Gr-12 History 3-in-1 Study Guide PDF

12 CAPS Stand a chance to WIN an Apple iPad! WWW.THEANSWER.CO. ZA www.theanswer.co.za/win Terms & Conditions apply History 3-in-1 GRADE 8 - 12 ALL MAJOR SUBJECTS IN ENGLISH & AFRIKAANS History CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE Geoff Olivier & Jeanne Maclay-Mayers Geoff Olivier, et al. 3-in-1 12 GRADE CAPS Gr...

12 CAPS Stand a chance to WIN an Apple iPad! WWW.THEANSWER.CO. ZA www.theanswer.co.za/win Terms & Conditions apply History 3-in-1 GRADE 8 - 12 ALL MAJOR SUBJECTS IN ENGLISH & AFRIKAANS History CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE Geoff Olivier & Jeanne Maclay-Mayers Geoff Olivier, et al. 3-in-1 12 GRADE CAPS Grade 12 History 3-in-1 CAPS CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE This Grade 12 History 3-in-1 study guide uses the Cold War and its aftermath as the thread to link all 6 matric topics. It provides a comprehensive view of course subject matter, using differing perspectives to portray a balanced view of events. Key Features: Comprehensive notes with revealing quotations and useful definitions Informative illustrations and visual summaries Source-based questions and answers Essay questions with notes and sample essays Exam guidance and study tips for exams Sample exam papers with answers 12 GRADE CAPS History Geoff Olivier & Jeanne Maclay-Mayers 3-in-1 THIS CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE INCLUDES 1 Comprehensive Notes 2 Questions and Answers per Topic 3 Exam Papers and Answers 2017 publication | 2019 edition | ISBN: 978-1-920568-90-0 free e for ages to t i s b. e m book our w our i Visit dable col ic in this top loa link: down any each wing mso l l o mp he f /for acco use t er.co.za n a c w You.theans loads/ www down E-book available 310321 | NOVUS CONTENTS Preface........................................................................................... ii The Final DBE (National) History exam........................................ iii Exam tips....................................................................................... iv Rubric............................................................................................. vii Last-minute revision...................................................................... viii Ways of looking at History............................................................ x TOPIC 1: THE COLD WAR.............................................................. 1 Unit 1: The origins of the Cold War.................................................................. 3 Unit 2: The extension of the Cold War in China........................................... 27 Unit 3: The extension of the Cold War in Vietnam....................................... 40 Questions and Answers.................................................................................... 52 TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA................................................ 57 Unit 1: What ideas influenced the independent states?.......................... 60 Unit 2: Case study: The Congo...................................................................... 63 Unit 3: Case study: Tanzania.......................................................................... 73 Unit 4: Africa in the Cold War: Case study: Angola.................................... 84 Questions and Answers.................................................................................... 93 TOPIC 3: CIVIL SOCIETY PROTESTS FROM THE 1950s TO THE 1970s.......................................................... 99 Unit 1: Overview of civil society protests, 1950s – 1970s............................ 101 Unit 2: Case study: The US Civil Rights Movement..................................... 110 Unit 3: Case study: The Black Power Movement....................................... 119 Unit 4: Progress in the USA towards racial equality................................... 126 Questions and Answers.................................................................................. 127 TOPIC 4: CIVIL RESISTANCE IN SOUTH AFRICA IN THE 1970s AND 1980s...................................................... 131 Unit 1: The Anti-Apartheid movement and Apartheid government by the 1970s........................................................................................ 133 Unit 2: The challenge of Black Consciousness to the Apartheid state...... 137 Unit 3: Crisis of Apartheid in the 1980s......................................................... 143 Unit 4: The international response................................................................ 155 Unit 5: The beginning of the end................................................................. 158 Questions and Answers.................................................................................. 158 TOPIC 5: THE COMING OF DEMOCRACY TO SOUTH AFRICA AND COMING TO TERMS WITH THE PAST................. 164 Unit 1: The negotiated settlement and Government of National Unity.... 