psychology notes.docx

**GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY** **CHAPTER ONE** **PSYCHOLOGY** **What is Psychology?** Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. It is the science of the mind and deals with how the mind works, and how it affects behavior. The human mind is the most complex machine on Earth and it is t...

**GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY** **CHAPTER ONE** **PSYCHOLOGY** **What is Psychology?** Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. It is the science of the mind and deals with how the mind works, and how it affects behavior. The human mind is the most complex machine on Earth and it is the source of all thought and behaviour. ***Human behaviour: the raw data of psychology*** The mind is highly complex and enigmatic. Many wonder how psychologists can study such an intricate, seemingly abstract and extremely sophisticated thing. Even if scientists look inside the brain, as in an autopsy or during a surgical operation, all they see is gray matter (the brain). Thoughts, cognition, emotions, memories, dreams, perceptions, etc. cannot be seen physically, like a skin rash or heart defect. Experts say that the approach to psychology is not that different to other sciences. As in other sciences, experiments are devised to confirm or disprove theories or expectations. For a physicist, the raw data during the experiments may be atoms, electrons, the application or withdrawal of heat, while for the psychologist human behavior is the raw data. For a psychologist, human behavior is used as evidence - or at least an indication - of how the mind functions. We are unable to observe the mind directly; however, virtually all our actions, feelings and thoughts and the things we say are influenced by the functioning of our minds. That is why human behavior is used as raw data for testing psychological theories on how the mind functions. ***Psychology and other disciplines*** Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields of study such as human development, sports, health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive processes. It lies at the intersection of many other different disciplines, including biology, medicine, linguistics, philosophy, anthropology, sociology, and artificial intelligence (AI). For example, neuropsychology is allied with biology, since the aim is to map different areas of the brain and explain how each underpins different brain functions like memory or language. Other branches of psychology are more closely connected with medicine. Health psychologists help people manage disease and pain. Similarly, clinical psychologists help alleviate the suffering caused by mental disorders. **IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY** Everyone uses psychology on a daily basis, whether they are talking with friends, arguing with a partner, or disciplining their children. Most people just don't realize the science behind their decisions. Understand how your mind works helps in everyday life by allowing you to build strong relationships and make the best decisions. Here are five ways how: - **The building of relationships:** Psychology makes it easier to live with others by understanding them more and working with their behavior. Below, University of Texas professor James Pennebaker explains one way psychology can be used to predict romantic compatibility. - **Improving communication:** A greater understanding of how humans think and behave will help people communicate better. They will be more effective in understanding what a person really means by gestures and actions. - **Building self-confidence:** By understanding more about yourself and your personality, you can gain more self-confidence. You will learn more about your weaknesses and can build on them. - **Enriching careers:** You will be able to understand your coworkers more and stand a better chance of building friendships. It helps to deal with their actions to enrich your career. ***BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY*** There are many branches of psychology; how you split them up will usually depend on which part of the world you are in, even which university or institution you were trained at. The following are seen as the main branches of psychology: ***Clinical psychology*** *Clinical psychology relates to psychologists directly providing comprehensive healthcare to patients who are suffering from mental illness. Clinical psychologists interact with patients through observations, interviews and tests before making a diagnosis and coming up with a plan to deal with the symptoms of a mental illness.* ***Cognitive psychology*** Cognitive psychology investigates internal mental processes, such as problem solving, memory, learning, and language (how people think, perceive, communicate, remember and learn). This branch of psychology is closely related to other disciplines, such as [n]euroscience, philosophy and linguistics. ***Developmental psychology*** Developmental psychologists have helped us better understand how people mature over the course of their lives, both emotionally and physically, studying human development from birth until old age. Specifically, psychologists take an in-depth look at biological growth of the body, cognitive expansion and emotional maturity, among other areas of study. ***Evolutionary psychology*** Evolutionary psychology looks at how human behavior has been affected by psychological adjustments during evolution. Just as biologists talk about natural selection or sexual selection during evolution, this branch of psychology applies psychology to the same way of thinking. ***Forensic psychology*** Forensic psychologists work in the intersection of the legal system and the field of psychology. They often conduct evaluations and research that help guide legal proceedings. This can include evaluating a defendant for competency to stand trial or helping train police officers and first responders on how to properly handle criminals and crime scenes. ***Health psychology*** Health psychology is also called behavioral medicine or medical psychology. This branch observes how behavior, biology and social context influence illness and health. While a doctor treats the illness, the health psychologist will focus more on the person who has the illness, by finding out about their socioeconomic status and background, behaviors that may have an impact on the disease (such as medication compliance), plus the biological reasons for the illness. ***Neuropsychology*** This studies the structure and function of the brain in relation to clear behaviors and psychological processes. Neuropsychology is also involved in lesion studies in the brain, as well as recording electrical activity from cells and groups of cells in higher primates, including some human studies. ***Occupational psychology*** Occupational psychology, also known as industrial-organizational psychology, I-O psychology, work psychology, organizational psychology, work and organizational psychology, personnel psychology or talent assessment - studies the performance of people at work and in training, develops an understanding of how organizations function and how people and groups behave at work. ***Social psychology*** Social psychology uses scientific methods to understand and explain how feeling, behavior and thoughts of people are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other people. Social psychologists strive to understand individual behaviors and personalities within a social context. Psychologists in this branch study the social factors that influence how people act and the condition in which those actions occur. ***THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGY*** A theory is based upon a hypothesis and backed by evidence. In science, a theory is not merely a guess. A theory is a fact-based framework for describing a phenomenon. A theory presents a concept or idea that is testable. To the average layperson, the word theory means something of a guess. It might be true, or it might not be. But the word has a very different meaning in the realm of science when researchers are talking about empirical research that is back by scientific evidence. While the parlance of everyday language suggests that a theory is just a hunch, the word has a very different meaning in science. A scientific theory presents an explanation about some aspect of human behavior or the natural world which is supported through repeated testing and experiments. ***Psychology Theories*** In psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. A psychological theory has two key components: 1. It must describe a behavior 2. It must make predictions about future behaviors Throughout psychology\'s history, a number of theories have been proposed to explain and predict various aspects of human behavior. Some of these theories have stood the test of time and remain well-accepted today. Others have not held up under close scientific scrutiny and may have been rejected altogether or only partially accepted by researchers today. Each theory has helped contribute to our knowledge base of the human mind and behavior. Some theories such as classical conditioning are still well-accepted today. Others, like Freud\'s theories, have not held up so well and have been mostly replaced by new theories that better explain human development. The overall strength of a scientific theory hinges on its ability to explain diverse phenomena. What makes a theory so different from a mere guess or hunch is that a theory is testable. As new evidence and research is added, a theory may then be refined, modified, or even rejected if it does not fit with the latest scientific findings. **Types of Psychology Theories** There are many psychology theories, but most can be categorized as one of four key types: **1. Developmental Theories** Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and concepts that describe and explain human development. Some developmental theories focus on the formation of a particular quality, such as Kohlberg\'s theory of moral development. Other developmental theories focus on growth that happens throughout the lifespan, such as Erikson\'s theory of psychosocial development. **2. Grand Theories** Grand theories are those comprehensive ideas often proposed by major thinkers such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget. Grand theories of development include psychoanalytic theory, learning theory and cognitive theory. These theories seek to explain much of human behavior but are often considered outdated and incomplete in the face of modern research. Psychologists and researchers often use grand theories as a basis for exploration, but consider smaller theories and recent research as well. **3. Mini-Theories** Mini-theories describe a small, very particular aspect of development. A mini-theory might explain relatively narrow behaviors, such as how self-esteem is formed or early childhood socialization. These theories are often rooted in the ideas established by grand theories, but they do not seek to describe and explain the whole of human behavior and growth. **4. Emergent Theories** Emergent theories are those that have been created relatively recently and are often formed by systematically combining various mini-theories. These theories often draw on research and ideas from different disciplines but are not yet as broad or far-reaching as grand theories. The sociocultural theory proposed by theorist Lev Vygotsky is a good example of an emergent theory of development. **Different Psychological Theories** Some of the best-known theories of psychology focus on specific branches within psychology. These include: **Behavioral Theories** Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous psychologists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the twentieth century. Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in therapeutic settings to help clients learn new skills and behaviors. **Cognitive Theories** Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention. **Developmental Theories** Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society. **Humanistic Theories** Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s. While earlier theories often focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems, humanist theories instead emphasized the basic goodness of human beings. Some of the major humanist theorists included Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. **Personality Theories** Personality psychology looks at the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best-known theories in psychology are devoted to the subject of personality including the trait theory of personality, the \"big 5\" theory of personality, and Erikson\'s theory of psychosocial development. **Social Psychology Theories** Social psychology is focused on helping us understand and explain social behavior. Social theories are generally centered on specific social phenomena, including group behavior, [[social behavior]](https://www.verywell.com/what-is-prosocial-behavior-2795479), social influence, love and much more. ***CHALLENGES OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY*** Understanding and attempting to alleviate the costs of psychological disorders such as depression is not easy, because psychological experiences are extremely complex. The questions psychologists pose is as difficult as those posed by doctors, biologists, chemists, physicists, and other scientists, if not more so (Wilson, 1998). 1. A major goal of psychology is to predict behavior by understanding its causes. Making predictions is difficult in part because people vary and respond differently in different situations. Individual differences are *the variations among people on physical or psychological dimensions*. For instance, although many people experience at least some symptoms of depression at some times in their lives, the experience varies dramatically among people. Some people experience major negative events, such as severe physical injuries or the loss of significant others, without experiencing much depression, whereas other people experience severe depression for no apparent reason. 2. Another reason that it is difficult to predict behavior is that almost all behavior is *multiply determined*, or produced by many factors. And these factors occur at different levels of explanation. We have seen, for instance, that depression is caused by lower-level genetic factors, by medium-level personal factors, and by higher-level social and cultural factors. You should always be skeptical about people who attempt to explain important human behaviors, such as violence, child abuse, poverty, anxiety, or depression, in terms of a single cause. Furthermore, these multiple causes are not independent of one another; they are associated such that when one cause is present other causes tend to be present as well. This overlap makes it difficult to pinpoint which cause or causes are operating. For instance, some people may be depressed because of biological imbalances in neurotransmitters in their brain. The resulting depression may lead them to act more negatively toward other people around them, which then leads those other people to respond more negatively to them, which then increases their depression. As a result, the biological determinants of depression become intertwined with the social responses of other people, making it difficult to disentangle the effects of each cause. 3. Another difficulty in studying psychology is that much human behavior is caused by factors that are outside our conscious awareness, making it impossible for us, as individuals, to really understand them. The role of unconscious processes was emphasized in the theorizing of the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856--1939), who argued that many psychological disorders were caused by memories that we have repressed and thus remain outside our consciousness. Unconscious processes will be an important part of our study of psychology, and we will see that current research has supported many of Freud's ideas about the importance of the unconscious in guiding behavior. **METHODS OF RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY** Like policy detectives who search for clues to solve a case, psychologist conduct research to gather evidence about human behaviour and its causes. Three methods of research in psychology are (1) Descriptive research (2) Correlational research (3) Experimental research. **DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH** In psychology, descriptive research seeks to investigate how human beings and other animals behave especially in their natural settings. **Case studies, naturalistic observation**, and **surveys** are common descriptive methods. A case study is an in-depth analysis of an individual or group event. With a case study, the researcher studies a single case or event in great detail with the view to discovering the principles of behaviour that are valid for people or situations in general. With the case study approach, data may be gathered through observation, interviews, questionnaires or task performance. The greatest advantage of a case study is that it can be a source of new ideas that may be subsequently examined using other research methods. ***Naturalistic Observation*** In naturalistic observation, the researcher observes behaviour as it occurs in a natural setting, without seeking to influence the behaviour. Like the case studies, naturalistic observation does not bring out clear conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between factors or variables. In the real world, many factors or variables influence behaviour, and naturalistic observation cannot easily disentangle these variables. ***Survey Research*** In a survey research, information is obtained about a topic by administering questionnaires or interviews to many people. Surveys ask respondents to provide information about their behaviours, experiences and attitudes on a wide range of issues. Two key concepts in survey research are **population** and **sample.** A population consists of all the individuals who the researcher is interested in drawing a conclusion about. If a researcher is interested is interested in finding out the professional backgrounds of HR practitioners in Ghana, then all individuals involved in HR management in Ghana would constitute the population. Because it is often impractical to study the entire population, the researcher would administer the survey to a sample which is a subset of individuals drawn from the larger population. **CORRELATION RESEARCH** Psychologists also carry out correlational research. For example, if a psychologist is interested in finding out whether motivation is related to job performance, he /she would carry out a correlational study. A correlational research in the simplest form has three components: 1\) The researcher measures one variable (X) such as motivation 2\) The researcher measures a second variable (Y) such as absents. 3\) The researcher strategically determines whether X and Y are related. In correlational research, the researcher measures variables, but does not manipulate the variables. **EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH AND PSYCHOLOGY** The experiment is a powerful research method. Its major advantage is that it enables the researcher to make conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables. But the experimental method cannot be used to investigate all psychological phenomena. Psychologists are often interested in investigating the effects of certain factors on behaviour which cannot be manipulated as independent variables because of ethical reasons. For example, a psychologist may be interested in studying whether nutritionally poor diet during pregnancy will affect the level of intelligence of the child. Here the researcher cannot select 200 pregnant women and assign 109 of them to a condition in which they eat poor diet. The potential risk to the health of the women and their unborn children would make their experiment unethical. In other psychological investigations, manipulation of variables is difficult or impossible. For example, let us assume that a Psychologist wants to know whether being brought up in an urban as opposed to a rural area affects children\'s level of intelligence. An experiment would require the scientist to randomly assign children from the same family to live in urban and rural areas. This is obviously impossible to do. It is clear from the above examples that certain human behavioural phenomena cannot be subjected to the same rigorous scientific investigation that other physical and chemical phenomena can be subjected to. As a result, psychology cannot be said to be pure, hundred percent science. But there is no doubt that a lot of psychological behavioural issues can be investigated with experimental research methods, and psychology has really benefited from the application of the scientific methods of investigation. **CHAPTER TWO** **HUMAN BEHAVIOUR** **HUMAN BEHAVIOUR** **Human Behaviour refers to the full range of physical and emotional behaviours that humans engage in; biologically, socially, intellectually, etc. and are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.** **Human behaviour is experienced throughout an individual's entire lifetime. The behaviour of people falls within a range with some behaviour being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits. It includes the way they act based on different factors such as genetics, social norms, core faith, and attitude. Behaviour is impacted by certain traits each individual has. The traits vary from person to person and can produce different actions or behaviour from each person.** **Factors That Affect Human Behaviour** **1. Genetics** **2. Social Norms: Social norms, the often-unspoken rules of a group, shape not only our behaviours but also our attitudes. An individual's behaviour varies depending on the groups they are a part of, a characteristic of society that allows their norms to heavily impact society. Without social norms, human society would not function as it currently does.** **3. Creativity: is a fundamental human trait. It can be seen in tribes\' adaptation of natural objects to make tools, and in the uniquely human pursuits of art and music. This **creative impulse **explains the constant change in fashion, technology, and food in modern society. People use creative endeavors, like art and literature, to distinguish themselves within their social group. They also use their creativity to make money and persuade others of the value of their ideas.** **4. Religion and Spirituality: another important aspect of human behavior is religion and spirituality. Religion plays a large role in the lives of many people around the world, and it affects their behavior towards others. For example, one of the five pillars of Islam is Zakat. This is the practice whereby Muslims who can afford to are required to donate 2.5% of their wealth to those in need.