Grade 12 History Study Guide PDF

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Via Afrika History Grade 12 Teacher’s Guide Education is the key to everything. Grade 12 Study Guide — Thobeka Dlali, Teacher Sue Grové, C.G. Weldon, J. Manenzhe, B.A. Proctor, P.C.J. Vale Via Afrika understands, values and supports your role as a teacher. You have the most important job in education, and we Via Afrika History realise that your responsibilities involve far more than just teaching. We have done our utmost to save you time and make your life easier, and we are very proud to be able to help you teach this subject successfully. Here are just some of the things we have done to assist you in this brand-new course: 1. The series was written to be aligned with CAPS. See pages 7 to 13 to see how CAPS requirements are met. 2. A possible work schedule has been included. See pages 4 and 5 to see how much time this could save you. 3. Each topic starts with an overview of what is taught, and the resources you need. See pages 26 and 27 to find out how this will help with your planning. 4. There is advice on pace-setting to assist you in completing all the work for the year on time. Pages 23 and 24 shows you how this is done. 5. Advice on how to introduce concepts and scaffold learning is given for every topic. See pages 27 and 28 for an example. 6. All the answers have been given to save you time doing the exercises yourself. See pages 35 and 36 for an example. 7. Also included is a CD filled with resources to assist you in your teaching and assessment. See the inside front cover. The accompanying Learner’s Book is written in accessible language and contains all the content your learners need to master. The exciting design and layout will keep their interest and make teaching a pleasure for you. We would love to hear your feedback. Why not tell us how it’s going by emailing us at [email protected]? Alternatively, visit our teacher forum at www.viaafrika.com. Language: English www.viaafrika.com  Sue Grové Study Guide Via Afrika History Grade 12 ISBN: 978-1-41546-325-3 Contents Introduction.......................................................................................................... 1 Topic 1: The Cold War............................................................................................ 2 Unit 1: What were the origins of the Cold War?....................................................... 3 The extension of the Cold War – Case study 1: China.............................................. 7 The extension of the Cold War – Case study 2: Vietnam......................................... 13 Summary and questions.................................................................................... 19 Topic 2: Independent Africa................................................................................ 23 Unit 1: The ideas that influenced independent African states............................... 24 Case study 1: Congo and Tanzania: A comparative case study............................... 26 Unit 2: The impact of internal and external factors on Africa................................. 34 Unit 3: Africa in the Cold War...............................................................................35 Case study 2: Angola...........................................................................................37 Summary and questions....................................................................................45 Topic 3: Civil society protests: 1950s to 1970s..................................................... 49 Unit 1: Overview of civil society protests...............................................................50 Case study 1: The US Civil Rights Movement........................................................ 60 Case study 2: The Black Power Movement........................................................... 67 Summary and questions.................................................................................... 71 Topic 4: Civil resistance in South Africa 1970s to 1980..........................................75 Unit 1: South Africa in the 1970s and 1980s......................................................... 76 Unit 2: Challenge of Black Consciousness to the apartheid state.......................... 80 Unit 3: The crisis of apartheid in the 1980s.......................................................... 83 Summary and questions................................................................................... 94 Topic 5: Democracy in South Africa and remembering the past............................. 99 Unit 1: Negotiated settlement and Government of National Unity........................100 Unit 2: How has South Africa chosen to remember the past?................................113 Summary and questions.................................................................................. 122 Topic 6: The end of the Cold War and a new world order...................................... 129 Unit 1: Events leading to the end of the Cold War................................................ 130 Unit 2: The End of the Cold War – The events of 1989.......................................... 133 Unit 3: A new world order.................................................................................. 140 Summary and questions.................................................................................. 149 Suggested answers........................................................................................... 