165 Unit 2: How has South Africa chosen to remember the past?................ 181 Unit 3: Remembering the past: Memorials................................................. 186 Questions and Answers.................................................................................. 187 TOPIC 6: THE END OF THE COLD WAR AND THE NEW WORLD ORDER.................................................. 192 Unit 1: Recap: The Cold War and the creation of a ‘bi-polar’ world..... 194 Unit 2: The end of the Cold War.................................................................. 195 Unit 3: The New World Order........................................................................ 203 Unit 4: South Africa’s unfinished process of liberation............................... 211 Unit 5: Civil society and New World Order................................................. 217 Questions and Answers.................................................................................. 218 EXAM PAPERS Paper 1............................................................................................................. 224 Paper 2............................................................................................................. 232 EXAM MEMOS Memo: Paper 1............................................................................................... 240 Memo: Paper 2............................................................................................... 248 2 EXTERNAL FACTORS SHAPING EARLY YEARS OF AFRICAN INDEPENDENCE, 1960s–1980s Foreign loans from the IMF, World Bank and individual countries were sometimes invested effectively and this helped economic development. But sometimes the money was wasted through mismanagement and was lost in corruption, which did not help economic development. Foreign aid may have provided immediate relief to African countries, particularly in crisis years of drought, civil war, market fluctuations. However, foreign loans also helped some dictators to stay in power, for example, Mobutu and Idi Amin. Moreover, this aid almost always came with strict conditions which frequently bound countries into a cycle of debt. For example, after the oil crisis, many African states’ debt spiralled out of control. Foreign aid demanded structural adjustment of economies, which almost always benefitted the loaner. Whilst some international loans have been written off because of the negative effects they were having on the self-sufficiency of African states, their legacy remains. From the 1960s, newly independent African states became a focus point of Cold War politics, as potential allies/extensions of each side’s competition to expand their global sphere of influence. The USSR, Cuba and China wanted African countries to align with communism; the USA and its Cold War allies in Europe wanted African countries to align with capitalist democracy. When there was a civil war in a country, these powers often intervened to help the side that had political views that were close to their own. They often gave money and weapons to help this chosen side or even got involved in the war themselves. In many instances, the USSR supported one side and the USA supported another side, exaggerating, increasing and thereby prolonging the conflict. (See Congo under Mobutu, and the Angola Civil War.) Countries that had previously held colonies in Africa were often determined to do business with the same regions after they had become independent. They still wanted to import crops and minerals from African countries, and to export products to African countries. Many foreign businesses also wanted to run operations in African countries, where higher profits could be made due to lower labour costs and reduced overheads. While this did provide employment for locals, the foreign companies were the ones that benefitted the most. This made many African leaders wary of neo-colonialism. Some African leaders tried to encourage industrial and agricultural growth to rectify neo-colonial patterns. 83 Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA Source: https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/ violenceinafrica/wiki-round-2-causes-ofconflict/economic-underdevelopment-in-africa/ The prices paid for commodities on the world market went up and down, affecting the countries producing these commodities. Mono-economies - countries which relied on one specific crop or mineral resource to generate revenue, e.g. Congo and copper - were much more vulnerable when the international price went up or down. Colonial powers had only laid railways between production centres and harbours; this meant the majority of transport in Africa was by road, and this too made the countries very vulnerable to an increase in the oil price. In 1973 the worldwide oil crisis hit the oil-importing countries in Africa very hard, as the oil price rocketed from $2 per barrel to $12 per barrel. By 1980 it had gone up to $34 per barrel. African nations which had turned to foreign aid, were then forced into massive debts, except for Algeria, Libya, Nigeria and Tunisia, who all had oil as a natural resource. Tanzania was one of the countries that was hardest hit, as it relied on its tea crop to bring in the revenue to purchase oil. A ton of tea had been worth 60 barrels of oil, but then became worth 4½ barrels of oil. The situation was similar for coffee, another of its important exports. 