Introduction to Psychology PDF

CHAPTER 1 reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected Psychology Freud a...

CHAPTER 1 reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected Psychology Freud and psychoanalytic theory Greek words Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) psychē- soul or mind Austrian neurologist logos- word “Hysteria” the study of the mind and behavior (n.). Psychoanalytic theory the supposed collection of behaviors, traits, o focuses on the role of a person’s attitudes, and so forth unconscious, as well as early childhood Psychologist- an individual who is professionally trained experiences in one or more branches or subfields of psychology. Empirical Method- acquiring knowledge is one based on Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt psychology observation, including experimentation, rather than a Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) method based only on forms of logical argument or Kurt Koffka (1886–1941) previous authorities Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) The Major Goals of Psychology German psychologists describe behavior Gestalt o School of thought explain behavior o deals with the fact that although a predict behavior sensory experience can be broken change behavior down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY is often what the individual responds to in perception Wundt and Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and behaviorism German scientist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) Principles of Physiological Psychology was o Russian physiologist published in 1873 o Classical Conditioning Introspection John B. Watson (1878–1958) o internal perception o American psychologist Structuralism o Father of Behaviorism o school of thought in psychology B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) to understand the structure or o American psychologist characteristics of the mind o Operant Conditioning Wundt established his psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879 Pavlov’s Dog Experiment James and functionalism William James (1842–1910) First American psychologist Functionalism o school of thought in psychology o study the function of behavior in the world Adaptation o means that a trait of an organism has a function for the survival and Little Albert Experiment Maslow’s hierarchy of needs The Skinner box Psychology subfields: Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology Social Psychology Industrial-Organizational Psychology Health Psychology Sport and Exercise Psychology Clinical Psychology Forensic Psychology Educational Psychology Psychological Research Trephination- is the surgical procedure in which a hole Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism is created in the skull by the removal of circular piece of Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) bone, while a trepanation is the opening created by this o American psychologist procedure o Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Treatment by cave dwellers used a technique Carl Rogers (1902–1987) called trephination, in which a stone instrument o American psychologist known as a trephine was used to remove part of o Client Centered Therapy the skull, creating an opening. Through it, the evil spirits could escape thereby ending the person’s mental affliction and returning them to normal behavior. Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate The Process of Scientific Research Correlation Does Not Indicate Causation Confounding variable o actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest relation means that the variables move in opposite directions Illusory correlations o false correlations o believe that relationships exist between In deductive reasoning, ideas are tested in the real two things when no such relationship world; in inductive reasoning, real-world observations exists lead to new ideas. Confirmation bias o ignoring evidence that would tell us our Scientific method hunch is false CAUSALITY: CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS AND USING THE DATA experimental group o experimental manipulation—that is, the treatment or variable being tested control group o do not receive the treatment or condition being tested The scientific method involves deriving hypotheses experimenter bias from theories and then testing those hypotheses. If the o possibility that a researcher’s results are consistent with the theory, then the theory is expectations might skew the results of supported. If the results are not consistent, then the the study theory should be modified and new hypotheses will be single-blind study generated o one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in Approaches to Research (experiment or control group) Clinical or Case Studies double-blind study Naturalistic Observation o both the researchers and the Surveys participants are blind to group Archival Research assignments Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research placebo effect o occurs when people's expectations or CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH beliefs influence or determine their Correlation means that there is a relationship experience in a given situation between two or more variables , but this Independent variable relationship does not necessarily imply cause o manipulated or controlled by the and effect. experimenter Correlation coefficient from -1 to +1 indicates dependent variable the strength and direction of the relationship o is what the researcher measures to see between variables. how much effect the independent o positive correlation means that the variable variables move in the same direction. Participants o negative correlation means that the o subjects of research variables move in opposite directions. Random Sampling  o is a subset of a larger population in BENEFICENCE AND NON-MALEFICENCE which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Rats, like the one shown here, often serve as the Reliability subjects of animal research. o refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) Validity an IACUC consists of