PDF Psychology Theories for Study
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This document outlines major schools of thought in psychology, including Structuralism, Functionalism, and Behaviorism. It emphasizes different perspectives on the study of the human mind and behavior. It also touches on core concepts and figures in each school of thought.
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1) Structuralism- Wundt, Titchener systematic movement founded in Germany by Wilhelm Wundtandmainlyidentified A with Edward B. Titchener. Based on a model of chemistry. mphasis on the study of the structure of the human mind. Structuralis...
1) Structuralism- Wundt, Titchener systematic movement founded in Germany by Wilhelm Wundtandmainlyidentified A with Edward B. Titchener. Based on a model of chemistry. mphasis on the study of the structure of the human mind. Structuralism sought to E analyze the adult mind (total of experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components and then to find how these components fit together in complex forms (thoughts, experiences, emotions, and other basic elements) Objective introspection was the method used, which is the process of objectively examining, identifying and measuring one’s own thoughts and mental activities. (to identify basic mental elements) - Looking inward- reflecting on a particular thing - Reporting outward- Report based on our subjective reflection Titchener believed that every experience could be broken down into its individual emotions and sensations. Although Titchener agreed with Wundt that consciousness could be broken down into its basic elements, Titchener also believed that objective introspection could be used on thoughts as well as on physical sensations. 2) Functionalism- James broadschoolofthoughtoriginatingintheU.S.duringthelate19thcenturyattempted A tocountertheGermanschoolofstructuralismledbyEdwardB.Titchener.Functionalists, including psychologists William James and James Rowland Angell, and philosophers George H. Mead, Archibald L. Moore, and John Dewey. James was more interested in the importance of consciousness to everyday life rather thanjustitsanalysis.Hebelievedthatthescientificstudyofconsciousnessitselfwasnot yet possible as conscious ideas are constantly flowing in an ever-changing stream. Stressed the importance of empirical, rational thought over an experimental, trial-and-errorphilosophy.Thegroupwasconcernedmorewiththecapabilityofthemind than with the process of thought. He emphasisedfunction rather than the structure ofhuman consciousness. J amesfocusedonhowthemindallowspeopletofunctionintherealworld—howpeople work,play,andadapttotheirsurroundings,aviewpointhecalledfunctionalism.(Hewas eavily influenced by Charles Darwin’s ideasaboutnaturalselection,inwhichphysical h traits that help an animal adapt to its environment and survive are passed on to its offspring- survival, adaption, evolution)Therewasalsofocusontheutilityandpurpose of behaviour that has been modified over years of human existence. 1) Gestalt (configuration) - Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohher hisapproachtopsychologybeganinGermanyandAustriaduringthelate19thcentury T in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Wertheimer believedthatpsychologicaleventssuchasperceivingandsensingcouldnot be broken down into any smaller elements and still be properly understood. It is necessary to look at the whole experienceaspartsidentifiedindividuallyhavedifferent characteristics to the whole. Hence,thefamiliarslogan,“Thewholeisgreaterthanthesumofitsparts.”Wertheimer and others believed that people naturally seek out patterns (“wholes”) in the sensory information available to them. Gestalt Techniques- Here and now- everything imp happens in the present Unfinished business- things from the past haunt usin the present. Channels of Resistance- Blocks people use to prevent themselves from having contact with others. Choices of Language- Clients aren’t allowed to overgeneralize. Empty chair 4)Behaviourism - Watson, Skinner, Pavlov ehaviourism is primarily concerned with observable behaviour, as opposedtointernal B eventslikethinkingandemotion.Observable,i.e.,externalbehaviourcanbeobjectively and scientifically measured. y the early 1900s, psychologist John B. Watson had tired of the arguing among the B structuralists; he challenged the functionalist viewpoint,aswellaspsychoanalysis,with hisown“scienceofbehaviour,”orbehaviourism(Watson,1924).Watsonwantedtobring psychologybacktoafocusonscientificinquiry,andhefeltthattheonlywaytodothat as to ignore the whole consciousness issue and focus only on observable w behaviour—something that could be directly seen and measured, Behaviourism is a theory of learning that states all behaviours are learned through conditioned interaction with the environment. Thus, behaviour is simply a response to environmental stimuli. Thebehaviouristtheoryisonlyconcernedwithobservablestimulus-responsebehaviours, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner. 1. S timulus - Response Stimulus-responsetheoryistheideathatlearningandbehaviourcanbeexplained by interactions between stimuli and the responses they evoke. Thestimulus-responsetheorydevelopedfromearlyconceptionsofconditioning,a behavioural process whereby a response becomes more frequent or more predictableinagivenenvironmentduetoreinforcement.Subsequentvariationsof stimulus-response theory long provided the dominant account of conditioning. he Stimulus Organism Response model (SOR Model) was a critique of the Stimulus T Response(SR)theory.Thelattersuggeststhatfeelingsandbehavioursarecausedbythe external environment.TheSRmodel,however,doesn’ttakeintoaccountthe‘organism’ orpersonrespondingtothestimulus.Itwasobservedthataresponsecouldbeshapedby a person’s feelings and emotions and therefore, the SR theory was incomplete. 