2 The USSR attempted to set itself up as a supporter of the independence movements against the European colonial masters, thus supplying aid to the most ‘socialist’ of the independence movements. UNIT 4: AFRICA IN THE COLD WAR: CASE STUDY: ANGOLA  In Angola, the USSR supplied support to the socialist movement and flooded the region with AK-47 rifles and landmines. It used its ‘satellites’ Cuba and East Germany to provide military technicians. INTRODUCTION  Cuba had cultural ties with Angola because of the past trans-Atlantic slave trade, during which millions of Angolans were brought to work on Cuban plantations. Therefore, Cuba was eager to help Angola’s left-wing faction establish a state that was free of capitalist oppression. From the mid-1970s, the Cold War between the USA and the USSR turned into a ‘hot war’ in Angola. The challenges facing the newly independent Angola were exploited by the superpowers and their allies. This was done in the hopes that they (the superpowers) could expand their sphere of influence into that region. The civil war which broke out in Angola in the mid-1970s was soon fought along Cold War battle lines. In Angola, the Soviets (through their ally, Cuba) backed one Angolan nationalist group and the USA (through their ally, South Africa) backed their rival. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Angola-Pos.png  China, which was competing with the USSR for influence over Africa’s socialist movements, also became involved in some conflicts. China sent weapons via Tanzania to anti-imperialist movements in many African countries. UNIT 4.1: How Africa was drawn into the Cold War The USA wanted to limit the spread of communism in Africa, and therefore often supported factions that were anti-communist.  In Ethiopia, for example, the USA supplied weapons and support to Haile Selassie, to boost his rule against a communist revolutionary movement. Map of Africa showing Angola’s position on the continent.  The apartheid government feared that if its neighbouring countries became socialist or communist, then they would allow the African National Congress (ANC) and the South West African People’s Organisation (SWAPO) to establish military bases in these countries, from which the ANC and SWAPO could launch attacks on South African apartheid forces.  The apartheid government also wanted to maintain a good relationship with the USA and the UK, which were both powerful allies. The Cold War provided a convenient justification for the USA and the UK to support apartheid South Africa.  As is to be expected, a number of African states saw American and British support for the apartheid regime in South Africa as politically suspicious and were therefore wary of forming relationships with them. Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal The coastline of Angola, which opens out on the Benguela current 84 Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Kids,_Namibe,_Angola_cropped.jpg Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Luanda2.jpg TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA  In Angola, the USA sided with a capitalist-leaning nationalist group, sending weapons and military support via South Africa. Young girls hanging clothes in the Namib, Angola in 2012  The area that is now Angola was initially colonised by the Portuguese from 1575, when São Paulo de Loanda (Luanda) was established.  This brought them into conflict with the Ndongo Kingdom. The Portuguese called the colony Angola after the Ndongo word for ruler ‘ngola’. INTRODUCTION  Angola is a large country to the south of the DRC. Like the DRC, it is situated on the Atlantic Ocean, but it has a much longer coastline. To the south of Angola lies Namibia, and to the west is Zambia.  The colony’s boundaries were consolidated at the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference. Although the Portuguese only actively controlled the coastal areas, this conference also allocated Portugal a lot of inland territory.  Rubber, food crops and cattle were farmed on the plateau areas, and ivory was acquired through hunting. Mines and railways were also established. Angola’s exports brought Portugal a lot of wealth. Angola  After World War II the Angolans started to call for independence, but the fascist Portuguese government, under the leadership of António Salazar, ignored their demands. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Antonio_Salazar-1.jpg António Salazar in 1940, during WWII in which he supported the Nazis  A variety of political parties were formed from 1953 onwards, and soon three main liberation movements emerged. A canyon in the Huila Plateau Source: Henrique Augusto Dias de Carvalho. Album da expedição ao Muatianvua. Wikimedia Commons. The Kalandula Waterfalls on the Lucala River Source: Dguendel. Wikimedia Commons. Source: Paulo César Santos. Wikimedia Commons.  The capital city is Luanda, and it lies on the coast on Luanda Bay. A panorama of Luanda from 1884 85 Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA  There is a low-lying strip of land along the coast, but inland the landscape rises to a high plateau. 2 ANGOLA UNDER PORTUGUESE RULE UNIT 4.2: Case Study: Angola 2 THE THREE NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS IN THE ANGOLA CIVIL WAR THE MPLA Neto was born in Luanda, and studied medicine in Portugal, where he was also arrested for his political activism. The MPLA’s flag Roberto was descended from the Kongo monarchy and had spent many years in the Belgian Congo before this colony became independent. The FNLA’s flag Agostinho Neto, leader of the MPLA Source: E2m. Wikimedia Commons. Source: Mieremet, Rob / Anefo. Fotocollectie Anefo. Nationaal Archief, Den Haag, bestanddeelnummer 9278518. Wikimedia Commons.  In 1956 the Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (MPLA) (People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola) was formed.  This party had strong communist roots.  It received a lot of support from the Ambundu people, as well as the educated Angolans in Luanda.  In 1962 Agostinho Neto became the leader of the MPLA.  The USSR, Cuba, East Germany, Romania and Tanzania supported the MPLA. The liberation movement in South-West Africa, called the South West African People’s Organisation (SWAPO), also supported the MPLA. Holden Roberto, leader of the FNLA Source: E2m. Wikimedia Commons.  In 1954 Holden Roberto founded a political party.  Later, in 1962, this party became known as the Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola (FNLA) (National Front for the Liberation of Angola).  This organisation was initially based on Bakongo nationalism, but soon tried to become a national liberation organisation. However, it continued to focus on gaining control of northern Angola.  Roberto looked for support from Mobutu in the DRC/Zaire, which also led him to look for support from the West.  The DRC/Zaire, the USA, China, France and Israel supported the FNLA during the Angolan War of Independence. Source: Mieremet, Rob / Anefo. Fotocollectie Anefo. Nationaal Archief, Den Haag, bestanddeelnummer 9267765. Wikimedia Commons. THE FNLA Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal Jonas Savimbi, leader of UNITA 86 Savimbi was born in a rural area of central Angola, and later studied in Portugal. Initially he had links with China but he soon turned to the USA for aid. Source: Ceresnet. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil e:Flag_of_Unita.jpg. Source: E2m. Wikimedia Commons. TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA UNITA  Jonas Savimbi had tried to become part of the MPLA and the FNLA. The MPLA leadership team had not been interested in incorporating him, but Savimbi did spend some time as part of the leadership team of the FNLA. However, he became frustrated with its focus on northern Angola.  In 1966 Jonas Savimbi founded the União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola (UNITA) (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola).  This party had a lot of support in the south-east of Angola, particularly among the Ovimbundu people, which was the ethnic group that Savimbi came from.  Initially UNITA’s anti-colonial stance was very influenced by Chinese communism, although this changed and it later became very influenced by American capitalism.  China, the USA, Egypt and South Africa supported UNITA during the Angolan War of Independence. UNITA’s flag The fact that Angola was rich in minerals made the USA and USSR both desire influence over it. Therefore they were prepared to give a lot of support to one or more liberation movements in the hope that they were backing the future government of an independent Angola. Luanda Zambia Angola Zimbabwe Namibia Botswana Two pictures showing different aspects of Luanda in the early 1970s: a market and the city centre South Africa  In 1974 there was an army mutiny in Portugal called the Carnation Revolution, which overthrew Portugal’s fascist regime. After this, Portugal was ready to grant independence to all its colonies.  In January 1975 Roberto, Neto and Savimbi signed the Alvor Agreement with Portugal on behalf of their liberation movements, agreeing that they would end the Angolan War of Independence, hold Angolan general elections in October 1975, and that Angola would then become independent in November 1975. A map showing where Angola is in relation to South Africa, and the regional power bases of each of the three Angolan liberation organisations.  