** **5. Attitude:** is an expression of favour or disfavour toward a person, place, thing, or event. It alters between each individual, as everyone holds different attitudes towards different things. A main factor that determines attitude is likes and dislikes: the more one likes something or someone, the more one is willing to open up and accept what they have to offer; one dislikes something, they are more likely to get defensive and shut down. 6\. **Weather and climate:** The weather and climate have a significant influence on human behaviour. The average temperature of a country affects its traditions and people\'s everyday routines. **PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR** There are basically four principles that guides human behaviour and these principles are; 1\. Behaviour is largely a product of its immediate environment. 2\. Behaviour is strengthened or weakened by its consequences. 3\. Behaviour ultimately responds better to positive than to negative consequences. 4\. Whether a behaviour has been punished or reinforced is known only by the course of that behaviour in the future. **THEORIES OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR AND BEHAVIOUR CHANGE** **The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)** This theory adopts a cognitive approach to explaining behaviour which centres on individuals' attitudes and beliefs. The TPB evolved from the theory of reasoned action which posited intention to act as the best predictor of behaviour. The TPB predicts an individual\'s intention to engage in a behaviour at a specific time and place. It posits that individual behaviour is driven by behaviour intentions, where behaviour intentions are a function of three determinants: an individual's attitude toward behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1991). **The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)** TRA works most successfully when applied to behaviours that are under a person\'s volitional control. If behaviours are not fully under volitional control, even though a person may be highly motivated by her own attitudes and subjective norm, she may not actually perform the behaviour due to intervening environmental conditions. **TPB and TRA** The major difference between TRA and TPB is the addition of a third determinant of behavioural intention, perceived behavioural control. Perceived Behavioural control is determined by two factors; Control Beliefs and Perceived Power. Perceived behavioural control indicates that a person\'s motivation is influenced by how difficult the behaviours are perceived to be, as well as the perception of how successfully the individual can, or cannot, perform the activity. If a person holds strong control beliefs about the existence of factors that will facilitate a behaviour, then the individual will have high perceived control over a behaviour. Conversely, the person will have a low perception of control if she holds strong control beliefs that impede the behaviour. This perception can reflect past experiences, anticipation of upcoming circumstances, and the attitudes of the influential norms that surround the individual. **The Health Belief Model** The health belief model (HBM) is a cognitive model which posits that behaviour is determined by a number of beliefs about threats to an individual's well-being and the effectiveness and outcomes of particular actions or behaviours. Some constructions of the model feature the concept of self-efficacy (Bandura 1997) alongside these beliefs about actions. These beliefs are further supplemented by additional stimuli referred to as 'cues to action' which trigger actual adoption of behaviour. Perceived threat is at the core of the HBM as it is linked to a person's 'readiness' to take action. It consists of two sets of beliefs about an individual's perceived susceptibility or vulnerability to a particular threat and the seriousness of the expected consequences that may result from it. The perceived benefits associated with a behaviour, that is its likely effectiveness in reducing the threat, are weighed against the perceived costs of and negative consequences that may result from it (perceived barriers), such as the side effects of treatment, to establish the overall extent to which a behaviour is beneficial. The individual's perceived capacity to adopt the behaviour (their self-efficacy) is a further key component of the model. Finally, the HBM identifies two types of 'cue to action'; internal, which in the health context includes symptoms of ill health, and external, which includes media campaigns or the receipt of other information. These cues affect the perception of threat and can trigger or maintain behaviour. **Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)** Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behaviour is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. This theory, known as Freud's structural theory of personality, places great emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping behaviour and personality. According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he proposed as the three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Conflicts among these three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of them "desires," determines how we behave and approach the world. **The Id** The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). **The Superego** The superego is concerned with social rules and morals---similar to what many people call their" conscience" or their "moral compass." It develops as a child learns what their culture considers right and wrong. **The Ego** In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It's what Freud considered to be the "self," and its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. **HUMAN NEEDS AND DRIVES** **NEEDS** - It is what one requires all because it is essential or very important rather than just desirable. - A need is also something which must be supplied in order for a certain condition to be maintained or in order for a desired state to be achieved. - A motivating force that compels action for its satisfaction. Needs range from basic survival needs (common to all human beings) satisfied by necessities, to cultural, intellectual and social (varying from place to place and age group to age group) needs. - Needs are Physiological in nature. **Human needs** Humans need a number of essentials to survive. According to the renowned psychologist Abraham Maslow and the conflict scholar John Burton, these essentials go beyond just food, water, and shelter. They include both physical and non-physical elements needed for human growth and development, as well as all those things humans are innately driven to attain. **Example of some human needs** 1. **Safety/Security** \-- the need for structure, predictability, stability, and freedom from fear and anxiety. 2. **Belongingness/Love** \-- the need to be accepted by others and to have strong personal ties with one\'s family, friends, and identity groups. 3. **Self-esteem** \-- the need to be recognized by oneself and others as strong, competent, and capable. It also includes the need to know that one has some effect on her/his environment. 4. **Personal fulfilment** \-- the need to reach one\'s potential in all areas of life. 5. **Identity** \-- goes beyond a psychological \"sense of self.\" Burton and other human needs theorists define identity as a sense of self in relation to the outside world. Identity becomes a problem when one\'s identity is not recognized as legitimate, or when it is considered inferior or is threatened by others with different identifications. 6. **Cultural security** \-- is related to identity, the need for recognition of one\'s language, traditions, religion, cultural values, ideas, and concepts. 7. **Freedom** \-- is the condition of having no physical, political, or civil restraints; having the capacity to exercise choice in all aspects of one\'s life. 8. **Distributive justice** \-- is the need for the fair allocation of resources among all members of a community. 9. **Participation** \-- is the need to be able to actively partake in and influence civil society. **HUMAN NEEDS THEORIES** **Content theories** Content theories also known as needs theories focus on the factors within a person that energize, direct, sustain and stop behavior. They look at the specific needs that motivate people. Content theorists include Abraham Maslow, Clayton P. Alderfer, Federick Herzberg and David C. McClelland. **Maslow's Theory of Needs** Maslow\'s (1943, 1954) hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on. **The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:** 1\. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep. 2\. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear. 3\. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work). 4\. Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, and respect from others. 5\. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. **ERG Theory** Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory. This theory posits that there are three groups of core needs --- existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory. 1. **The existence** group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. **The second group of needs are those of relatedness**- the desire we have for maintaining important personal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification. **Finally, Alderfer isolates growth** needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development. Maslow's categories are broken down into many different parts and there are a lot of needs. The ERG categories are broader and cover more than just certain areas. As a person grows, the existence, relatedness, and growth for all desires continue to grow. All these needs should be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human being. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization **DRIVE** 1. A drive is an \"excitatory state produced by a homeostatic disturbance\", an instinctual need that has the power of driving the behaviour of an individual 2. A drive or desire can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. 3. Drive is an apt title, because it refers to that internal push, urge, or force that moves a person. These drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. 4. Drives are Psychological in nature. **Characteristics of Drive** Drive is the persistent internal stimulus or pushing action of a physiological need. Drive has several properties or characteristics. It energizes behaviour by intensifying all responses in a particular situation. The more intense the drive, the more intense the behaviour. **Primary vs. Secondary Drives** Primary drives are biological needs that provide you motivation. If you are hungry, you look for food. If you are thirsty, you look for water. These drives keep you alive. Secondary drives are drives that are associated with the primary drives. Going to work is not fun, or not as fun as running around and doing whatever you want. But working gets you money, and money gets you food, water, and more. You have been conditioned to link the primary drives to the secondary drives. This means that you are driven to accomplish secondary drives - like work for money - to satisfy your primary drives - food and water. Your brain has been conditioned so thought pathways make these secondary drives nearly as powerful as your primary drives. **DRIVE THEORIES** **Hull's Drive Theory (Drive-reduction Theory)** Drive reduction theory is a type of motivational theory developed by Clark Hull in 1943; it was the first theory for motivation. It is an approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal. Drive theory is based on the principle that organisms are born with certain psychological needs and that a negative state of tension is created when these needs are not satisfied. When a need is satisfied, **drive is reduced and the organism returns to a state of homeostasis and relaxation.