STS-REVIEWER.pdf

Science was developed in Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica, and in Africa. Science provided different ancient civilization the means to survive and understand the natural and physical world. Mesoamerica covers the entire Central America, from the southern Mexico up to the boarder of South America. Prior t...

Science was developed in Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica, and in Africa. Science provided different ancient civilization the means to survive and understand the natural and physical world. Mesoamerica covers the entire Central America, from the southern Mexico up to the boarder of South America. Prior to European colonizers, it is known for their rich culture and indigenous knowledge system. MAYAN CIVILIZATION - civilization that lasted for approximately 2000 yrs. From 2000 BCE to 1500 CE. - known for their works in astronomy. - the pyramid of Kukulkan in Chichen Itza in Mexico is positioned to the spot of the sun during the spring and fall equinoxes. - their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles agricultural activities. - Used 2 complicated calendar systems to measure time, for planning their everyday activities and in observing their religious rituals and cultural celebrations. - developed technology for growing different crops and for building cities using ordinary machineries and tools. - built hydraulics system with complex waterways to supply water to different communities. - built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called mica. - believed to be the first to produce rubber products. -Considered most scientifically advanced people in Mesoamerica. - first to use writing system known as Mayan hieroglyphics. -known in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20 and developed the concept of zero and positional value. = people are called Mayans or Maya, from major capital city of Yucatan peninsula called Mayapan, prominent from 13th to 15th centuries CE. PRECLASSIC PERIOD (2000 BCE- 250 CE) Early farming communities of Mesoamerica. Developed foundations for their culture, agriculture, pottery, and settlement.1000 BCE significant urbanization began, and by 500 BCE, El Mirador (major city) had emerged. CLASSIC PERIOD (250 CE – 900 CE) Flourishing of large cities (Tikal, Palenque, Copan, and Calakmul), advancements in architecture (pyramids, palaces, temples using limestone), and a highly developed writing system. POSTCLASSIC PERIOD (900 CE – 1521 CE) Declined due to drought, overpoplutaion, and political instability. Northern Yucatan peninsula, cities such as Chichen Itza and Uxmal rose to prominence during the Postclassic Period. RELIGION they are polytheistic (worshipping a pantheon of gods related to nature, agriculture, and celestial bodies). = Key deities included Itzamná (the god of creation), Chac (the rain god), and Kukulkan (the feathered serpent). = Rituals such as bloodletting, human sacrifice, and offerings. ARTS & CRAFTSMANSHIP = included intricate carvings, sculptures, ceramics, and murals, often depicting religious ceremonies, rulers, and daily life. = jade, obsidian, and shell, which were highly valued materials. = developed a unique style of pottery, some of which was used in burial rites or religious ceremonies. DECLINE = due to a combination of factors such as environmental changes, internal conflict, and external pressures. INCAN CIVILIZATION = called their empire Tawantinsuyu (The Four Regions Together). This is the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco. Rose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century. = only lasted from 1438 to 1532 when the Spanish conquered them. = known for their amazing achievements, like their farming methods and buildings. Sapa Inca: The ruler, considered divine, was the absolute leader of the empire. Ayllu: The basic social unit, which consisted of extended family groups that worked together for the common good =The Incas practiced a system of Mit'a, where citizens were required to provide labor to the state for a certain number of days each year (65 days) Quechua: Language of the Incas, still spoken today = Strict hierarchical society, with nobility, artisans (skilled workers who practice a trade or handicraft, often making functional or decorative items), and peasants. RELIGION Polytheistic Beliefs: Worship of multiple gods, especially nature deities like Inti (Sun God), Viracocha (Creator god), Pachamama (mother earth) Festivals and Rituals: Religious ceremonies to ensure good harvests and appease the gods Human Sacrifice: Practiced on rare occasions, especially in times of crisis or celebration AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY Terrace Farming: Engineered farming on mountain slopes, maximizing arable land Irrigation Systems: Complex networks of canals to bring water to arid regions Fertilization Methods: Use of organic fertilizers like guano (bird droppings) Crops: Maize, potatoes, quinoa, coca, and cotton ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE = famous for their stonework (building roads with stones), particularly in cities like Machu Picchu and Cusco. = They used a construction technique called ashlar (squared stone), where stones were cut to fit together without mortar = Inca road system spanned thousands of miles and included suspension bridges, making it one of the most advanced in the ancient world TECHNOLOGY Quipu: Knotted strings used for record-keeping and communication. Only experts can interpret. Metalworking: Advanced techniques in working with gold, silver, and bronze Textiles: Highly sophisticated weaving methods, used for clothing and ceremonial purposes- Domestication of Animals: Llamas and alpacas for transportation, textile or wool, and meat LEGACY Influence on modern Andean cultures Preservation of Incan architecture, agriculture, and road systems Quechua language and traditions still alive today SCIENTIFIC IDEAS -invented a calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season -Building the 1st suspension bridge and creating Inca textiles. -Coca leaves medicine to numb the pain like crumbs -declined by arrival of diseases and eruption of civil war. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION = one of the oldest and most influential in human history = flourished for over 3,000 years. = The beginnings of Egyptian civilization can be linked to the Neolithic era, when the yearly flooding of the Nile River resulted in rich soil that was perfect for farming growth. = Ancient Egypt had a political and social system that featured a centralized government, where the pharaoh was the ultimate ruler and represented divine authority. GEOGRAPHY AND NILE’S ROLE the longest river in the world, provided a lifeline for Egyptians, offering fertile land for agriculture, fresh water, and a reliable transportation route. Nile's flooding deposited nutrient rich silt along its banks, enabling the cultivation of crops like wheat and barley. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE Pharaoh An egyptian kings of a centralized state Claimed to be gods living on earth in human form Priests Scribe Craftworkers/ Merchants Peasants( Farmers) and Slaves - among the slave, were the Hebrews - Instead a professional military forces and an elaborate bureaucracy of administrators and tax collectors served the general government. - , more opportunities for women than on Mesopotamia as evidenced by Queen Hatshepsut reigning as pharaoh. RELIGION AND BELIEF SYSTEMS polytheism, worshiping a multitude of gods and goddesses, such as Ra (the sun god), Osiris (god of the afterlife), Isis (goddess of magic and fertility) afterlife, where the soul would live on forever, shaped their burial practices, particularly the process of mummification Temples were both religious and administrative centers. Major temples, like those at Karnak and Luxor, were vast complexes where priests performed rituals, made offerings to the gods, and governed the surrounding areas ACHIEVEMENTS Arts - These pyramids, along with the Sphinx and tombs in the Valley of the Kings, reflect the Egyptians' focus on the afterlife and their desire to create lasting monuments. Architecture – Great Pyramid of Giza, Writings – Hieroglyphics ( pictorial symbols). The Rosetta Stone discovery in 1799 helped decipher hieroglyphics, unlocking Egypt's secrets. Calendar - based on lunar and solar cycles, and used it to schedule agriculture and festivals. Geometric knowledge to build monumental structures like pyramids. Medicine - skilled in surgery and herbal medicine, with knowledge of anatomy gained from mummification. They documented treatments for various ailments in texts including broken bones, infections, and diseases like the Ebers Papyrus. Trade, Economy, and International Influence - Egypt’s economy was based primarily on agriculture. Egyptians traded goods like gold, papyrus, linen, and grain with neighboring regions, including Nubia, Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean. In return, they imported items such as timber, precious stones, and exotic animals. Legacy and Influence on Modern Society - Egyptian art, architecture, and religious ideas have profoundly influenced Western culture, particularly during periods such as the Renaissance and the Neoclassical movement. Pyramid & obelisk Tomb of King Tutankhamun. AZTEC CIVILIZATION Mandatory education – their children are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, and or age. Boys of the lower classes attended schools called Telpochcalli. While the boys from the nobility attended schools called Calmecac. Girls also attended school but not the same ones as boys. They were instructed in housekeeping. Also they were taught of the religious tradition, history, songs, poem, festival, and dances of Aztec empire. Antispasmodic medication – prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, could help during surgery. Uses Passion Flower for sedative and pain reliever Chinampa – a form of Aztec technology for agriculture in which land was divided into rectangular areas surrounded by canals Invention the canoe – a light narrow boat used for travelling in water systems. Chocolates – Aztec in Mexico developed chocolates. They valued cacao beans as part of their offering Aztec Calendar – enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season. The Aztec civilization, also known as the Mexica, was a powerful and influential culture that dominated central Mexico from the 14th to 16th centuries. Their empire, centered in the magnificent city of Tenochtitlán, was a testament to their advanced social, political, and religious organization. RELIGION Polytheistic – belief in more than one god. gods like Huitzilopochtli (war and sun) and Tlaloc (rain). They believed human sacrifice was essential to keep the world safe, conducting rituals on temple pyramids. ARCHITECTURES Causeways - allowed the people to easily travel over the swampy and wet areas Canals - acted like water roads that allowed people to easily travel around the large city in boats. Temple – Pyramids - temples usually found at the top of pyramids. One of the largest pyramids in the world is at Cholula, near Mexico City. represent their desire to sacrifice to their gods and their religion and beliefs. Ex: Twin Stair Pyramid, Single Stair pyramid, Round pyramid Numerical system - counted in units of twenty instead of tens. A flag represented twenty so four flags equalled eighty. They used other symbols for larger numbers, such as a feather for four hundred Terracing - walls of stone were created in hillsides, then filed in to create deeper soil that could be used Weapons and Tools - made with obsidian and chert Axe blades- either stone or copper drills - made with reed or bone Atlatl - made it easier to throw a spear Macuahuit - wooden club containing sharp pieces of volcanic glass, or obsidian used to disable an enemy or opponent without killing him Nahuatl - dominant language in central Mexico by the mid-1350s. Numerous Nahuatl words borrowed by the Spanish were later absorbed into English as well, including chile or chili, avocado, chocolate, coyote, peyote, guacamole, ocelot and mescal. FALL