This news led to a sudden exodus of almost 300 000 Portuguese citizens from Angola. Many ended up south of the Kunene River in South-West Africa. Source: Hans Stieglitz. Wikimedia Commons. Source: Mieremet, Rob / Anefo. Wikimedia Commons. After the relationship between China and the USSR worsened, China denounced ‘Soviet imperialism’ in Angola, and did not want to support the same liberation movement that the USSR was supporting. So it supported the FNLA and, to a lesser extent, UNITA. The Kunene River, which forms part of Angola’s border with Namibia (previously South-West Africa). FNLA soldiers undergoing training at a base in Zaire (DRC) in 1973 87 Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA  The Cold War led to each of the three liberation movements being supported by either the USSR or the USA. The USSR supported the MPLA, because of its communist leanings, while the USA supported both the FNLA and UNITA as they seemed anti-communist. Democratic Republic of Congo Source: Àngel Sàez i Pedrero. Wikimedia Commons.  It was during the War of Independence that the three liberation movements grew in size and strength.  The independence war against the Portuguese continued through the 1960s and the first half of the 1970s. Many Portuguese resented being conscripted into this war, and it caused tension in Portugal. Source: Sérgio Telles Acervo. Museu do Senado. Wikimedia Commons.  The Angolan War of Independence was a liberation war fought against the Portuguese colonisers. It broke out in January 1961, beginning with a peasant boycott that was brutally suppressed by the Portuguese authorities. Unrest then started in Luanda and spread throughout the country. 2 DEMISE OF PORTUGUESE RULE IN ANGOLA UNIT 4.3: The Angolan War of Independence 2 UNIT 4.4: The outbreak of the Angolan Civil War China  By July 1975, before elections were held and independence was granted, conflict between the three liberation movements began to surface. Zaire  Each group was claiming the right to rule over an independent Angola. The Angolan Civil War was influenced by:  ethnic differences  ideological differences, and  support from different foreign powers. Cuba FNLA MPLA USSR (& its satellite states in Eastern Europe)  The first battle in this war was for control of Luanda, because this was Angola’s administrative and business centre.  At this point the FNLA had the most powerful military force of the three liberation movements. The FNLA also formed an alliance with UNITA, and this alliance received military support from South African troops, as well as financial support from the USA. Zaire and China also supported the FNLA. The international support received by each of the three liberation movements at the outbreak of the Angolan Civil War  The separate territory of Cabinda, which had been a Portuguese colony on the other side of Zaire (DRC), was now also considered part of Angola, and the MPLA took control of this territory too.  UNITA and the FNLA then retreated inland: UNITA to the south and the FNLA to the north.  There was a lot of resistance to this in Cabinda among people who wanted independence for this territory, but the MPLA was determined to keep control of this oil-rich region, which was its primary source of revenue.  Despite the outbreak of the civil war, the MPLA tried to run a socialist-type regime based in Luanda, but the civil service experienced major problems because of the sudden departure of the Portuguese who had staffed the various government departments. Work in the public sectors of agriculture, industry, trade and transport virtually stalled, leaving the country very close to total bankruptcy. Source: Luis Korda. Wikimedia Commons. TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA UNITA South Africa  However, Cuban forces arrived to support the MPLA, together with Soviet military equipment. This allowed the MPLA to take control of Luanda. The MPLA also controlled much of the coast. The countries that had supported the three different liberation movements during the Angolan War of Independence were similar to those that supported these movements during the Angolan Civil War, but there were some changes. For example, UNITA got support from China in the Angolan War of Independence but this dwindled soon after the outbreak of the Angolan Civil War because China did not want to support a movement that was accepting support from the South African apartheid government. USA Fidel Castro was leader of Cuba (1959–2008). He was a keen supporter of the MPLA. Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 88 Source: The World Factbook. US CIA. Wikimedia Commons.  After Angola became independent on 11 November 1975, this conflict came to be called the Angolan Civil War. The MPLA decided on a flag for Angola that was based on the MPLA flag. A half cog and a machete were added in a way that referred to the Soviet flag. The half cog represented the industrial workers and the machete represented the agricultural workers and the struggle for independence.  Later in 1976 the OAU recognised the MPLA as Angola’s government and Neto as its president. 