155 Examination hints 1 The underpinning context of history in Grade 12 is the politics of the Cold War. This is reflected in the multiple perspectives on the same events that occurred throughout the Cold War (e.g. multiple perspectives on the Cuban Missile Crisis). Keep this in mind when interpreting sources. 2 Always refer to the attribution of every source and try to again as much information as you can about the origins of the source, its purpose, when it was made or written. 3 Look for clues in all sources and place it in its correct historical context. If there is a date, use it to assist you to place it in context. 4 Use the glossary and textboxes in the Learner’s Book to increase your understanding and vocabulary. Use historical terms and concepts confidently and in the correct context. 5 Try to identify leaders, symbols, clues, etc. and refer to these when you interpret sources. Ensure that you are able to link factions to the relevant leaders and their ideologies that shaped many Cold War conflicts (e.g. the Angolan Civil War). 6 Never assume the examiner, teacher or marker knows what you mean – state your point of view clearly. 7 Link sections to past knowledge. Your knowledge on the Cold War period and colonialism will be useful to interpret questions in this section. 8 Try to make the content knowledge your own and avoid merely memorising these summaries or sections from the Learner’s Book. Use your own words and make simple summaries to help you with your memorisation. 9 The Learner’s Book has many examples of types of questions to practise. By doing this regularly and consolidating daily, you will be successful.  Introduction Who are you? Why are you here? Where are you going? How will you get there? These are some of the questions that History can help you to answer. From studying the past, we can learn how to live in the present. We can see what mistakes were made and we can avoid repeating them in the future. By studying these mistakes made in the past, as well as many correct and courageous decisions, we can understand why our world is like it is today. History is the study of people: famous people, notorious people and ordinary people, and how their decisions and actions shaped the future. Studying these people can inspire us to take a more active role in shaping our world and striving to achieve our individual potential. History is an exciting and dynamic subject. Studying History can help you to understand and speak intelligently about what is happening in the world. History is full of details, such as events, dates and names of people and places. However, when you study History, don’t worry about getting overwhelmed by all the details. Try to see the importance of the bigger picture. To do well in History, here are some strategies that you can use: Listen carefully in class. Ask your teacher questions until you understand what is going on. Go over the work you did in class that day. Do your own extra research on the topic you are studying. Never leave your studying to the day before a test or exam. Make your own mind-maps and summaries. Never study without talking to yourself and giving yourself short tests. In Grade 12 the key question you must investigate and answer is: What is the nature of the post-Second World War world? © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 1  Topic 1 The Cold War Overview In this topic you will revise: The origins of the Cold War at the end of World War II, the creation of spheres of influence by the two superpowers, containment vs. brinkmanship in Europe and the Caribbean (Cuba). The extension of the Cold War: Case studies: China and Vietnam. Long-term and immediate causes UNIT 1 Page 3 Nature of the Cold War What were the origins Installation of Soviet friendly governments in of the Cold War ? satellite states. USA’s policy of containment: Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan Berlin Crises 1948 – 1961 Opposing Military alliances: NATO and Warsaw Pact. Containment and brinkmanship: the Cuban crisis. TOPIC 1 Page 2–22 The Cold War The events leading to the establishment of Communist China in 1949 (non-examinable background information) CASE STUDY 1 Page 7 The Cultural Revolution Chinese relations with the USSR and the USA from The extension of the 1949 to 1973 Cold War – CASE China’s foreign relations with her neighbouring STUDY 1: China states China’s world power status by the time of Mao’s death Improved relations between China and the USA after 1970 The impact of economic liberalisation on foreign relations since Mao’s death. CASE STUDY 2 Page 13 Background to the struggle against the colonial The extension of the powers. Cold War – CASE Stages of the war. STUDY 2: Vietnam How is the Vietnam War remembered today? 2 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Unit X Topic 1 XX What were the origins of the Cold War? Key question: Why did a Cold War develop at the end of World War II and why was it called the Cold War? Definition of the concept COLD WAR What was it? It is a state of military rivalry and political tension. What methods were used? Espionage, propaganda, backing up allies in conflicts, e.g. the Middle East, Europe, the Far East, Africa, etc. Who was primarily involved? The two superpowers, the USA and the USSR, and their respective allies. When did it occur? 