institutional o the extent to which a given instrument administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and or tool accurately measures what it’s community members. This committee is supposed to measure. charged with ensuring that all experimental proposals require the humane treatment of CHAPTER 2 animal research subjects. ETHICS II. The Biological Bases of Behavior ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN RESEARCH 1. Overview of the Brain 2. The Nervous System RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN PARTICIPANTS 3. Glandular Processes Informed consent Biopsychology form provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research. Deception involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the PET scan CT scan fMRI deception could be considered harmful. (positron (computed (functional emission tomography) magnetic Ethics and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study tomography) resonance imaging Charles Darwin Theory of evolution by natural selection o the theory states that organisms that are better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment will die off. Genetic variation the genetic difference between individuals, is what contributes to a species’ adaptation to its environment. o The egg and the sperm each contain 23 chromosomes. Chromosomes are long strings of genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).  DNA is a helix-shaped molecule made up of Epigenetics nucleotide base pairs. o looks beyond the genotype itself and Each chromosome, sequences of DNA make up studies how the same genotype can be genes. expressed in different ways. o Allele is a specific version of a gene. Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an individual based on the genetic material (DNA) inherited from one’s parents. Phenotype describes an individual’s observable characteristics, such as hair color, skin color, height, and build. Dominant Allele & Recessive Allele Homozygous o has two copies of the same allele Heterozygous o combination of alleles for a given gene polygenic o controlled by more than one gene. Height is one example of a polygenic trait, as are skin color and weight mutation o is a sudden, permanent change in a Cells of the Nervous System gene Nervous system is composed of two basic cell types: glial cells GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS (also known as glia) and neurons. Range of reaction Glial cells o asserts that our genes set the serve as interconnected information processors boundaries within which we can that are essential for all of the tasks of the operate, and our environment interacts nervous system. This section briefly describes with the genes to determine where in the structure and function of that range we will fall neurons. Genetic environmental correlation o interaction between genes and the NEURON STRUCTURE environment Nature and nurture o Nature refers to how genetics influence an individual's personality, whereas nurture refers to how their environment (including relationships and experiences) impacts their development. Neuron NEURONAL COMMUNICATION a specialized cell of the nervous system that Membrane potential receives and transmits messages. o difference in charge across the Dendrites membrane that provides energy for the branch-like structures that receive neural signal impulses from other neurons. Resting potential Soma/Cell Body o the neuron membrane’s potential is is responsible for maintaining the life of the held in a state of readiness cell. Axon a long thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from branching structures called terminal buttons (or axon terminals) Terminal Buttons/Axon Terminals are at the end of the neurons in small bulblike structures. Nerves Action potential group of axons If that charge reaches a certain level, called the threshold of excitation, the neuron becomes Myelin Sheath active and the action potential begins. This positive spike constitutes the action a fatty substance that encases and insulate potential: the electrical signal that typically axons, facilitating transmission of neural moves from the cell body down the axon to the impulses. axon terminals. Synapse o all-or-none phenomenon is a very small space between two neurons and this means that an incoming signal from is an important site where communication another neuron is either sufficient or between neurons occurs insufficient to reach the threshold of Receptors excitation. proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with different shapes “matching” different neurotransmitters Reuptake excess neurotransmitters in the synapse drift away, are broken down into inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND DRUGS o associated with activities traditionally Neurotransmitters thought of as conscious or voluntary are often referred to as the body's chemical o efferent means messengers ▪ “moving away from” Psychotropic medications ▪ motor neurons, carrying are drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by instructions from the CNS to the restoring neurotransmitter balance muscles Two Types of Neurotransmitters o afferent means Excitatory ▪ “moving toward” o revolution up ▪ Sensory neurons, carrying Inhibitory sensory information to the CNS o decrease action Autonomic Nervous System o controls our internal organs and glands Major Neurotransmitters and How They Affect and is generally considered to be Behavior outside the realm of voluntary control. o sympathetic nervous system ▪ fight or flight ▪ is involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities o parasympathetic nervous system ▪ rest and digest ▪ is associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations Homeostasis o state of equilibrium, in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) Agonists are maintained at optimal levels chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and, thus, strengthen its effects. THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD Antagonist Brain blocks or impedes the normal activity of a remarkably complex organ comprised of neurotransmitter at the receptor billions of