1976 ONWARDS  In 1977 the MPLA killed thousands of people in a political purge and claimed to be a Marxist-Leninist Party. ANGOLA AS PART OF THE COLD WAR  The USA supported UNITA and the FNLA. UNITA also received support from South Africa, while the FNLA also received support from Zaire and China.  International involvement prolonged the Angolan Civil War and increased the loss of life. The anti-communist South African government also did not want the MPLA to control Angola. It feared that if the MPLA came to power in Angola, it might then help the left-wing African National Congress (ANC) take power in South Africa. In addition, at this time, South Africa controlled SouthWest Africa, and it did not want the South West African People’s Organisation (SWAPO) creating bases in Angola, and launching attacks on South African forces within South-West Africa from these bases.  In 1979 Neto died and José Eduardo dos Santos became the leader of the MPLA and the president of Angola. President José Eduardo dos Santos of Angola (1979–2017) Zaire supported the FNLA because of ethnic connections, and family connections between Mobutu and Roberto. Source: Smikect. Wikimedia Commons. Source: U.S. National Archives. Wikimedia Commons. An East Germany military advisor in Angola in 1983 A purge is when unwanted members are expelled from a political party (often so that the dominant faction can stay in control). SADF soldiers training in 1982 Marxist-Leninists are traditional communists who view a temporary suspension of democracy as a necessary step towards a class-free society. China supported the FNLA for a while as it was competing with the USSR for influence in Africa. They also believe that Western capitalists must be prevented from controlling developing economies. Ultimately they aim to make all countries into communist states.  In the early 1980s the South African Defence Force (SADF) started to enter Angola again to attack SWAPO bases and support UNITA.  The UN condemned South Africa’s presence in Angola.  Cuba then increased its troops in Angola, and the USSR increased the financial aid that it was giving to the MPLA government.  At the end of 1975 UNITA and the FNLA established their own coalition government in the city of Huambo in the centre of Angola.  The USA had decreased its involvement during Ford’s presidency, and this had remained the situation under Carter’s presidency. However, under Reagan’s presidency the USA decided to once more help UNITA against the MPLA government.  But early in 1976, MPLA attacks significantly weakened the FNLA. Soon the MPLA was just fighting UNITA for control over Angola.  The USA stopped supporting UNITA between 1976 and 1985, because it did not want to be seen as an ally of apartheid South Africa.  UNITA then became a guerrilla force fighting against the MPLA government.  In the mid-1980s the CIA helped to develop UNITA’s base at Jamba. This camouflaged base had both radar and anti-aircraft weapons, as well as a runway so that the USA could deliver supplies directly to UNITA.  In 1976 the MPLA also attacked Huambo, and UNITA was forced to retreat. It established its new base in Jamba, in the extreme south-east corner of Angola.  The USA’s involvement strengthened UNITA considerably, and so in 1987 the MPLA started peace negotiations with the UNITA. 89 Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA These communist states wanted to spread communism worldwide. The USA wanted to limit the spread of communism, so did not want the MPLA to be in control of Angola. Source: Fabio Rodrigues Pozzebom/Agência Brasil  The MPLA was supported by the USSR and its satellite states in Eastern Europe, as well as by Cuba. 2 2 The impact on regional stability UNIT 4.5: The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale  After Angola became independent in 1975 Southern Africa became less stable. FAPLA: UNITA AND THE SADF Zaire and Zambia, and caused instability in these countries.  Angola’s independence also encouraged  After independence, even though there was a civil war going on, the MPLA was generally seen as the government of Angola. Therefore FAPLA was effectively Angola’s national army.  However, UNITA was still basically in control of the south-east of Angola. UNITA was able to regularly call on the South African Defence Force (SADF) for assistance because the SADF was based close by, in the Caprivi Strip of Namibia. Angolan refugees in Zaire (DRC)  In September 1987 FAPLA entered the south-eastern region of Angola to finally oust UNITA. Cold War  The South African Defence Force (SADF) went to UNITA’s aid, because it wanted UNITA to stay in control of southern Angola. Hot War TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA Soviet money Cuban troops MPLA UNITA South African troops  The SADF pushed the FAPLA forces back to the town of Cuito Cuanavale in October 1987, and laid siege to the town. A major battle erupted, which was called the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. American money Source: https://monthlyreview.org/2013/04/01/themilitary-defeat-of-the-south-africans-in-angola/ Black liberation movements against white domination in South Africa, and what was then South-West Africa (Namibia) and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).  