1945 to 1989 – accepted as the official dates but some consider the start to be 1917 when the Russian Revolution led to the establishment of the Soviet state and that it ended when the Soviet Union collapsed and Germany was reunited. Where did it happen? It began in Europe and spread to other parts of the world. Why did it happen? There were many long-term and short-term causes: Causes of the Cold War World War II itself – the rift widened between the USA and the USSR. Stalin encroached on Eastern Europe during the last months of the war and the Red Army reached Berlin first. Poland was occupied by the USSR and Germany was split into four zones of occupation as the Allies could not reach consensus. Nuclear weapons deepened the suspicion and rivalry. It led to an arms race and development of deadly weapons of destruction. Two spheres of influence were established in Europe as Communist regimes were established in the occupied states – these were termed satellite states. Rival ideologies (Communism vs. Capitalism) led to increased suspicion. Leadership rivalry: Truman was a hardliner who did not want to concede to Stalin and despised Communism. How did it happen? It was not a ‘hot’ conflict between the superpowers or direct, open, conventional warfare, but it operated through proxy wars and liberation struggles where vulnerable states were manipulated to further ideologies and to extend the sphere of influence of the two superpowers. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 3  Unit XX 1 What was Truman’s policy of containment? It was Truman’s policy after 1946 to use specific strategies to prevent the spread of Communism. Re-cap the decisions made It consisted of two components: at Potsdam and Yalta with the Truman Doctrine regard to Berlin and make the Marshall Plan (or European Recovery Plan). sure you understand the threat of open hostility be- tween the two superpowers. The Truman Doctrine Crisis in Greece 1946 European Recovery Plan (Marshall Plan) In March 1947 Truman In June 1947 Marshall announced the European announced that Recovery Plan to contain Communism in Europe. the US would assist Aid was offered to any European state for Greece against the industrial and economic recovery. Communists. This would eradicate poverty and Military and economic distress financial aid = = would prevent the spread of change in US foreign Communism. policy. The USSR prevented the satellite states from accepting Marshall aid and formed the Communist Information Bureau or COMINFORM to counter the US policy of containment. Revise the map of Berlin and the division of Germany in the LB before studying this The Berlin Crises 1948–1961 section. 1948 currency Stalin wanted the West to 1946 the three reform was western zones in withdraw from West Berlin introduced in West and hand over their zones Berlin united to Germany to uplift form West Berlin. to the USSR. the economy. The West did not want to risk outright Stalin blockaded Currency reform in Berlin led to an war with the USSR the access routes improvement of the economy and and introduced an to West Berlin. defectors left for West Berlin. airlift. In August 1949 Stalin lifted the For 11 months Western aircraft airlifted essential food, blockade and reopened the medical and fuel supplies to West Berlin. routes. 4 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Unit 1 West Germany became known as the German Federal Republic while East Germany became known as the German Democratic Republic. Revolts crushed by authorities. Standard of living low in Leader of GDR, Walter Ulbricht, closed the GDR: led to migration to border between East and West Berlin in West Berlin and strikes. August 1961 and soldiers erected a wall, guard towers and armed guards to stop defectors. The Berlin Wall After the Berlin Crises, two powerful military alliances were formed that effectively divided Europe into two armed camps by 1955: NATO was formed in 1949 by After West Germany joined 12 countries that agreed to unite NATO in 1955, the USSR and the armed forces of the Allies its allies formed a second in case of a nuclear threat or powerful military block called attack from the East. the Warsaw Pact. SIGNIFICANCE: The spheres were entrenched into two defence pacts and an arms race began to build between the superpowers. Containment and brinkmanship: The Cuban Crisis Another tactic developed during the Cold War was brinkmanship. This is the practice of pushing dangerous events to the edge (or brink) of disaster in order to gain an advantage. Posturing and discrediting the opponent was used to portray the enemy in a negative light. These strategies were applied during the events in Cuba that led to the extension of the Cold War beyond Europe. Background to the Crisis Until 1959 US commercial farmers and businessmen had interests in Cuba. It was a poor country, dependent on US sugar imports. The US turned a blind eye to the brutality of the Cuban dictator, Batista. In 1959, Castro led a revolution and overthrew Batista’s regime. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 5  Unit XX 1 Castro announced plans to nationalise land in Cuba and indicated that he needed loans from the USA. The US refused to lend money to Castro as he was viewed to be Marxist. The US threatened to cut sugar imports from Cuba. Cuba turned to the USSR and signed a trade agreement with Russia. In retaliation to US trade cuts, Cuba nationalised all American-owned companies. The CIA assisted a group of exiles with planning a counter- revolution against Castro’s government. This invasion was a disaster and an embarrassment for Kennedy’s administration. Castro asked for weapons from the USSR to defend itself against the USA and he declared himself a Marxist. The US viewed Cuba as another Soviet satellite state. In June 1962, Cuba received shipments of arms and MIG-21 fighter jets from the USSR. Medium range missiles and bombers