** This point is illustrated in an experiment by Hillman and associates (1953), who deprived two groups of rats of water for either 2 or 22 hours and then measured how long it took them to run a 10-unit T maze. According to Hull's theory, 22 hours of water deprivation corresponds to high thirst drive, while 2 hours of water deprivation corresponds to low drive. High drive should multiply or intensify instrumental behaviour much more than low drive. The interpretation based on drive theory is that high drive is a more intense source of internal motivation than low drive. **DRIVE VS. NEEDS** The terms 'need' and 'drive' are fundamentally different. Needs are physiological and can be defined objectively, for example, in terms of hours without food or blood sugar levels. Drives are psychological and are hypothetical constructs, that is, abstract concepts that refer to processes or events believed to be taking place inside the body but which cannot be observed directly or measured. **INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES** **Introduction** **When we think about their psychological characteristics, we often come across people who are very talkative or less talkative, some laugh too much whereas others take much time even to smile, and some are very friendly whereas some prefer to be alone.** **The present lesson tries to answer all such queries which can bother us in our everyday life.** **Our genetic codes vary; the surrounding environment also differs from person to person.** **It sets limits or defines a range by offering different opportunities. That is why the pattern of development of each of us is different from others. It makes us think why we are similar in certain ways and different in others.** **DEFINITION OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES** Individual differences stand for the variation or deviations among individuals in regard to a single characteristic or number of characteristics. Individual differences refer to the extent and kind of variations or similarities among people on some of the important psychological aspects such as intelligence, personality, interest, and aptitude. It is stand for those differences which in their totality distinguish one individual from another. So, we can say that individual differences are the differences among humans that distinguish or separate them from one another and makes one as a single unique individual. **TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES** **Differences in Interest** Interest may refer as a motivating force that impels us to attend to a person, a thing, or an activity. So, in educational field differences in interest means you observe some students like a particular subject, teacher, hobby or profession than other. **Difference in Attitude** Difference in attitude is psyche related to something. Few learners have positive attitude towards a specific topic, subject, and profession than other. The role of education in society is to develop positive attitude. **Difference in Values** Values are the things that are given importance by an individual. Some learners value materialist life style other moral or religious life style etc. So, education must mould the mind of young generation to have a balance values between materialism and spiritualism. **Study Habits** It is clearly observable that some students markedly differ from other students in study habits. Some students are studious and study all the subjects with interest but other may not. Some study in isolation and some in group. **\ ** **Difference in Psychomotor Skills** Psychomotor Skill is related to some skill acquisition. Some students differ in this area also. Some students like football, other cricket, etc. Some students easily learn operating a machine and some may not. A wise teacher should diagnose students' psychomotor skills abilities and encourage them in that direction. **Difference in Self Concept** Difference in self-concept is the totality of attitudes, judgment, and values of an individual relating to his behaviour, abilities, and qualities. So, some students have positive self-concept than boost their confidence level and perform better against those who have negative self-image. **CAUSES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES** **1. Hereditary (Nature)** Individuals have various endowments, abilities, and capacities provided by hereditary. Which decide the path of progress and development of an individual. Hereditary also put limits upon individuals' growth and development in various dimensions. Hereditary also contributes to sex, intelligence, and other specific abilities. **2. Environment (Nurture)** Environment also plays key role in individual differences. No person from birth to death gets the same environment. Individual differences occur on the basis of simulation received by individual from his or her internal and external environment. This may include family set up, peer group, economic statues, education etc. It is debatable that whether nature or nurture play vital or stronger role in development of an individual in specific direction. Both are strong contenders in order to distinguish one individual from other. **3.Influence of caste, race and nation:** Individuals of different castes and races exhibit very marked differences. Similarly, individuals of different nations show differences in respect of their personality, character and mental abilities. These are the outcome of their geographical, social and cultural environment. Many studies have shown the existence of differences between Americans and Negroes, Chinese and Japanese, English and Indian individuals. **4. Sex differences:** Development of boys and girls exhibits differences due to difference in sex. The physical development of the girl takes place a year or two earlier than the boys. Between the age of 11 and 14, girls are taller and heavier than the boys. After 15, boys start winning the race. Girls are kind, affectionate, sympathetic and tender while the boys are brave, hard, choleric, efficient and competent. **5. Age and intelligence:** Physical, intellectual and emotional development is caused by the growth in age. Many individuals differ because of the differences in intelligence. Individuals who are below the average in intelligence and mental age find much difficulty in learning and the average intelligent persons can learn quickly. **6. Temperament and emotional stability:** Some people are by temperament active and quick, while others are passive and slow, some humorous and others short tempered. Emotional stability of the individual is differently affected by physical, mental and environmental factors. Differences in emotional stability cause individual differences. **Other Causes:** Interests, aptitudes, achievements, sentiments, character, educational and home background lead to individual differences. **CHAPTER THREE** **PERSONALITY AND LEARNING** **PERSONALITY;** **Personality** refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways. Our personality is what makes us unique individuals. Each person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long-term characteristics and a manner in which he or she interacts with other individuals and the world around them. **Our personalities** are thought to be long term, stable, and not easily changed. The **word *personality*** comes from the **Latin word** ***persona***. In the ancient world, **a persona was a mask worn by an actor. While we tend to think of a mask as being worn to conceal one's identity, the theatrical mask was originally used to either represent or project a specific personality trait of a character.** **Personality** is the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual\'s distinctive character. **Personality,** a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality embraces moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with other people. It includes behavioural characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that distinguish one person from another and that can be observed in people's relations to the environment and the social group. The term personality has been defined in many ways, but as a **psychological concept** **two main meanings have evolved**: **The first** pertains to the consistent differences that exist between people: in this sense, the study of personality focuses on classifying and explaining relatively stable human psychological characteristics. **The second** meaning emphasizes those qualities that make all people alike and that distinguish psychological man from other species; it directs the personality theorist to search for those regularities among all people that define the nature of man as well as the factors that influence the course of lives. This duality may help explain the two directions that personality studies have taken: on the one hand, the study of ever more specific qualities in people, and, on the other, the search for the organized totality of psychological functions that emphasizes the interplay between organic and psychological events within people and those social and biological events that surround them. **The study of personality** can be said to have its origins in the fundamental idea that people are distinguished by their characteristic individual patterns of behaviour---the distinctive ways in which they walk, talk, furnish their living quarters, or express their urges. Whatever the behaviour, **personologists**---as those who systematically study personality are called---examine how people differ in the ways they express themselves and attempt to determine the causes of these differences. Although other fields of psychology examine many of the same functions and processes, such as attention, thinking, or motivation, the personologist places emphasis on how these different processes fit together and become integrated to give each person a distinctive identity, or personality. Scientists use more extensive definitions of personality. One of these definitions, by the American psychologists Randy Larsen and David Buss^1^, goes something like: "personality is a stable, organized collection of psychological traits and mechanisms in the human being that influences his or her interactions with and modifications to the psychological, social and physical environment surrounding them.\" Key words in this definition of personality are: **Personality is stable** Your personality does not change just from one day to another, actually it changes hardly at all. If there are any changes these are very limited and slow. If they occur they may be caused by trauma or life changing experiences. **Personality is made up of properties and mechanisms** Personality can be divided into different components and characteristics. Over time, many different classifications have been made in personality characteristics. Literally hundreds! **Personality is ever present** Your personality is something that you always take with you, it affects your thinking, feelings and behavior, where and with whom you are, in any situation at any time. Personality helps you to adjust. Your personality helps you to \"survive\" and deal with the daily challenges surrounding you. In a sense your personality is in part psychological but also physiological. Research suggests that your personality is also influenced by all kinds of biological processes and needs. **HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF PERSONALITY** The term personality is derived from the Latin word persona meaning the mask used by the actors when they come on the stage. Thus, the term means the social mask people wear as they assume the roles that societal conventions and traditions impose on them. The history of personality psychology dates as far back as Ancient Greece. Indeed, philosophers since the 4th Century BCE have been trying to define exactly what it is that makes us. In 370 BCE, Hippocrates proposed two pillars of temperament: hot/cold and moist/dry, resulting in four humors or combinations of these qualities. The hot and dry combination was referred to as yellow bile, cold and dry as black bile, hot and wet was blood and cold and wet was phlegm. Though much of the work that arose from this theory of the Four Humors was medicinal in nature, it was also hypothesized a patient\'s personality could be influenced by humoral imbalances.  