interconnected neurons and glia. It is a bilateral, or two-sided, structure that can Parts of the Nervous System be separated into distinct lobes Spinal Cord connects the brain to the outside world relay station not only routes messages to and from the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes THE TWO HEMISPHERES cerebral cortex surface of the brain gyri (singular: gyrus) distinctive pattern of folds or bumps sulci (singular: sulcus) grooves PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM longitudinal fissure 2 major subdivisions: most prominent sulcus Somatic Nervous System Two Hemispheres are the outer layer of the cerebrum lateralization Parietal lobe specialization of functions in the two located immediately behind the frontal lobe, hemispheres of the brain and is involved in processing information from corpus callosum the body’s senses thick band of neural fibers o somatosensory cortex is essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain The corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain. FOREBRAIN STRUCTURES Temporal lobe located on the side of the head (temporal means “near the temples”), and is associated LOBES OF THE BRAIN with hearing, memory, emotion, and some Frontal lobe aspects of language involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, o auditory cortex and language responsible for processing auditory o motor cortex information, is located within the temporal which is involved in planning and lobe coordinating movement o Wernicke’s area o prefrontal cortex important for speech comprehension, is is responsible for higher level cognitive also located here functioning o Broca’s area essential for language production Occipital lobe located at the very back of the brain, and contains the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information OTHER AREAS OF THE FOREBRAIN Thalamus is a sensory relay for the brain Hidbrain located at the back of the head and looks like an extension of the spinal cord. Limbic system contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum is involved in processing both emotion and Medulla memory controls the automatic processes of the Hippocampus autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, essential structure for learning and memory blood pressure, and heart rate Amygdala Pons involved in our experience of emotion and in serves to connect the brain and spinal cord. It tying emotional meaning to our memories also is involved in regulating brain activity Hypothalamus during sleep regulates a number of homeostatic processes, Cerebellum (Latin for “little brain”) including the regulation of body temperature, receives messages from muscles, tendons, appetite, and blood pressure joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills MIDBRAIN AND HINDBRAIN STRUCTURES Midbrain comprised of structures located deep within the Phineas gage’s case brain, between the forebrain and the hindbrain Reticular formation centered in the midbrain, but it actually extends up into the forebrain and down into the hindbrain Substantia nigra (Latin for “black substance”) Ventral tegmental area (VTA) located in the midbrain  CHAPTER 3 Techniques Involving Electrical Activity Electroencephalography (EEG) BRAIN IMAGING o serves this purpose by providing a Techniques Involving Radiation measure of a brain’s electrical activity. Computerized tomography (CT) scan o involves taking a number of x-rays of a particular section of person’s body or brain. PET scan for brain activity for people with different Positron emission tomography (PET) mental health disorders o scans create pictures of the living, active brain. Techniques Involving Magnetic Fields Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) o person is placed inside a machine that Endocrine System generates a strong magnetic field. consists of a series of glands that produce Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) chemical substances known as hormones. o operates on the same principles, but it shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels. MAJOR GLANDS SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Pituitary gland a. The Senses and the Sensory Processes descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in close association with it. Sensation “master gland” When sensory information is detected by a Thyroid gland sensory receptor sensation has occurred. releases hormones that regulate growth, o Transduction metabolism, and appetite. ▪ conversion from sensory o In hyperthyroidism, or stimulus energy to action Grave’s disease, the potential. thyroid secretes too Absolute threshold much of the hormone o refers to the minimum amount of thyroxine, causing stimulus energy that must be present agitation, bulging eyes, for the stimulus to be detected 50% of and weight loss. the time. o In hypothyroidism, Subliminal messages reduced hormone levels o getting messages that are presented cause sufferers to below the threshold for conscious experience tiredness, awareness. and they often complain Just Noticeable Difference (jnd) or Difference of feeling cold. Threshold o how much difference in stimuli is required to detect a difference between them. Perception refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. Bottom-up processing o perceptions are built from sensory input. Top-down processing Adrenal glands o how we interpret those sensations is sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones influenced by our available knowledge, involved in the stress response, such as our experiences, and our thoughts. epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine Sensory adaptation (noradrenaline). o perceiving stimuli that remain relatively Pancreas constant over prolonged periods of o an internal organ that secretes time. hormones that regulate blood sugar Inattentional blindness levels: insulin and glucagon. o failure to notice something that is Gonads completely visible because of a lack of secrete sexual hormones, which are important attention. in reproduction, and mediate both sexual Signal detection theory motivation and behavior. The female gonads o ability to identify a stimulus when it is are the ovaries; the male gonads are embedded in a distracting background. the testes. Ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone, and the testes secrete androgens, such as testosterone. Waves and Wavelengths Timbre Amplitude o refers to a sound’s purity, and it is o wave is the height of a wave as affected by the complex interplay of measured from the highest point on frequency, amplitude, and timing of the wave (peak or crest) to the lowest sound waves. point on the wave (trough) Wavelength o refers to the length of a wave from one peak to the next Frequency o refers to the number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period and is often expressed in terms of hertz (Hz), or cycles per second. Light waves visible spectrum o is the portion of the larger electromagnetic spectrum o that we can see VISION Anatomy of the visual system Cornea o the transparent covering over the eye. Pupil o the small opening in the eye through which light passes, and the size of the pupil can change as a function of light levels as well as emotional arousal. Different wavelengths of light Iris o which is the colored portion of the eye Lens o a curved, transparent structure that serves to provide additional focus. Fovea Sound waves o small indentation in the back of the eye. Decibels (dB) Retina o a logarithmic unit of sound intensity. o light-sensitive lining of the eye. Photoreceptor cells  o known as cones, are light-detecting Consciousness cells. describes our awareness of internal and Cones external stimuli. o are specialized types of photoreceptors Wakefulness that work best in bright light conditions. is characterized by high levels of sensory Rods awareness, thought, and behavior. o are specialized photoreceptors that Sleep work well in low light conditions, and is a state marked by relatively low levels of while they lack the spatial resolution physical activity and reduced sensory awareness and color function of the cones, they that is distinct from periods of rest that occur are involved in our vision in dimly lit during wakefulness. environments as well as in our perception of movement on the Biological rhythms periphery of our visual field. are internal rhythms of biological activity Circadian rhythm is a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours. Homeostasis is the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. CHAPTER 4 CONSCIOUSNESS AND ALTERED STATES The brain’s clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus a. Consciousness (SCN) b. Sleep c. Hypnosis and Meditation d. Psychoactive Drug PROBLEMS WITH CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS Pineal gland an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep. Sleep regulation refers to the brain’s control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. Disruptions of Normal Sleep Jet lag o is a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our This figure illustrates some of the negative internal circadian cycles and our consequences of sleep deprivation. While cognitive environment. deficits may be the most obvious, many body system Insomnia are negatively impacted by lack of sleep. o consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week SLEEPING over a month’s time. Sleep Rotating shift distinguished by low levels of physical activity o work refers to a work schedule that and reduced sensory awareness. changes from early to late on a the interplay of the circadian and homeostatic daily or weekly basis mechanisms that regulate sleep. Insufficient Sleep Sleep rebound o A person with a sleep debt does refers to the fact that a sleep deprived not get sufficient sleep on a individual will fall asleep more quickly during chronic basis subsequent opportunities for sleep. WHY DO WE SLEEP? Adaptive Function of Sleep Cognitive Function of Sleep STAGES OF SLEEP Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. non-REM (NREM) sleep is subdivided into four stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves. Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while appearance of both sleep spindles and K complexes. the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep Stage 3 is often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave NREM stages of sleep sleep because this stage is characterized by low Stage 1 sleep is a transitional phase that occurs frequency (less than 3 Hz), high amplitude delta between wakefulness and sleep, the period during waves. which we drift off to sleep. The early portion of stage 1 sleep produces alpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (8–13Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized. Theta waves are even lower frequency (4–7 Hz), higher amplitude brain waves than alpha waves. a) A period of rapid eye movement is marked by the short red line segment. The brain waves associated with REM sleep, outlined in the red box in (a), look very similar to those seen (b) during wakefulness Brainwave activity changes dramatically A hypnogram is a diagram of the stages of sleep across the different stages of sleep as they occur during a period of sleep. This hypnogram illustrates how an individual moves Stage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of through the various stages of sleep deep relaxation. Sleep spindle is a rapid burst of higher REM SLEEP frequency brain waves that may be important Dreams for learning and memory. Manifest content K-complex is a very high amplitude pattern o is the actual content, or storyline, of a of brain activity that may in some cases dream. occur in response to environmental stimuli. Latent content o refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. Collective unconscious  o as described by Jung, is a theoretical There are two types of sleep apnea: repository of information he believed to o Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when be shared by everyone. an individual’s airway becomes blocked Lucid dreams during sleep, and air is prevented from o are dreams in which certain aspects of entering the lungs. wakefulness are maintained during a o Central sleep apnea, disruption in dream state. signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing cause periods of interrupted STAGES OF SLEEP breathing. Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) device includes a mask that fits over the sleeper’s nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the person’s airways, forcing them to remain open. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies. SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. Narcolepsy cannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. These sleep episodes are often SLEEP PROBLEMS AND DISORDERS associated with cataplexy. Insomnia Cataplexy a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, o which is a lack of muscle tone or muscle is the most common of the sleep disorders. weakness, and in some cases Chronic insomnia o involves complete paralysis of the o is almost always associated with feeling voluntary muscles. overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. Treatment of insomnia likely would include stress management techniques and changes in problematic behaviors that could contribute to insomnia. Parasomnia SUBSTANCE USE AND ABUSE is one of a group of sleep disorders in which Substance use disorders unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/ or experiences during sleep play a role. Physical dependence Parasomnias can occur in either REM or NREM o involves changes in normal bodily phases of sleep. functions—the user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon Sleepwalking, or somnambulism, the sleeper cessation of use. engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. Psychological dependence o emotional, rather than physical, need REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD) occurs for the drug and may use the drug to when the muscle paralysis associated with the relieve psychological distress. REM sleep phase does not occur. Sleep Apnea Tolerance o is linked to physiological dependence, is defined by episodes during which a sleeper’s and it occurs when a person requires breathing stops.  more and more drug to achieve effects Alcohol and Other Depressants previously experienced at lower doses. Ethanol, which we commonly refer to as Drug withdrawal alcohol, is in a class of psychoactive drugs o includes a variety of negative symptoms known as depressants. experienced when drug use is Depressant discontinued. o drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. DRUG CATEGORIES Stimulants drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. Methamphetamine o is a type of amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are readily available (e.g., medications containing pseudoephedrine, compound found in many over-the-counter cold and flu remedies). Euphoric high o feelings of intense elation and pleasure, especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or smoking. Drugs and Their Effects Opioid is one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. Opiates Natural opioids, are derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. Methadone is a synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs. Methadone clinics help people who previously struggled with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of methadone. Codeine an opioid with relatively low potency Hallucinogen is one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences.  o Visual encoding ▪ is the encoding of images. o Acoustic encoding ▪ is the encoding of sounds, words in particular. Self-reference effect o is the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance. Storage o is the creation of a permanent record of OTHER STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS information. Hypnosis o Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin is a state of extreme self-focus and attention in (1968) model of human memory called which minimal attention is given to external Atkinson and Shiffrin's model. stimuli. Meditation is the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. CHAPTER 5 MEMORY a. Sensory Memory b. Short-term memory o Sensory memory c. Long-term Memory d. Forgetting Amnesia ▪ storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. Memory o Short-term memory (STM) is the set of processes used to encode, store, ▪ is a temporary storage system and retrieve information over different periods that processes incoming of time. sensory memory. o Rehearsal is the conscious repetition of information to be remembered, to moves information from short-term memory to long-term memory called Encoding memory consolidation. getting information into our brains which is the o Long-term memory (LTM) input of information into the memory system. o is the continuous storage of Automatic processing information. o encoding of details like time, space, 2 types: frequency, and the meaning of words. ▪ Explicit memories are those we Effortful processing consciously try to remember, o required a lot of work and attention on recall, and report. your part in order to encode that Explicit memories is divided by information. two: 3 types of encoding: ▪ Episodic memory is information o Semantic encoding about events we have ▪ encoding of words and their personally experienced (i.e., an meaning. episode).  ▪ Semantic memory is knowledge The amygdala is involved in fear and fear about words, concepts, and memories. language-based knowledge and The hippocampus is associated with declarative facts. and episodic memory as well as recognition ▪ Implicit memories are long- memory. term memories that are not The cerebellum plays a role in processing part of our consciousness. procedural memories, such as how to play the types of implicit memories: piano. ▪ Implicit procedural memory is The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in often studied using observable remembering semantic tasks. behaviors. ▪ Implicit priming during priming exposure to a stimulus affects the response to a later stimulus. ▪ Implicit emotional conditioning is the type of memory involved in classically conditioned emotion responses. There also appear to be specific neurotransmitters involved with the process of memory, such as epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine. It is also believed that strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories; this is called arousal theory. Retrieval o flashbulb memory is an The act of getting information out of memory exceptionally clear recollection storage and back into conscious awareness. of an important event. three ways: Recall it means you can access Problems with Memory information without cues. Amnesia Recognition happens when you identify is the loss of long-term memory that occurs as information that you have previously the result of disease, physical trauma, or learned after encountering it again. psychological trauma. Relearning it involves learning 2 types: information that you previously o Anterograde Amnesia you cannot learned. remember new information, although you can remember information and Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory events that happened prior to your injury. Karl Lashley was searching for evidence of the o Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for engram: the group of neurons that serve as the events that occurred prior to the trauma. “physical representation of memory”. Equipotentiality hypothesis: if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function. Memory Construction and Reconstruction o one strategy is rehearsal, or the Construction conscious repetition of information to o formulation of new memories be remembered. Reconstruction Chunking o process of bringing up old memories o organizing information into manageable Suggestibility bits or chunks. describes the effects of misinformation from Elaborative rehearsal external sources that leads to the creation of o a technique in which you think about false memories. the meaning of new information and its Eyewitness Misidentification relation to knowledge already stored in The Misinformation Effect your memory. holds that after exposure to additional and Mnemonic devices possibly inaccurate information, a person may o are memory aids that help us organize misremember the original event. information for encoding Controversies over Repressed and Recovered Memories CHAPTER 6 false memory syndrome LEARNING o recall of false autobiographical a. Nature of Learning memories. b. Types of Learning Forgetting c. Laws of Learning (Law of effect, readiness and refers to loss of information from long-term exercise) memory. Encoding Failure Reflexes Memory Errors are a motor or neural reaction to a specific Daniel Schacter Seven Sins of Memory stimulus in the environment. Instincts are innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as aging and the change of seasons. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. Associative learning o occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment. Classical conditioning Interference a process by which we learn to associate stimuli Sometimes information is stored in our and, consequently, to anticipate events. memory, but for some reason it is inaccessible 2 types of responses to its environment: two types: o unconditioned (unlearned) responses, o Proactive interference or reflexes a stimulus that elicits a ▪ when old information hinders reflexive response in an organism. the recall of newly learned o conditioned (learned) responses a information. natural (unlearned) reaction to a given o Retroactive interference stimulus. ▪ happens when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information. Ways to Enhance Memory o neutral stimulus (NS) which is a Memory-Enhancing Strategies stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response.  o conditioned stimulus (CS) which is a Pairing a new neutral stimulus (“squeak cabinet”) with stimulus that elicits a response after the conditioned stimulus (“zzhzhz can opener”) is called repeatedly being paired with an higher-order conditioning, or second-order unconditioned stimulus. conditioning o conditioned response (CR) behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus GENERAL PROCESSES IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Acquisition the initial period of learning, wherein an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus. Spontaneous recovery the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period. Stimulus discrimination when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar. Stimulus generalization when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the condition stimulus. REAL WORLD APPLICATION OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING, OR SECOND-ORDER Behaviorism CONDITIONING According to Watson, human behavior, just like animal behavior, is primarily the result of conditioned responses. Little Albert Experiment Operant conditioning REINFORCEMENT organisms learn to associate a behavior and its Positive reinforcement consequence. a desirable stimulus is added to increase a B.F Skinner behavior. Negative reinforcement an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior. PUNISHMENT always decreases a behavior. Positive punishment o adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. Negative punishment o removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior. SHAPING CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING COMPARED rewarding successive approximations of a target behavior The specific steps used in the process are the following: 1. Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. 2. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior. You will no longer reinforce the According to the law of effect, behaviors that previously reinforced response. are followed by consequences that are 3. Next, begin to reinforce the response satisfying to the organism are more likely to be that even more closely resembles the repeated, and behaviors that are followed by desired behavior. unpleasant consequences are less likely to be 4. Continue to reinforce closer and closer repeated. approximations of the desired behavior. 5. Finally, only reinforce the desired OPERANT CONDITIONING behavior Positive means you are adding something. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REINFORCERS Negative Primary reinforcers means you are taking something away are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing Reinforcement qualities. means you are increasing a behavior. Secondary reinforcer All reinforcers (positive or negative) increase has no inherent value and only has reinforcing the likelihood of a behavioral response. qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer. Punishment means you are decreasing a behavior. REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES All punishers (positive or negative) decrease the Continuous reinforcement likelihood of a behavioral response. When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior. Partial reinforcement referred to as intermittent reinforcement, the person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior.  COGNITION AND LATENT LEARNING Radical behaviorism staunch form of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations. Cognitive map a mental picture of the layout of the maze. Latent learning learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it Fixed OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (MODELING) refers to the number of responses between Observational learning reinforcements, or the amount of time between reinforcements, which is set and unchanging. we learn by watching others and then imitating, Variable or modeling, what they do or say. refers to the number of responses or amount of STEPS IN THE MODELING PROCESS time between reinforcements, which varies or Vicarious reinforcement changes. Interval If you saw that the model was reinforced by behavior, you will be more motivated to copy means the schedule is based on the time her. between reinforcements. Vicarious punishment Ratio If you observed the model being punished, you means the schedule is based on the number of would be less motivated to copy that person. responses between reinforcements. Fixed interval reinforcement schedule CHAPTER 7 when behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time. INTELLIGENCE Variable interval reinforcement schedule a. Theories of Intelligence b. (Two-factor Intelligence, Multiple the person or animal gets the reinforcement and Tribrachic Theory) based on varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable. COGNITION Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule Cognition there are a set number of responses that must is thinking, and it encompasses the processes occur before the behavior is rewarded. associated with perception, knowledge, Variable ratio reinforcement schedule problem solving, judgment, language, and the number of responses needed for a reward memory. varies. Cognitive psychology is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think. CONCEPTS AND PROTOTYPES refers to the way words are organized into Concepts sentences. are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT as life experiences. Prototype is the best example or representation of a concept. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL CONCEPTS Natural concepts are created “naturally” through your experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences. Artificial concept is a concept that is defined by a specific set of CLASSIFYING INTELLIGENCE characteristics. Crystallized intelligence is characterized as acquired knowledge and the SCHEMATA ability to retrieve it. Schemata Fluid intelligence mental construct consisting of a cluster or encompasses the ability to see complex collection of related concepts. relationships and solve problems. Role schema Practical intelligence makes assumptions about how individuals in sometimes compared to “street smarts.” Being certain roles will behave. practical means you find solutions that work in Event schema your everyday life by applying knowledge based also known as a cognitive script, is a set of on your experiences. behaviors that can feel like a routine. Analytical intelligence is closely aligned with academic problem solving LANGUAGE and computations. Sternberg says that Language analytical intelligence is demonstrated by an is a communication system that involves using ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and words and systematic rules to organize those contrast. words to transmit information from one Creative intelligence individual to another. marked by inventing or imagining a solution to a Lexicon problem or situation refers to the words of a given language. Grammar refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon. Phoneme (e.g., the sounds “ah” vs. “eh”) is a basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different sets of phonemes. Morphemes which are the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning (e.g., “I” is both a Sternberg’s theory identifies three types of phoneme and a morpheme). intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical Semantics CLASSIFYING INTELLIGENCE refers to the process by which we derive Multiple Intelligences Theory meaning from morphemes and words. Syntax was developed by Howard Gardner  In Gardner’s theory, each person possesses at MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE least eight intelligences. David Wechsler, a psychologist who spent part Emotional intelligence of his career working with World War I encompasses the ability to understand the veterans, developed a new IQ test in the United emotions of yourself and others, show States. empathy, understand social relationships and He named the test the Wechsler-Bellevue cues, and regulate your own emotions and Intelligence Scale. respond in culturally appropriate ways. cultural intelligence, sometimes referred to as cultural competence, Flynn effect James Flynn, who was among the first to describe this trend. refers to the observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last. Flynn himself argues, however, that increased IQ scores do not necessarily mean that younger generations are more intelligent per se. MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE CREATIVITY Creativity is the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities. Divergent thinking o can be described as thinking “outside the box;” it allows an individual