canals for the transportation of canoes. The Aztec canoe Average size of a is 14 feet in length, were dug used for out from a single tree trunk and had upturned transportation ends. They were propelled by wooden pole or paddle. It took about a week for a skilled carpenter to make a canoe, and it could cost the equivalent in the market of a single fine cotton cape. At the other extreme, the largest canoes, made of straight-grained spruce trees, were 50 or more feet in length, capable of carrying either 60 passengers or 3 tons of maize. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  47 D. The Aztec Architecture The Aztec Empire is famous for many of its features including the amazing architectural styles that the Aztec people used in the construction of their buildings and cities. Aztec architecture followed similar principles to other earlier Mesoamerican civilizations, including, the use of a grid system in city building and the construction of large temples in the shape of a pyramid. The Teotihuacan pyramids are some of the largest of their kind in the Americas. Ancient Pyramids at Teotihuacan a vast Mexican archaeological Teotihuacanos constructed the Pyramid of complex northeast of Mexico City. the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon in the year 100 C.E., centuries before the Aztec had arrived in Teotihuacan. These marvels still stand at an incredible height of around 65 meters (213 feet) and 43 meters (141 feet) respectively. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  48 E. Aztecs Calendar and Dates The Aztec's system of tracking days was very intricate and their calendar system was derived from the Mayan one. The Aztec people followed two main calendars. One was a more sacred calendar consisting of 13 months of 20 days, while the other was an agricultural or solar calendar with 18 months of 20 days. The solar calendar, being the scientific one, should add up to 365 days, yet it only adds up 360. The Aztec sunstone, a very famous calendar, weighs 24 tons and is 13 feet in diameter. It The Aztec sun contains information on the days that begin and stone is a late post- classic Mexica end months as well as the gods related to the sculpture housed in days. The center of the stone contains a god the National Anthropology called Tonatiuh. Surrounding it are four squares Museum in Mexico containing symbols that represent the ages City, and is perhaps the most preceding the time of the Aztecs (tiger, water, famous work of wind,rain). Lastly, around the squares, there is a Aztec sculpture. ring that possesses 20 segments for the 20 days of the month. Each day has it's own unique symbol and god. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  49 F. Aztecs Hieroglyphs The Aztecs language was called Classical Nahuatl and it wasn't written as an alphabet but as a series of glyphs. Each symbol represented only one sound. The language of the Aztecs were eventually developed into an alphabet, yet they used to simply be a series of pictures used in three different ways. The first way was pictograms. This was simply about the symbol meaning what it looked like. This method was easy understand but it required hundreds and thousands of symbols to have meaningful language. The second way is ideograms. Ideograms are related to idea behind what the symbol represents. A picture of footprints could represent a trip or even a passage of time in a certain direction. The last way is phonograms. This is finally how a picture can represent a certain sound such as a picture of a bee could represent the sound of "b". All these components came together in the Aztec glyphs. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  50 Not only were the picture important, but color played a key role too. In order to tell a story, there wasn't a line of several glyphs but rather a few colorful glyphs positioned properly. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  51 G. Aztec Math and Number System Aztec number system was a vigesimal one, which means they used 20 as a base number. In their arithmetic calculations, there were symbols that were used to represent different values. A dot meant the number 1, a bar meant 5, and there were many other symbols for 20 and its various multiples. It was also clear that the Aztecs had a very clear understanding of multiplication and division in the sense of geometry. Their standard unit of linear measurement was called land rod, equivalent to 2.5 meters. If an object was not an exact amount of land rods, certain symbols were added to indicate the remaining length (less than a land rod). These symbols were related to body parts as the human body was very well understood. For example, the This map from 1540 heart symbol would represent a similar has notations in Aztec length to the distance between one's numbers depicting fingertip and heart. The hand symbol dimensions of lands would stand for an identical length of near Texcoco, the the distance from one's right fingertip ancient capital of the and one's left fingertip. Acolhua Aztecs. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  52 H. Aztec Education One of the Aztecs primary contribution is the idea of compulsory universal education. They decided to make it mandatory for children to attend school and receive education. Aztec Calmecac From age 12 to 15, kids attended a type of school from Florentine called cuicalli, also known as house of song. This was a Codex place where they learned ceremonial songs and the cosmology of their people. Most girls ended their education there at age 15, however boys went to a type of school called telpochalli from ages 15 to 20. Aztec Telpochcalli from They slept at this school, but if that wasn't an option the Florentine Codex boys went to another type called calmécac. Calmécac taught of a variety of subjects as well as trained them for the military as the school offered opportunities for a government position. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  53 I. “Tlachtli” the Aztec J. CHOCOLATE: SOMEBODY’S Perfect Food Ball Game ▪ Chocolates is one of the most desired foods of Mesoamerica and was consumed by the Olmec, Maya, and Aztec civilizations, amongst others. A group of Aztec men playing Tlachtli ▪ Aztecs Invented a ball game termed as Aztec jar of chocolate The Aztec way chocolate creation “Tlachtli” Read more at: Read more at: https://www.history.com/topics/anci https://www.britannica.com/sports/tlachtli PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC ent-americas/history-of-chocolate  54 K. What happened to the Aztecs? ▪ Invaders led by the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés overthrew the Aztec Empire by force and captured Tenochtitlan in 1521, bringing an end to Mesoamerica’s last great native civilization. The defeat of The surrender of the Aztec emperor Aztecs from the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  55 VII. THE INCA (1438 A.D. – 1533 A.D.) The Inca civilization flourished in ancient Peru between c. 1400 and 1533 CE, and their empire eventually extended across western South America from Quito in the north to Santiago in the south, making it the largest empire ever seen in the Americas and the largest in the world at that time. the Incas conquered people and exploited landscapes in such diverse settings as plains, mountains, deserts, and tropical jungle. Famed for their unique art and architecture, they constructed finely-built and imposing buildings wherever they conquered, and their spectacular adaptation of natural landscapes with terracing, highways, and Map of the Inca empire mountaintop settlements continues to impress modern visitors at such world famous sites as Machu Picchu. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  56 A. Inca Government & Administration The Inca government was called the Tawantinsuyu. It was a monarchy ruled by a single leader called the Sapa Inca. Sapa Inca - The emperor or king of the Inca Empire was called the Sapa Inca, which means "sole ruler". He was the most powerful person in the land and everyone else reported to the Sapa Inca. His principal wife, the queen, was called the coya. A.1. Inca Government Organization Viceroy - Below the Sapa Inca was the viceroy, or Inkap Rantin. He was a close relative of the Sapa Inca and worked as his closest advisor. High Priest - The high priest, called the "Willaq Umu", was also a very powerful man. He was probably second in power to the Sapa Inca due to the importance of religion in the Inca Empire. Governors of a Quarter - The Inca Empire was divided up into four quarters. Each of these quarters was ruled by a governor called an Apu. Council of the Realm - The Sapa Inca also kept a council of men who advised him on major matters. These men were powerful nobles. Inspectors - In order to maintain control and to make sure people were paying their taxes and following the ways of the Inca, the Sapa Inca had inspectors that watched over the people. The inspectors were called "tokoyrikoq". Military Generals - There were also military generals. The head general was usually a close relative of the Sapa Inca. These leaders were called "Apukuna". Other Officials - There were many other government officials and leaders throughout the Inca Empire such as priests, military officers, judges, and tax collectors. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  57 A.2. The Inca Tax For tax purposes censuses were taken and populations divided up into groups based on multiples of ten (Inca mathematics was almost identical to the system we use today). As there was no currency in the Inca world, taxes were paid in kind - usually foodstuffs, precious metals, textiles, exotic feathers, dyes, and spondylus shell - but also in labourers who could be shifted about the empire to be used where they were most needed, known as mit'a service. To keep track of all these statistics, the Inca used the quipu, a sophisticated assembly of knots and strings which was also highly transportable and could record decimals up to 10,000. Quipu are recording devices fashioned from strings historically used by the Inca PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  58 B. Inca Architecture Master stone masons, the Incas constructed large buildings, walls and fortifications using finely-worked blocks - either regular or polygonal - which fitted together so precisely no mortar was needed. With an emphasis on clean lines, trapezoid shapes, and incorporating natural features into these buildings, they have easily withstood the powerful earthquakes which frequently hit the region. The distinctive sloping trapezoid form and fine Inca 12 Angle Stone masonry of Inca buildings were, besides their obvious aesthetic value, also used as a recognisable symbol of Inca domination throughout the empire. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  59 Inca qollqa (storehouses) used for storing grain and other foodstuffs. 15-16th century CE, Ollantaytambo. The Inca site of Machu Picchu built by Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui(1438-71 CE). Fortress, sanctuary, and once home to around 1,000 residents, the site is perched in the high Andes above the river Urubamba. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  60 C. Inca Road System The Inca Empire was connected by its vast road system (running 25,000 miles), which made Inca road communication between even far away points system located possible within days. Messengers lived in pairs – and At the Andes their whole responsibility was to be ready to receive mountain range a message and run to deliver it – so one of them would sleep while the other remained ready to do the job. With the road system and messenger service, the king could send out an order to mobilize an army for defense and the men of the various communities would respond in a timely fashion. There were stations, inns, and storage depots along this roadway to supply troops, give travelers a rest, and maintain those who worked for the messenger services. The Q'eswachaka bridge, an Inka suspension (catenary) PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC bridge on the Apurimac River near Huinchiri, Peru.  61 Inca roads were built without the benefit of sophisticated surveying equipment using only wooden, stone, and bronze tools. As they were built in different geographical zones using local populations, the roads are, consequently, not uniform in construction design or materials. Sometimes there are also two or three roads constructed in parallel, especially near the larger urban centres. A map of the Inca road Flattened road beds - often raised - were usually made system which using packed earth, sand, or grass. The more important included some roads were finished with precisely arranged paving 40,000 km of stones or cobbles. routes. Roads were typically edged and protected with small stone walls, stone markers, wooden or cane posts, or piles of stones. Drainage was provided by frequent drains and culverts, which drew off rainwater from the road surface, channelling it either along or under the road. When crossing wetlands, roads were often supported by buttress walls or built on causeways. Read more at: https://www.ancient.eu/image/3004/inca-road-system/ PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  62 D. Inca Food & Agriculture The Inca state developed a huge farming apparatus, where crops and herds were commandeered from conquered people and the people themselves were periodically commandeered to work on state-owned farms. More positively, a vast network of storage facilities was developed to insure against times of drought and disaster and foodstuffs were often given out as gifts by rulers seeking to make themselves popular. Land was worked using simple tools such as a hoe, clod breaker, and foot plough - the chakitaqlla, which consisted of a wooden or bronze pointed pole that was pushed into An Inca circular terracing used to increase agricultural the ground by placing one's foot on a yield. Moray, Peru, 15-16th century CE. horizontal bar. Hoe blades were typically made using sharpened cobble stones. Read more on: https://www.ancient.eu/article/792/inca-food--agriculture/ PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  63 Crops cultivated across the Inca Empire included maize, coca, beans, grains, potatoes, sweet potatoes, ulluco, oca, mashwa, pepper, tomatoes, peanuts, cashews, squash, cucumber, quinoa, gourd, cotton, talwi, carob, chirimoya, lúcuma, guayabo, and avocado. Livestock was primarily llama and alpaca herds. These animals were vital to many aspects of Andean life as they provided wool, meat, leather, moveable wealth, transportation - especially for the army, and they were often sacrificed in religious ceremonies. The Incas were ambitious farmers, and to maximise agricultural production, they transformed the landscape with terracing, canals, and irrigation networks, whilst wetlands were often drained to make them suitable for Some of Inca cultivated crops farming. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  64 A painting depicting Francisco Pizarro conquering the Inca empire E. The Decline of Inca Empire The Inca Empire fell to the Spanish conquistadores under Francisco Pizarro in 1533 CE, but it had been in decline already for some time. Rebellions throughout the empire were already ongoing by the time Pizarro arrived in the region and the diseases (especially smallpox) brought by Europeans had already destroyed large swaths of the population (up to 90%). PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  65 VIII. ACTIVITY 2: QUIZ ON MESOAMERICA Mesoamerican civilization: the complex of indigenous cultures that developed in parts of Mexico and Central America prior to Spanish exploration and conquest in the 16th century. In the organization of its kingdoms and empires, the sophistication of its monuments, buildings and cities, and the extent and refinement of its intellectual accomplishments, had set apart the Mesoamerican civilization from its counterpart in history. Prepare for a 10 point quiz on “Mesoamerican Technology in Pre-Columbian Times” to be published under this module in the Moodle course site. Quiz will be accessed on March 22, 2021and will be closed on April 07, 2021 (11:59 PM). Make sure to log in and answer the quiz in your Moodle course site between the aforementioned dates. Those who can’t take the quiz will be automatically marked “0” as your point in this activity. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  66 IX. ACTIVITY 3: REBUILDING MESOAMERICA For this activity you will work in groups. You will recreate one technology of the Mesoamerican civilization that has utilization in modern times into a 3D miniaturized replica. You may choose among the following: chinampas, corn production, rubber, agriculture terraces, aqueduct, canoe/transportation, calendar, natural products (e.g. cocaine as anesthesia), chocolates, tools for agriculture or daily living (e.g. pottery), road systems, temples/architecture. There should be no duplication among groups with this class. Submit your topic in the forum section under this module in the Moodle course site. Plan your ideas and activities with your groupmates using digital platforms. During your planning process divide the task among the members of the group. Construct your 3D replica using readily available materials. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  67 Include a write up with the following content: 1) Description of the technology and its use in Mesoamerican civilization 2) Uses of this technology and any modification in the present time 3) Discuss how you develop your replica (contribution of each member, materials used and where they obtained the materials, challenges encountered and solutions) Write up should only be 500-700 words in length. Include references written in proper format (e.g. APA). Take a clear photo (jpeg. Format) of your replica and send it together with your write up to Google classroom (check instruction with your instructor). Deadline of submission is on April 16, 2021 11:59 PM. Late output submission will have a deduction (minus 1 per whole hour late). PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC  68 Rubrics for Grading (Activity 3) Exceptional Admirable Acceptable Attempted Criteria 30 points 10-8 pts. 7-5 pts. 6-4 pts. 3-1 pts. Explored several choices of readily Tried a few ideas before selecting The work shows considerable use of Materials that was readily available is available materials before selecting readily available material and readily available materials and a not used and it does not show one, generated many ideas and generated combinations suited for the developing understanding of the understanding of the concept as a tried unusual combinations or concept. concept. whole. changes of the concept. 10 Craftsmanship/Creativity The replica was beautiful and With a little more effort, the work Showed average craftsmanship; The student showed average patiently done; it was as good as could have been outstanding; lacks the adequate, but not as good as it could craftsmanship, lack of pride in finished hard work could make it. finishing touches. have been, a bit careless. work The replica was planned carefully The replica shows that the student The student did the model adequately, The replica was completed and turned and showed an awareness of the applied the principles of design while yet it shows lack of planning and little in, but showed little evidence of elements and principles of design; using one or more elements evidence that an overall composition understanding of the elements and chose color scheme carefully, used effectively; showed an awareness of and design was planned to emulate principles of design, no evidence of Composition/Design/ 10 space effectively that captured well filling the space adequately to capture the technology. planning as what was manifested by the technology. the technology desired the replica of technology presented. Resourcefulness Writing shows high degree of Writing is coherent and logically Writing is coherent and logically Writing lacks logical organization. It attention to logic and reasoning of organized with transitions used organized. Some points remain shows some coherence but ideas lack points. Unity clearly leads the between ideas and paragraphs to misplaced and stray from the topic. unity. reader to the conclusion and stirs create coherence. Overall unity of Transitions evident but not used thought regarding the topic. ideas is present. throughout essay. Main points well developed with high Main points are present with limited Main points lack detailed development. quality and quantity support. Main points well developed with quality detail and development. Some critical Ideas are vague with little evidence of Write up 10 supporting details and quantity. Critical thinking is present. Reveals high degree of critical critical thinking. thinking. thinking is weaved into points Fails to follow format and write up Meets format and write up Meets format and other requirements requirements; less than 500 and more Meets all format requirements with requirements with 500-700 words. with 500-700 words and may have than 700 words. 500-700 words and evidences some assembly errors attention to detail. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 69