This categorical way of thinking about personality permeated ancient thinking on the matter. Plato proposed four groupings (artistic, sensible, intuitive, reasoning) and Aristotle hypothesized four factors (iconic i.e., artistic, pistic i.e., common-sense, noetic i.e., intuition and dianoetic i.e., logic) contributed to one's social order in society. Aristotle was also one of the first individuals to hypothesize connections between physical aspects of the body and behavior. In the mid to late 18th Century, Franz Gall, a neuroanatomist, fathered the new 'pseudoscience' of phrenology, a doctrine that hypothesized correlations between specific brain areas and functions. Gall believed measurements of the skull could reveal something about individuals' inner thoughts and emotions, an assumption that paved the way for modern neuropsychology. Gall's work was some of the first to move away from a philosophical explanation of behavior and personality into one rooted in anatomy. In another conceptualization of personality, Sigmund Freud published The Ego and the Id in 1923. Freud posited that the human psyche consists of three main components: the id, the ego and the superego which control all conscious and unconscious thought and therefore behavior. The id can be thought of as the innate drivers of behavior. It encompasses bodily needs and desires and, according to Freud, drives us to seek out these wants. In other words, it is "the dark, inaccessible part of our personality \[that\] contains everything that is inherited, the instincts, which originate from somatic organization." The ego can be thought of as the bridge between the id and reality; it is what finds realistic ways to achieve what the id wants and also finds justifications and rationalizations for these desires. Lastly, the superego is the organized component of the psyche and is often referred to as the moral check of the ego. It is responsible for conscience and for regulating the drives of the id and ego by providing a sense of right and wrong. **TYPES OF PERSONALITY** There are many ways to measure personality, but psychologists have mostly given up on trying to divide humanity neatly into types. Instead, they focus on personality traits.  The most widely accepted of these traits are the Big Five: - Openness - Conscientiousness - Extraversion - Agreeableness - Neuroticism **Openness** Openness is shorthand for \"openness to experience.\" People who are high in openness enjoy adventure. They\'re curious and appreciate art, imagination and new things. The motto of the open individual might be \"Variety is the spice of life.\" People low in openness are just the opposite: They prefer to stick to their habits, avoid new experiences and probably aren\'t the most adventurous eaters. Changing personality is usually considered a tough process, but openness is a personality trait that\'s been shown to be subject to change in adulthood. In a 2011 study, people who took psilocybin, or hallucinogenic \"magic mushrooms,\" became more open after the experience. The effect lasted at least a year, suggesting that it might be permanent. **Conscientiousness** People who are conscientious are organized and have a strong sense of duty. They\'re dependable, disciplined and achievement-focused. You won\'t find conscientious types jetting off on round-the-world journeys with only a backpack; they\'re planners. People low in conscientiousness are more spontaneous and freewheeling. They may tend toward carelessness. Conscientiousness is a helpful trait to have, as it has been linked to achievement in school and on the job. **Extraversion** Extraversion versus introversion is possibly the most recognizable personality trait of the Big Five. The more of an extravert someone is, the more of a social butterfly they are. Extraverts are chatty, sociable and draw energy from crowds. They tend to be assertive and cheerful in their social interactions. Introverts, on the other hand, need plenty of alone time, perhaps because their brains process social interaction differently. Introversion is often confused with shyness, but the two aren\'t the same. Shyness implies a fear of social interactions or an inability to function socially. Introverts can be perfectly charming at parties --- they just prefer solo or small-group activities. **Agreeableness** Agreeableness measures the extent of a person\'s warmth and kindness. The more agreeable someone is, the more likely they are to be trusting, helpful and compassionate. Disagreeable people are cold and suspicious of others, and they\'re less likely to cooperate. Agreeable individuals find it important to get along with others. They are willing to put aside their interests for other people. These individuals are helpful, friendly, considerate, and generous. Their basic belief is that people are usually decent, honest, and trustworthy.  **Neuroticism** Neuroticism is the trait disposition to experience negative effects, including anger, anxiety, self‐consciousness, irritability, emotional instability, and depression. Persons with elevated levels of neuroticism respond poorly to environmental stress, interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and can experience minor frustrations as hopelessly overwhelming. Neuroticism is also associated with a diminished quality of life, including feelings of ill‐will, excessive worry, occupational failure, and marital dissatisfaction. High levels of neuroticism will contribute to poor work performance due to emotional preoccupation, exhaustion, and distraction.  **CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY** - **Personality is something which is unique in each individual**. Personality refers to internal as well as external qualities, some of which are quite general. But it is unique to each individual. It is not possible for a person to reproduce or imitate the qualities of the personality of another person. - **Personality refers particularly to the persistent qualities of an individual.** Every individual has a certain feeling as well as other permanent traits and qualities. Personality is mainly composed of the persistent or permanent qualities that exhibit themselves in form of social behaviour and attempt to make an adjustment with the environment. - **Personality represents a dynamic orientation of an organism to the environment.** Personality represents the process of learning. It takes place in reference to the environment. We do not acquire all the traits of personality at once. - **Personality is greatly influenced by social interactions.** Personality is not an individual quality. It is a result of social- interaction. In other words, it means that when we come in contact with other members of society, we acquire certain qualities while we exhibit certain others. All these come to form personality. - **Personality represents a unique organization of persistent dynamic and social predisposition.** In personality, various qualities are not put together. They are, in fact, integrated into one. This integration is nothing but a result of organization which may be different from man to man. The behaviour of a person directed to one particular individual may differ from the behaviour of another person. - **Consistency.** There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations. - **Psychological and physiological.** Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs. - **It impacts behaviours and actions.** Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways. - **Multiple expressions.** Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions. **DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY** The determinants of personality can perhaps best be grouped in five broad categories: biological, cultural, family, social and situational. **Biological Factors** The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three heads: **Heredity** Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one's parents. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. **Brain** The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain plays in personality. The psychologists are unable to prove empirically the contribution of the human brain in influencing personality. Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research give an indication that a better understanding of human personality and behaviour might come from the study of the brain. **Physical Characteristics** One of the most important factors in determining personality are an individual\'s physical characteristics. These factors play a vital role in determining one's behavior in a social organization. Physical characteristics include, but are not limited to: - Height - Skin tone - Weight - Hair color - Beauty **Cultural Factors** Among the factors that influence personality formation is the culture in which we are raised, early conditioning, norms prevailing within the family, friends and social groups and other miscellaneous experiences that impact us. The culture largely determines attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, cooperation and a host of other human responses. The culture in which one lives almost always involves: - Traditional practices - Norms - Customs - Procedures - Rules and regulations - Precedents - Values. **Family Factors** Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be taught, it is the family, and later the social group, which selects, interprets and dispenses the culture. Thus, the family probably has the most significant impact on early personality development. A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home environment created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence, is critical to personality development. The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is important to the person's early development. **Social Factors** There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons, groups and especially organisations, which greatly influence an individual's personality. This is commonly called the socialization process. Socialization involves the** **process by which a person acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavioural potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are ultimately synthesized and absorbed. Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of the immediate family -- father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the work group -- play influential roles. **Situational Factors** Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of the environment is quite strong. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired and represent important modifications of behavior. An individual's personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. The varying demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one's personality. **According to Milgram**, "Situation exerts an important press on the individual. It exercises constraints and may provide a push. In certain circumstances, it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of situation in which he is placed that determines his actions". We should therefore not look at personality patterns in isolation. **THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING** **THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING** **Learning** is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be \"lost\" from that which cannot be retrieved. **Learning** is also referred to as the acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from memory so you can make sense of future problems and opportunities." **"Learning** is the relatively permanent change in a person's knowledge or behavior due to experience. This definition has three components: 1\) The duration of the change is long-term rather than short-term; 2\) The locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in memory or the behavior of the learner; 3\) The cause of the change is the learner's experience in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic intervention." **TYPES OF LEARNING** **Learning as a process can happen in various forms. The following are the types of learning:** **Motor learning:** Most of our activities in our day-to-day life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination. **Verbal learning:** This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use words for communication. **Concept learning:** It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog and attach the term 'dog', we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes. These are abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful in recognizing and identifying things. **Discrimination learning:** Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc. **Learning of principles:** Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics and grammar to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc. **Problem solving:** This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination and generalization. This type of learning is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by people. **Attitude learning:** Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc. **PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING** Learning principles are guidelines for the ways in which people learn most effectively. The more these principles are reflected in training, the more effective training is likely to be. The principles of learning are; **Participation.** Learning should permit and encourage active participation of the learner. Participation **improves motivation** and apparently engages more senses that reinforce the learning process. As a result of participation, people learn more quickly and retain that learning longer **Repetition.** An important principle of the learning is to provide the learner with the opportunity for practice and repetition. To gain the **full benefit of training** learned behaviours must be overlearned to ensure smooth performance and minimum of forgetting at a later date. **Relevance.** Learning is helped when the material to be learned is meaningful. The learning should be problem-centered rather than content centered. People are motivated to learn when training is immediately relevant to help them solve a current problem. Learning something just because someone says "it is important" is not as motivating. **Transference.** Transfer of training occurs when trainees can apply the knowledge and skills learned in training course to their jobs. If the learning in one setting does not transfer to the actual job situation, the training has failed. **Feedback.** Feedback gives learners information on their progress. Performance feedback is a necessary prerequisite for learning. Feedback improves performance not only by helping learners correct their mistakes but also by providing reinforcement for learning. **IMPORTANT FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING** It is important to recognize the various factors related with learning; only with thorough understanding of that, you can truly become a good and quick student. **1.    Intellectual Factors** This refers to the individual way that people learn. Your school success is usually related to your IQ or your level of intellect. People with low IQs end to have more difficulty in mastering their studies. People may get bad scores because they have identified or unidentified cognitive disabilities. For example, if you score poorly in one subject but better in others, you might have a problem in a specific area of learning. If you score poorly in all subjects, it might be a matter of having a low IQ so that learning can be difficult. **2.    Teaching and Learning Methods** You may have not gained mastery over things that have been taught to you because you do not have the proper ways the information has been taught to you. It is important to teach things in ways that the vast majority of students can catch on to the material being taught. For example, if the school is teaching things too quickly and doesn\'t check to make sure you are actually learning the material, you may fall behind and will not have the opportunity to catch up. You will miss things and will have a hard time learning new material because you haven\'t learned the knowledge well in older materials. This is especially true of mathematics. You need to learn the basics before you can go on further to learn the new material. **3.    Physical Factors** This includes things such as your overall health, nutrition, hearing and physical deficiencies, glandular problems, and physical development. If you are in poor health, you won\'t be able to learn the things presented to you in school. This is one of the factors affecting learning that most people underestimate. If, for example, you have a child that is suffering from a hearing problem, vision problem, or other physical handicaps, they will have difficulty in learning things like spelling and reading. Things like pituitary gland dysfunction and thyroid disorders will affect a child\'s behavior and they will not be able to learn properly. **4.    Mental Factors** Attitudes are important to learning. This is different from your emotions and is very definite. Your attitude toward learning will play a big role in how your mind is organized and, in the behavior, you do for learning. For example, your attitude strongly affects your personality development. Attitudes affect your open mindedness, your degree of prejudice around learning, how cheerful you are, and your interest in learning. Just how efficient you are in the learning process determines how quickly you are able to catch on to new information. **5.    Social and Emotional Factors** Things like social factors, instincts, and emotions can relate directly to your motivation for learning. If you cooperate with others and engage in some healthy rivalry, you will learn faster and will have more fun in learning new things. There are destructive and constructive tendencies a person may have. The students may, for example, will not like a particular subject because they don\'t see it as valuable or may not have the foundation to really learn the subject. This can negatively affect the students\' emotional state. Other students may not want to risk the disapproval of their classmates or their teacher. This, too, can negatively affect the learning process. **6.    The Teacher\'s Personality** Each teacher has his or her own personality that can strongly affect the individual\'s learning environment. The success or failure of the student can depend on the teacher\'s personality. The teacher\'s personality may mesh or not mesh with the student\'s personality and will affect how the student is taught. For example, if the teacher and student do not get along, the student may refuse to learn from the teacher and learning will not happen. They don\'t have to like each other but they should at least respect one another. Even so, students do not learn well from teachers who are grouchy but learn better from cheerful, sympathetic, and happy teachers. The teacher who loves their work and their students will teach better and the students will learn better. ** ** **7. Environmental Factors** You need to have the proper environmental conditions in order to learn. The classroom must be conducive to good learning and the texts, equipment, and school supplies must be of a good quality so that the student can learn as easily as possible. These are factors affecting learning in just about any environment. If the home and school environment are poor places to learn, the student will not learn. Everything must be set up to be favorable to learning so that the student can best learn the material in an environment that is conducive to learning. **MODES OF LEARNING** The learning modes for future-focused learning highlight different ways in which learning occurs. Each mode requires students and teachers to be interacting differently with space and each other. When we are aware of, and can identify how we want learning to occur, it guides the decision making on the design of learning space and technology requirements that will best support the desired learning. Space, furniture and technology can all help to enable learning modes that coexist or can be quickly and easily transitioned. The different modes include; **Collaboration**: learn with others. **Discussion**: talk about learning. **Feedback and reflection**: learn about learning. **Guided**: learn with an expert. **Explicit**: learn from an expert. **Demonstration**: presenting learning. **Experiential**: make, explore, and investigate. **Independent**: learn by myself. **CHAPTER FOUR** **SENSATION AND PERCEPTION** **SENSATION**  Sensations can be defined as ***the passive process of bringing information from the outside world into the body and to the brain.*** The process is passive in the sense that we do not have to be consciously engaging in a \"sensing\" process. Sensation in neurology and psychology is any concrete, conscious experience resulting from stimulation of a specific sense organ, sensory nerve or sensory area in the brain. **THE SENSORY SYSTEM** The sensory system is a group of subsystems used for detecting and understanding the world around us. What makes the sensory system unique is its ability to sense things. A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, somatic sensation (touch), taste and olfaction (smell). **The Sense of Sight** Sight or vision is the capability of the eyes to focus and detect images of visible light and generate electrical nerve impulses for varying colors, hues, and brightness. Visual perception is how the brain processes these impulses -- recognising, differentiating and interpreting visual stimuli through comparison with experiences made earlier in life. **The Sense of Hearing** Hearing, or audition, is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations, changes in the pressure of the surrounding medium through time, through an organ such as the ear.   As with sight, auditory processing relies on how the brain interprets, recognizes and differentiates sound stimuli. **The Sense of Taste, Smell and Touch** **Taste, or gustation**, refers to the capability to detect the taste of substances such as food, certain minerals, and poisons, etc. The sense of taste is often confused with the "sense" of flavour, which is a combination of taste and smell perception. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue. There are five basic tastes: sweet, bitter, sour, salty and umami. **Smell or olfaction** is our ability to detect scent -- chemical, odour molecules in the air.  Our olfactory system begins in our nose which has hundreds of olfactory receptors.  Odour molecules possess a variety of features and, thus, excite specific receptors more or less strongly.  