2. S timulus Organism Response TheSORmodelinpsychologysuggeststhatthe‘O’ortheorganismhasanactive andmediatingfunction.Thestimulusorganismresponsetheorystatesthatthere’s astimulusthattriggersaresponsebasedontheinternalfeelingsorbehaviourofan organism (person). This internal processing of the stimulus can be conscious or unconscious. It furthertriggersanemotionthatleadstoaresponse.Theresulting response can be internal, like an increased heart rate, or external, like crying. 3. S haping Behaviour shaping, or “shaping,” is asystematicapproachtoteachingnewskills or modifying existing behaviours. It involvesbreakingdownadesiredbehaviour intosmaller,manageablesteps,allowingindividualstograduallyprogresstowards the desired outcome. 4. P unishment Punishment involves the use of adverse consequences to reduce behaviour. The goal is to form an association between the behaviour and the negative consequences.Oncethisassociationiscreated,thehopeisthatthebehaviourwill then be less likely to occur. Punishment caninvolveeitherapplyinganaversiveconsequence(suchasgetting a ticket for speeding) or taking away somethingdesirable(suchasachildlosing their screen time privileges). 5. T oken Economy A token economy is a system for providing positive reinforcement to a child or children by giving them tokens for completing tasks or behaving in desired ways. Tokeneconomiesareusedasamethodofstrengtheningabehaviourorincreasing its frequency because the tokens are a way of “paying” children for completing tasks and the children can then use these tokens to buy desired activities or items Token economies are a type of behaviour modification in which secondary reinforcers, or tokens, are used. 6. C onditioning Conditioning is the process through which a stimulus and reaction become associated with one another. Conditioningisaformoflearninginwhicheither(1)agivenstimulus(orsignal) becomesincreasinglyeffectiveinevokingaresponseor(2)aresponseoccurswith increasing regularity in a well-specified and stable environment. The type of reinforcement used will determine the outcome. It involves learning through repeated associations (likes and dislikes) 7. B ehaviour Modification Bm is the use of learning techniques to modify orchangeundesirablebehaviour and increase desirable behaviour. Operantconditioningcanbeusedinmanysettingsonbothanimalsandpeopleto change, or modify, behaviour. This use is termed behaviour modification and includes the use of reinforcement and shaping to alter behaviour For example, you can use positive reinforcement, like praise, to encourage the behaviour you want. Alternatively, you can use negative reinforcement, like nagging, to eliminate behaviour you don’t want. 8. Systematic Desensitisation SD is a behaviour technique used to treat phobias, in which a client is asked to ake a list of ordered fears and taught to relax while concentrating on those fears. m A therapist guides the client through a series of steps meant to reduce fear and anxiety, is normally used to treat phobic disorders and consists of a three-step process. - First, the client must learn to relax through deep muscle relaxation training. - Next,theclientandthetherapistconstructalist,beginningwiththeobject or situation that causes the least feartotheclient,andeventuallyworking up to the objectorsituationthatproducesthegreatestdegreeoffear.(fear hierarchy) - Finally, under the guidance of the therapist, the client begins at the first item on the listthatcausesminimalfearandlooksatit,thinksaboutit,or confronts it, all while remaining in a relaxed state. By pairing the old conditioned stimulus (the fear object) with a new relaxation response that is incompatible* with theemotionsandphysicalarousalassociated with fear, the person’s fear is reduced and relieved. Thepersonthenproceedsto the next item on the list of fears (called a hierarchy of fears) until the phobiais gone 5) Existentialism - Frankl Anyone who has WHY to live for will survive any HOW xistentialism is aphilosophyofhumannaturethatidentifiespeopleashavingfreewill E to determine the course of their lives. It searches for the self and the meaning of life through free will, choice and responsibility, and individual responsibility to create meaningratherthanrelyingonahigherpowerorreligiontodeterminewhatisimportant, valuable, or morally right. Existential thinkers believe that people are searchingtofind out who andwhattheyareastheymakechoicesbasedontheirexperiences,beliefsand outlooks. - Philosophical in nature - No specific techniques - Focuses on issues related to human existence, values self-awareness - Experimental approach to therapy - Based on the relationship between client and therapist. - Stresses personal freedom of choice Existentialtherapyisatypeofpsychotherapythatusesexistentialismtohelppeoplefind meaning in their lives. It's less structured than other types of therapy and focuses on exploring a person's whole existence, including Isolation, Death, Meaninglessness, Freedom, and Experience as a person lives it.