to arrive at unique, multiple solutions to a given problem. Convergent thinking THE SOURCE OF INTELLIGENCE o describes the ability to provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem. MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE Intelligence quotient (also, IQ) score on a test designed to measure intelligence. Standardization means that the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent. Range of Reaction Norming is the theory that each person responds to the giving a test to a large population so data can be environment in a unique way based on his or collected comparing groups, such as age groups. her genetic makeup. LEARNING DISABILITIES Dysgraphia have a learning disability that results in a struggle to write legibly Dyslexia exhibits an inability to correctly process letters. Dyscalculia is difficulty in learning or comprehending arithmetic. CHAPTER 8 The concept of optimal arousal in relation to MOTIVATION performance on a task is depicted here. Performance is a. Definition of Motivation maximized at the optimal level of arousal, and it tapers b. Kinds of Motivation off during under- and overarousal. c. Approaches to Motivation Yerkes-Dodson law MOTIVATION Robert Yerkes describes the wants or needs that direct which holds that a simple task is performed best behavior toward a goal. when arousal levels are relatively high and o intrinsic (arising from internal factors) complex tasks are best performed when arousal o extrinsic (arising from external factors) levels are lower. overjustification effect o intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. THEORIES ABOUT MOTIVATION Instinct is a species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned. Drive theory of motivation deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs. These needs result in Task performance is best when arousal levels are in a psychological drive states that direct behavior middle range, with difficult tasks best performed under to meet the need and, ultimately, bring the lower levels of arousal and simple tasks best performed system back to homeostasis under higher levels of arousal. habit o is a pattern of behavior in which we SELF-EFFICACY AND SOCIAL MOTIVES regularly engage. Self-efficacy Albert Bandura THEORIES ABOUT MOTIVATION is an individual’s belief in her own capability to Yerkes-Dodson law complete a task, which may include a previous which holds that a simple task is performed best successful completion of the exact task or a when arousal levels are relatively high and similar task. complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Robert Yerkes Hierarchy of Needs proposed by Abraham Maslow the spans the spectrum of motives ranging from the biological to the individual to the social.  CANNON-BARD THEORY SCHACTER-SINGER TWO-FACTOR THEORY Polygraph, or lie detector test measures the physiological arousal of an individual responding to a series of questions. CHAPTER 9 LAZARUS ‘COGNITIVE-MEDIATIONAL THEORY EMOTIONS a. Nature and Meaning of Emotion b. Theories of Emotion THE BIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS Emotion limbic system, which is the area of the brain is a subjective state of being that we often involved in emotion and memory. describe as our feelings. THEORIES OF EMOTION is a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings. The limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, and the hippocampus, is involved JAMES-LANGE THEORY in mediating emotional response and memory. AMYGDALA basolateral complex o has dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain. central nucleus o plays a role in attention, and it has connections with the hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems’ activity.  peers to determine the approximate ages they should reach specific normative events. Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous? Continuous development views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills. Discontinuous believe that development takes place in unique stages. It occurs at specific times or ages. The anatomy of the basolateral complex and central The concept of continuous development can be nucleus of the amygdala are illustrated in this diagram. visualized as a smooth slope of progression, whereas discontinuous development sees growth in more discrete stages. CHAPTER 10 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? Nature a. Development biology and genetics b. Growth and Maturation Nurture c. Prenatal Influences environment and culture Nature vs. Nature Newborns Abilities Sensory Development LIFESPAN THEORIES Motor Development Psychosexual theory of development Language Development Sigmund Freud believed that personality d. Emotional Development develops during early childhood. For Freud, e. Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget's Theory) childhood experiences shape our personalities f. Social Development (Erik Erikson's Theory) and behavior as adults. 3 developmental domains: Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships. We refer to these domains throughout the chapter. Psychosocial theory of development Normative approach Erik Erikson took Freud’s theory and modified it This approach asks, “What is normal as psychosocial theory. development?” Theory emphasizes the social nature of our Developmental milestone development rather than its sexual nature. A children develop at slightly different rates, we can use these age-related averages as general guidelines to compare children with same-age  Stages of Cognitive Development They reflect the increasing sophistication of the child's thought process. Sensorimotor (0-2) The child learns by doing looking, touching, sucking. the child also has a primitive understanding of cause and- effect relationships. Object permanence appears around 9 months. Preoperational (2-7) The child uses language and symbols, including In each stage of Erikson’s theory, there is a psychosocial letters and numbers. Egocentrism is also task that we must master in order to feel a sense of evident. Conservation marks the end of the competence. preoperational stage and the beginning of