This combination of excitement is interpreted by the brain to perceive the 'smell'. **Touch, or somatosensory**, is a perception resulting from activation of neural receptors, generally in the skin including hair follicles and a variety of pressure receptors respond to variations in pressure (firm, brushing, sustained, etc.). The somatosensory system is a diverse sensory system that is spread through all major parts of our body. At its simplest, the system works when activity in a sensory receptor is triggered by a specific stimulus (such as heat); this signal eventually passes to an area in the brain uniquely attributed to that area on the body and this allows the processed stimulus to be felt at the correct location. **PERCEPTION** It refers to the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information, or the environment. Perception also includes how we respond to the information. We can think of perception as a process where we take in sensory information from our environment and use that information in order to interact with our environment. Perception allows us to take the sensory information in and make it into something meaningful. Perception involves both **bottom-up** and **top-down processing**. **Bottom-up processing** refers to the fact that perceptions are built from sensory input. On the other hand, how we interpret those sensations is influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our thoughts. This is called **top-down processing**. **FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION** **a. Perceptual learning:** Based on past experiences or any special training that we get, every one of us learns to emphasize some sensory inputs and to ignore others. For example, a person who has got training in some occupation like artistry or other skilled jobs can perform better than other untrained people. Experience is the best teacher for such perceptual skills. For example, blind people identify the people by their voice or by sounds of their footsteps. **b. Mental set:** Mental set refers to preparedness or readiness to receive some sensory input. Such expectancy keeps the individual prepared with good attention and concentration. For example, when we are expecting the arrival of a train, we listen to its horn or sound even if there is a lot of noise disturbance. **c. Motives and needs:** Our motives and needs will definitely influence our perception. For example, a hungry person is motivated to recognise only the food items among other articles. His attention cannot be directed towards other things until his motive is satisfied. **d. Cognitive styles:** People are said to differ in the ways they characteristically process the information. Every individual will have his or her own way of understanding the situation. It is said that the people who are flexible will have good attention and they are less affected by interfering influences and to be less dominated by internal needs and motives than or people at the constricted end. **THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS** The perceptual process is the sequence of psychological steps that a person uses to organize and interpret information from the outside world. The steps are: - Objects are present in the world. - A person observes. - The person uses perception to select objects. - The person organizes the perception of objects. - The person interprets the perceptions. - The person responds. The selection, organization, and interpretation of perceptions can differ among different people. Therefore, when people react differently in a situation, part of their behavior can be explained by examining their perceptual process, and how their perceptions are leading to their responses. **PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION** **Proximity:** The Gestalt law of proximity states that \"objects or shapes that are close to one another appear to form groups\". Even if the shapes, sizes, and objects are radically different, they will appear as a group if they are close. **Similarity:** The principle of similarity states that perception lends itself to seeing stimuli that physically resemble each other as part of the same object. This allows for people to distinguish between adjacent and overlapping objects based on their visual texture and resemblance. Other stimuli that have different features are generally not perceived as part of the object. An example of this is a large area of land used by numerous independent farmers to grow crops. The human brain uses similarity to distinguish between objects which might lie adjacent to or overlap with each other based upon their visual texture. Each farmer may use a unique planting style which distinguishes his field from another. Another example is a field of flowers which differ only by colour. **Closure:** The principle of closure refers to the mind\'s tendency to see complete figures or forms even if a picture is incomplete, partially hidden by other objects, or if part of the information needed to make a complete picture in the minds is missing. For example, if part of a shape\'s border is missing people still tend to see the shape as completely enclosed by the border and ignore the gaps. This reaction stems from the mind\'s natural tendency to recognize patterns that are familiar and thus fill in any information that may be missing. **Good continuation:** When there is an intersection between two or more objects, people tend to perceive each object as a single uninterrupted object. This allows differentiation of stimuli even when they come in visual overlap. Humans have a tendency to group and organize lines or curves that follow an established direction over those defined by sharp and abrupt changes in direction. **Common fate:** When visual elements are seen moving in the same direction at the same rate (optical flow), perception associates the movement as part of the same stimulus. For example, birds may be distinguished from their background as a single flock because they are moving in the same direction and at the same velocity, even when each bird is seen---from a distance---as little more than a dot. The moving \'dots\' appear to be part of a unified whole. Similarly, two flocks of birds can cross each other in a viewer\'s visual field, but they will nonetheless continue to be experienced as separate flocks because each bird has a direction common to its flock. This allows people to make out moving objects even when other details (such as the objects color or outline) are obscured. This ability likely arose from the evolutionary need to distinguish a camouflaged predator from its background. **Good form:** The principle of good form refers to the tendency to group together forms of similar shape, pattern, color, etc. Even in cases where two or more forms clearly overlap, the human brain interprets them in a way that allows people to differentiate different patterns and/or shapes. An example would be a pile of presents where a dozen packages of different size and shape are wrapped in just three or so patterns of wrapping paper, or the Olympic Rings. **ERRORS IN PERCEPTION** **Illusion** The illusion is a false perception. Here the person will mistake a stimulus and perceive it wrongly. For example, in the dark, a rope is mistaken as a snake or vice versa. The voice of an unknown person is mistaken as a friend's voice. A person standing at a distance who is not known may be perceived as a known person. **Hallucination** Sometimes we come across instances where the individual perceives some stimulus, even when it is not present. This phenomenon is known as a hallucination. The person may see an object, person, etc. or he may listen to some voice though there are no objects and sounds in reality. **Selective Perception** Selective perception means the situation when people selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes. It means any characteristics that make a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it will be perceived. Because it is impossible for us to assimilate everything we see, only certain stimuli can be taken in. **Halo Effect** The individual is evaluated on the basis of perceived positive quality, feature or trait. When we draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance, a halo effect is operating. In other words, this is the tendency to rate a man uniformly high or low in other traits if he is extraordinarily high or low in one particular trait: If a worker has few absences, his supervisor might give him a high rating in all other areas of work. **Stereotyping** People usually can fall into at least one general category based on physical or behavioral traits then they will be evaluated. When we judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are using the shortcut called stereotyping. Example, a boss might assume that a worker from a Middle East country is lazy and cannot meet performance objectives, even if the worker tried his best. **Similarity** Often, people tend to seek out and rate more positively those who are similar to themselves. This tendency to approve of similarity may cause evaluators to give better ratings to employees who exhibit the same interests, work methods, points of view or standards. **Horn Effect** When the individual is completely evaluated on the basis of a negative quality or feature perceived. This results in an overall lower rating than an acceptable rate. He is not formally dressed up in the office, that's why he may be casual at work too. **Contrast** The tendency to rate people relative to other people rather than to the individual performance he or she is doing. Rather will evaluate an employee by comparing that employee's performance with other employees. **CHAPTER FIVE** **INTELLIGENCE AND EMOTIONS** **MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE** While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects in psychology, there is no standard definition of what exactly constitutes intelligence. Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while others believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills, and talents. Generally, Human intelligence can be defined as the mental quality that consists of the abilities to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to manipulate one's environment. **NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE** Intelligence is defined as an innate ability to learn and retain information to deal with problems or situations. Information processing is a theoretical approach to measuring intelligence by examining how an individual takes in and interprets information. At various points throughout recent history, researchers have proposed some different definitions of intelligence. While these definitions can vary considerably from one theorist to the next, current conceptualizations tend to suggest that intelligence involves the level of ability to do the following: - **Learn: **The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an important component of intelligence. - **Recognize problems: **To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify possible problems in the environment that need to be addressed. - **Solve problems: **People must then be able to take what they have learned to come up with a useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the world around them. Intelligence involves some different mental abilities including logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and planning. While the subject of intelligence is one of the largest and most heavily researched, it is also one of the topics that generates the greatest controversy. While psychologists often disagree about the definition and causes of intelligence, research on intelligence plays a significant role in many areas. These areas include decisions regarding how much funding should be given to educational programs, the use of testing to screen job applicants, and the use of testing to identify children who need additional academic help. **TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE** **1. Naturalist Intelligence**\ Naturalist intelligence designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations). This ability was clearly of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be central in such roles as botanist or chef. It is also speculated that much of our consumer society exploits the naturalist intelligences, which can be mobilized in the discrimination among cars, sneakers, kinds of makeup, and the like. **2. Musical Intelligence\ **Musical intelligence is the capacity to discern pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone. This intelligence enables us to recognize, create, reproduce, and reflect on music, as demonstrated by composers, conductors, musicians, vocalist, and sensitive listeners. Interestingly, there is often an affective connection between music and the emotions; and mathematical and musical intelligences may share common thinking processes. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are usually singing or drumming to themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others may miss. **3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence\ **Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to calculate, quantify, consider propositions and hypotheses, and carry out complete mathematical operations. It enables us to perceive relationships and connections and to use abstract, symbolic thought; sequential reasoning skills; and inductive and deductive thinking patterns. Logical intelligence is usually well developed in mathematicians, scientists, and detectives. Young adults with lots of logical intelligence are interested in patterns, categories, and relationships. They are drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and experiments. **4. Existential Intelligence\ **Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why we die, and how did we get here.**\  5. Interpersonal Intelligence\ **Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and interact effectively with others. It involves effective verbal and nonverbal communication, the ability to note distinctions among others, sensitivity to the moods and temperaments of others, and the ability to entertain multiple perspectives. Teachers, social workers, actors, and politicians all exhibit interpersonal intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are leaders among their peers, are good at communicating, and seem to understand others' feelings and motives. **6. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence** Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the capacity to manipulate objects and use a variety of physical skills. This intelligence also involves a sense of timing and the perfection of skills through mind--body union. Athletes, dancers, surgeons, and crafts people exhibit well-developed bodily kinesthetic intelligence. **7. Linguistic Intelligence\ **Linguistic intelligence is the ability to think in words and to use language to express and appreciate complex meanings. Linguistic intelligence allows us to understand the order and meaning of words and to apply meta-linguistic skills to reflect on our use of language. Linguistic intelligence is the most widely shared human competence and is evident in poets, novelists, journalists, and effective public speakers. Young adults with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing, reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles. **8. Intra-personal Intelligence\ **Intra-personal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself and one's thoughts and feelings, and to use such knowledge in planning and directioning one's life. Intra-personal intelligence involves not only an appreciation of the self, but also of the human condition. It is evident in psychologist, spiritual leaders, and philosophers. These young adults may be shy. They are very aware of their own feelings and are self-motivated. **9. Spatial Intelligence\ **Spatial intelligence is the ability to think in three dimensions. Core capacities include mental imagery, spatial reasoning, image manipulation, graphic and artistic skills, and an active imagination. Sailors, pilots, sculptors, painters, and architects all exhibit spatial intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence may be fascinated with mazes or jigsaw puzzles, or spend free time drawing or daydreaming. **FACTORS THAT AFFECT INTELLIGENCE** **1) Heredity and Environment:** Heredity provided the physical body to be developed with certain inherent capabilities while environment provides for the maturation and training of the organism. In 1940 Newman concluded that variations in I.Q. were determined about 68% by heredity and 32% by environment. During an individual's life time variation in I.Q. is due to environment, since the heredity cannot change. Improved nutrition health, and stimulus situations would account for this change. Environment of children ages 2 to 4 years appears to be critical since the child normally learns language at this time. Better homes, school, medical facilities, less economic discrimination. Provides a mean for achieving a mentally able population **2) Age:** A person who is bright or dull in childhood tends to remain bright or dull throughout his life. Growth in intelligence can continue through the early twenties, person achieves his maximum 10 at about 20 years are and remain stable till 10 years and decreases after that. Some abilities remain constant while others decline rapidly due to decline in physical efficiency. It is observed that the more intelligent person has more rapid of mental growth and continues to develop longer than does the mentally less able. **3) Race and Nationality:** There is no prominent evidence to show that race in a factor for determining intellectual level. Difference exist between families are due to environment. The differences in races are also due to opportunity for training in early years. All evidence indicates that there is little or no difference in inherited intellectual capacity due to race. There are differences, mostly due to opportunities for training and learning. The idea of inferior races due to heredity is not true. **4) Culture:** Answers in intelligent test question are highly cultural. Culture will determine the degree of a person's attitude and abilities. **5) Health and Physical Development:** Physical and mental health is related to one's ability to gain desired achievement. A mental activity with delicate health, one may not possess enough energy to engage in mental activity to the extent that he achieves success. Physical defects such as in complete maturation of brain cells sensory and physical handicaps many interfere with observable intelligent behavior. Diseases also affect intelligence. Emotional bodies may interfere one's ability. Unfavorable health affects mental status of the individual. **6) Sex:** It is a popular belief that boys are supposed to be more intelligent than girls. The research studies have shown that there are no significant differences between the sexes, on the average, girls seem to show slight superiority in language, memory and appreciation. Differences in intelligence are caused partly by environmental conditions. **7) Social and Economic Conditions:** Home plays a significance role in the early developmental years. Home conditions influence on behaviours attitude. The financial status or the parents, neighborhood and environmental conditions also has an effect on the intelligence but due to their socio-economic status. **NATURE AND DEFINITION OF EMOTION** **Merriam-Webster** defines emotion as a conscious and subjective mental reaction toward a particular event and is usually accompanied by changes in the physiologic and behavioural aspects of a person. From this definition, we can deduce that an emotion has four components, namely: - ***cognitive*** reactions - ***physiological*** reactions - **behavioural** reactions and - **affect.** **Cognitive reactions** refer to a person's memory, thinking and perception of an event. **Physiological reactions** are primarily caused by changes in the hormonal levels in the body. **Behavioural reactions** comprise the active expression of the emotion. Lastly, **affect** includes the positive or negative state of the emotion and is what makes an emotion a conscious and subjective experience. It comes with the display which is facial, vocal or gestural. **FEATURES OF EMOTIONS** 1\. Caused by Specific Event or someone 2\. Very brief in duration (seconds or minutes) 3\. Specific and numerous in nature 4\. Usually accompanied by distinct facial expression 5\. Action oriented in nature **FACTORS THAT AFFECT EMOTIONS** Emotions vary in their intensity (high, low) and quality (happiness, sadness, fear). Subjective factors and situational contexts influence the experience of emotions. These factors are gender, personality, and psychopathology (the scientific study of mental disorders) of certain kinds. Evidence indicates that women experience all the emotions except anger more intensely than men. Men are prone to experience high intensity and frequency of anger. This gender difference has been attributed to the social roles attached to men (competitiveness) and women (affiliation and caring). **SOURCES OF EMOTIONS** **Personality** Personality predisposes people to experience certain moods and emotions. For example, some people feel guilt and anger more readily than others do. Others may feel calm and relaxed no matter the situation. In other words, moods and emotions have a trait component to them---most people have built-in tendencies to experience certain moods and emotions more frequently than others do. **Day of the Week and Time of the Day** Most people are at work or school Monday through Friday. For most of us, that means the weekend is a time of relaxation and leisure. Does that suggest that people are in their best moods on the weekends? Well, actually, yes. **Weather** When do you think you would be in a better mood? When it's 70 degrees and sunny or when it's a gloomy, cold, rainy day? Many people believe their mood is tied to the weather. **Stress** Stress affects emotions and moods. For example, students have higher levels of fear before an exam, but their fear dissipates once the exam is over. At work, stressful daily events (a nasty email, an impending deadline, the loss of a big sale, being reprimanded by your boss, and so on) negatively affect employees' moods. Also, the effects of stress build over time. **Social Activities** For most people, social activities increase positive mood and have little effect on negative mood. Social interactions even have long-term health benefits. **Sleep** A recent study suggests that poor sleep-in previous night impairs people's job satisfaction the next day, mostly because people feel fatigued, irritable, and less alert. **Exercise** Research consistently shows that exercise enhances people's positive mood. It appears that the therapeutic effects of exercise are strongest for those who are depressed. Although the effects of exercise on moods are consistent, they are not terribly strong. So, exercise may help put you in a better mood, **Age** One study of people aged 18 to 94 years revealed negative emotions seem to occur less as people get older. Periods of highly positive moods lasted longer for older individuals and bad moods faded more quickly. The study implies that emotional experience ten