The MPLA’s armed wing was called the Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola (FAPLA) (People’s Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola). Source: Rob Mieremet. Dutch National Archives, ANEFO. Wikimedia Commons.  Refugees from the civil war poured into In this regional map of Angola, Cuito Cuanavale is marked by a star. Notice its close proximity to the border of Namibia, where the SADF had a strong military presence.  It was clear that FAPLA would not be able to hold the town on its own, so the MPLA asked for the assistance of the Cuban army (of which 25% was in Angola at this time).  The Cubans arrived with Russian-made MiG fighter jets, and attacked the SADF forces from the air.  The SADF attacked the town six times between January and March 1988, and then laid siege to it using heavy artillery. A visual summary of the Angolan Civil War around 1986, when it was a key Cold-War battlefield. Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 90  One third of the town’s inhabitants died either from these bombardments or starvation.  In March 1988 the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale ended, although conflict continued in other parts of south-eastern Angola, particularly around Calueque Dam near the border with South-West Africa.  In 1994 the MPLA government and UNITA signed the Lusaka Protocol, whereby UNITA would disarm and be integrated into the army and police force.  The peace negotiations that the MPLA government had begun with the USA came to include both Cuba (during the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale) and South Africa (after the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale).  In 1996 MPLA and UNITA agreed to form a unity government.  But in 1997 this arrangement broke down. The unity government was established but Savimbi refused a post. In addition, few UNITA troops actually joined the national army.  In August a ceasefire was declared.  In December 1988 the New York Accords ended foreign involvement in the Angolan Civil War, and granted independence to Namibia (South-West Africa).  In 1998 the war resumed, and in 1999 the MPLA took control of Jamba.  Both sides claimed victory in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.  It was only in 2002, when Savimbi was killed in the war, that UNITA agreed to a ceasefire.  In June 1989 the MPLA government and UNITA again agreed to a ceasefire, but Dos Santos wanted Savimbi to leave Angola temporarily and Savimbi did not want to leave. Therefore conflict between the MPLA government and UNITA resumed.  The MPLA government and UNITA then signed the Luena Memorandum to the Lusaka Protocol, which ended the Angolan Civil War.  UNITA then disarmed and became an opposition political party (like the FNLA had). UNIT 4.6: Changing international relationships after 1989, and the Luena Memorandum  The Angolan Civil War had ended.  General elections were held in September 1992 with 400 UN observers present. At this point the MPLA stopped being a MarxistLeninist organisation, although it remained left-wing. In order to get economic assistance in a world now dominated by a neo-liberal economic agenda, it committed to restructuring its economy. In this photograph, a rat is shown being used to detect unexploded landmines in Angola. This photograph was taken in 2016. So many landmines were scattered during the war that landmine clearing has had to continue for decades since the end of the war.  The UN declared the election results ‘generally free and fair’.  However, Savimbi declared that the elections had been rigged. A Russian anti-tank blast mine, similar to what would have been used during the Angola civil war  Many international humanitarian organisations are laboriously clearing the known minefields, but tragedy still strikes the innocent.  After this accusation the member of the MPLA killed UNITA supporters in the Halloween Massacre.  Then the civil war resumed between the MPLA and UNITA.  Luanda still contains many destitute people who fled there from the rural areas during the civil war.  In 1993 the USA acknowledged the MPLA government, and stopped supporting UNITA.  But at present Angola is benefitting from the Cabinda oilfields, as well as its oilfields south of the Congo River mouth. 91 Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA  In an attempt to make peace, the MPLA and UNITA signed the Bicesse Accords in May 1991, agreeing to multi-party elections and the unification of their armed forces. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:04_Detecting_Landmines_in_Angola.jpg  Therefore the USA stopped supporting UNITA. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antitank_mine#/media/File:TM-46_AP-mine.JPEG  Many people have died or been injured by landmines, which were scattered across the countryside during the civil war.  The Cold War ended in 1989, as the troubled USSR turned its attention inwards.  The USSR stopped supporting the MPLA. 2  However, the civil war continued, with about 1 000 people dying each day in late 1993, according to an estimate from the UN. 2 TIMELINE OF KEY EVENTS IN ANGOLA (1956 – 2002) 1956 10 December The MPLA is established. 1961 January The Angolan War of Independence begins. March Roberto’s organisation becomes the FNLA. December Neto becomes the leader of the MPLA. 1962 1966 1974 1980 The government of Portugal is overthrown in a coup during the Carnation Revolution. November Conflict breaks out between the three Angolan liberation movements. The UN condemns South Africa’s presence in Angola. 1982 Cuba sends more troops to help MPLA government forces. 1984 The USSR gives the MPLA government aid worth 2 billion US dollars. 1986 The Alvor Agreement is signed. 1988 The Angolan War of Independence ends. A coalition government is established, and the fighting between the MPLA, FNLA and UNITA stops briefly. The USA decides to resume aid to UNITA. Cuba sends more troops to help MPLA government forces. 1985 Conflict breaks out between the MPLA and FLEC as the MPLA occupies Cabinda. 15 January South African forces start to enter Angola again. June July Savimbi establishes UNITA. 25 April May The MPLA government attacks UNITA bases along the Benguela Railway in the south. January Savimbi visits Reagan in the USA. Later Cuba sends more troops to help MPLA government forces. 28 January Cuba joins the MPLA-USA peace negotiations. 23 March The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale ends. 3 May South Africa joins the MPLA-USA-Cuba peace negotiations. 8 August The MPLA government and UNITA agree to a ceasefire. 22 December The New York Accords between Angola (MPLA), Cuba and South Africa end foreign involvement in the Angolan Civil War. June The MPLA government and UNITA agree to another ceasefire at a meeting in Zaire (DRC). 24 August UNITA declares the ceasefire over and the conflict resumes. 21 March Namibia becomes independent. Later in January Fighting between the MPLA, FNLA and UNITA begins in Luanda. The MPLA takes control of Luanda. The FNLA retreats to the north and UNITA retreats to the south. March–July 1975 July 1989 Zairian forces arrive and help the FNLA consolidate their control of northern Angola. The FNLA and Zairian forces move to the edge of Luanda and threaten the MPLA’s control of the city, but the MPLA manages to keep control of Luanda. 1990 South African troops move to the Angolan border. 1992 August–October Cuban military trainers set up training camps for MPLA troops. South Africa sends weapons to the FNLA and UNITA. TOPIC 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA The FNLA and UNITA form an alliance. South African troops move into Angola to help the FNLA-UNITA alliance take control of Luanda. 1993 Cuban troops help the MPLA keep control of Luanda. 1994 October China stops supporting the FNLA. 11 November Neto of the MPLA declares the People’s Republic of Angola independent. The MPLA starts to govern from Luanda. General elections are held and the MPLA wins. The UN considers the results valid but UNITA rejects the elections as rigged and returns to fighting. Oct–Nov Halloween Massacre May The USA acknowledges the MPLA government. August UNITA takes control of 70% of the country. 31 October The MPLA government and UNITA sign the Lusaka Protocol, whereby UNITA would disarm and be integrated into the army and police force. The MPLA government and UNITA agree to co-operate as a unity government, and to join their forces into a national army. 1997 April The unity government is established but Savimbi refuses a post. 1998 December The USA withdraws aid to the FNLA and UNITA. The conflict between the Angolan government (MPLA) and UNITA resumes. The MPLA defeats the FNLA in the north, and from this point the FNLA is no longer a significant military force in the Angolan Civil War. 1999 March UN peacekeepers leave Angola. The MPLA takes control of Huambo. 22 February Savimbi is killed by government (MPLA) troops. UNITA moves its headquarters to Jamba. 13 March The Angolan government (MPLA) stops fighting UNITA and presents a peace plan to UNITA. 4 April The Angolan government (MPLA) and UNITA sign the Luena Memorandum to the Lusaka Protocol, which ends the Angolan Civil War. 23 November UNITA and the FNLA form a rival coalition government in Huambo. Early 2002 South Africa withdraws its forces from Angola. 1979 UN office established to observe elections. September 1996 The conflict is now considered the Angolan Civil War. 1976 March 1 December Angola under the MPLA becomes a member of the UN. 21 September Dos Santo becomes leader of the MPLA and president of Angola. Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 92