arrived. The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 On 14 October 1962, an American spy plane detected a nuclear missile base on the island. Kennedy set up a special committee to advise him on the way forward. On 22 October, Kennedy announced a blockade of the island, which placed the island under quarantine until the missile sites were removed. Khrushchev defended Soviet actions as an act of self-defence on Cuba’s side due to the role of the USA in the Bay of Pigs disaster. Khrushchev accused the US of piracy and did not turn the warships around that were en route to Cuba. Letters were exchanged between the two leaders and the world waited anxiously to see what would happen. Khrushchev offered to dismantle the Soviet nuclear missile bases in Cuba in return for the dismantling of US missile bases in Turkey. The crisis was averted by means of diplomacy. Once the crisis was averted there was a thaw in the Cold War: a hotline telephone link was set up between Moscow and Washington as a direct line of contact. In August 1963 a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed to end nuclear testing above ground. In 1968 a Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was signed, which aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons to countries that did not have them. 6 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Case Study 1 The extension of the Cold War – CASE STUDY 1: China Key question: How did China rise as a world power after 1949? In this case study you will revise the following: NB: Check if you The events leading to the establishment of Communist China in must study China or Vietnam for 1949 (non-examinable background information) your exam! The Cultural Revolution Chinese relations with the USSR and the USA from 1949 to 1973 China’s foreign relations with her neighbouring states China’s world power status by the time of Mao’s death Improved relations between China and the USA after 1970 The impact of economic liberalisation on foreign relations since Mao’s death. The establishment of Communist China in 1949 (Background information only) Britain gained control of Hong Kong after the defeat of the Chinese imperial army in 1842. The Chinese Emperor had to concede to increased control of trade by the West through five treaty ports. Feudal warlords rose in revolt as the power of the emperor declined and China was subjected to decades of conflict. European powers and Japan took advantage of the instability e.g. France drove out the Chinese and colonised Vietnam, Russia occupied land in the north and Japan colonised Korea and annexed Taiwan. Change began to occur in the treaty ports as a new generation of Chinese leaders who had been educated in the West assumed control, but the rural areas were still under strict imperial control. Between 1910 and 1912, Chinese nationalists rose up and declared their independence from the empire. A provisional government was set up under Sun Yat Sen in 1912, but it did not last long. China was engulfed in a civil war, which was exploited by Russian Communists who wished to expand their ideology. Although the Chinese Communists were part of the Nationalist alliance, this partnership collapsed and after 1927 the Communists were targeted by the troops of Chiang Kai-Shek (he had replaced Sun Yat Sen). The Communists withdrew to the countryside and it became a party focussed on the needs of rural peasants rather than industrial workers. The Nationalists got aid from the West while the Communists turned to the USSR. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 7  Case study Unit XX 1 The Communists undertook the Long March in 1934 and Mao became the undisputed leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Matters became more complicated for the Nationalists when the Japanese attacked Chiang Kai-Shek’s armies in 1936 and occupied Manchuria. After Japan’s defeat in 1945, a civil war between the Nationalists and the Communists intensified. With the aid of Soviet support and support in the rural areas, the Communist forces were victorious. The Nationalists (Guomindang) fled to Taiwan and set up a democratic, capitalistic state. Mainland China became the People’s Republic of China in 1949, under the leadership of Mao Zedong. The Cultural Revolution GOVERNMENT LAND INDUSTRY Authoritarian Most of the richer CCP nationalised Executed up peasants could keep heavy industry and to 1 million their land. foreign firms warlords. Land taken from Light industry warlords was divided could be privately amongst the landless owned. peasants. Led to rapid growth. The Great Leap Forward WHY? Mao wanted to transform Chinese society to overtake capitalist countries and become one of the richest and most powerful countries in the world. HOW? The CCP forced individual farmers into Agricultural Cooperatives or rural communes where all land was communally owned and workers were paid according to the amount of work they did. About 5 000 households were supposed to start large-scale farms and backyard factories. WHAT happened? Many local party officials became corrupt and authoritarian. Initially the Chinese supported the Great Leap Forward enthusiastically. Government propaganda projected data that showed the programme to be successful. 8 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Case study Unit XX 1 CONSEQUENCES: = A spectacular failure: WHY? Poor planning and poor support for farmers. Corrupt local officials. Farmers were taxed on production, therefore production soon fell. Backyard factories consumed large amounts of raw materials and produced inferior goods. This was exacerbated by bad weather and failed harvests in 1961. FAMINE: 20-30 million Chinese people died. Mao allowed the moderates in the CCP to return to earlier policies to restart the economy. Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution IN MID-1960S ECONOMY BEGAN TO RECOVER BUT CLASS DIVISIONS BEGAN TO RE-APPEAR. MAO WANTED TO RE-ASSERT HIS AUTHORITY. MAY 1966 MAO LAUNCHED MASSIVE CULTURAL RENEWAL MOVEMENT. HE MOBILISED THE YOUTH AND STUDENTS TO FORM THE RED GUARD TO ATTACK TEACHERS. CAMPAIGN SLOGANS ATTACKED OLD IDEAS, TRADITIONAL CULTURE, CUSTOMS AND HABITS. RED GUARDS MOVED INTO SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, FACTORIES AND FARMING COMMUNES IN AN ORGY OF VIOLENCE. MAO PURGED THE CCP OF RIVALS: THOUSANDS TORTURED AND KILLED. MAO USED THE RED GUARDS TO SET UP A REIGN OF TERROR, BUT BY THE LATE 1960s THE CULTURE OF VIOLENCE HAD SPUN OUT OF CONTROL. BY 1970 MAO USED THE ARMY TO BRING THE RED GUARDS UNDER CONTROL. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 9  Case study Unit XX 1 China’s Foreign Policy Mao wanted to maintain a close relationship with Stalin and the COMINTERN. Stalin mistrusted Mao’s ambitions within the COMINTERN and tried to USSR limit his power. National interests dominated relations. Feb 1950 USSR and China signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship: China gained railway interests in northern China and joint industrial projects began. When the USSR assisted North Korea with its invasion of South Korea in 1950, the USA used the UN to send in troops to launch a counter- attack. USA Mao sent over a million troops to fight in Korea to gain prestige. He seized grain and produce from Chinese farmers to feed the soldiers. About 900 000 Chinese troops died and there was much suffering. Mao blamed the US. He therefore supported Ho Chi Minh against the US in the Vietnam War. The Sino-Soviet split Khrushchev applied Mao’s initial economic policies deStalinisation policies and led to classes and inequality. To denounced Stalin’s oppression. counter this he reverted to true He allowed managers to use Marxism, collective and state capitalist methods to generate ownership (known as Maoism) growth. He allowed more and mobilised the peasantry. freedom of thought and debate. This threatened Communism in China according to Mao. Ideological differences led to further alienation between Khrushchev and Mao. Serious territorial conflicts in Asia added to the tension e.g. Vietnam, Korea, Cambodia. Mao threatened the leadership of the USSR in the COMINTERN. Khrushchev thought he could control Mao. The USSR sent advisors to China to help develop an atom bomb. In 1959, the USSR broke off ties and withdrew the advisors and technicians. In 1964, China developed its own atom bomb. The USSR began to form alliances against China. The USSR and China did support Cuba in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. 10 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Case study Unit XX 1 China’s relations with neighbours China’s foreign relations in Asia TIBET VIETNAM INDIA TAIWAN 1950 – Red Army 1945 – Mao put India recognised In 1949 Chiang’s occupied Tibet. pressure on the the People’s nationalists fled Forced the Dalai revolutionary Republic of China to Taiwan and set Lama to sign a leader Ho Chi in 1949 up the Republic of treaty recognising Minh to apply BUT China was not China. Chinese control. Maoism in North happy with the A state of war 1959 – uprising Vietnam. border drawn up existed between against Chinese In the 1960s by Britain between the two China’s rule = cruelly China remained the two countries. until 1972. suppressed. a close ally of the In 1962 China The USA backed Tibet was Communists in attacked India as a Taiwan and incorporated into the war. Tensions show of strength. protected the China. increased in In 2004 China island during the More than 6 000 the 1970s when recognised Korean War. monasteries were China seized oil Indian rule over In 1971 Mao destroyed and resources in the Sikkim while persuaded the thousands of Gulf of Tonkin and India recognised UN to make Red monks and nuns when Vietnam Chinese control of China one of the were killed. helped overthrow Tibet. permanent five China’s ally, the on the Security Khmer Rouge, in Council. Cambodia. Was China a Superpower when Mao Zedong died in 1976? TWO POINTS OF VIEW: YES NO Exceptionally large state. The economic destruction and Massive population. cultural repression did not make it a Large in terms of land. superpower. Has great military, political, economic Its arsenal of weapons was not as strong and cultural influence. as that of the USA or the USSR. Why China tried to improve relations with the USA after 1970 1 To counter Soviet political and military pressure in Asia. 2 To increase its stature as a leading state in world affairs. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 11  Case study Unit XX 1 Evidence of improved relations: UN dropped her support for Taiwan as a member of the Security Council. 1972: President Nixon visited China: US technical staff and writers visited China Some Western literature was allowed into China, but was not widely distributed. Impact of China’s economic liberalisation since Mao’s death What is economic liberalisation? In this context it would refer to the changes introduced after Mao’s death that showed a deviation from true Communist principles. Impact within China: introduced market socialism many of the state controlled farms were divided into individual family units again private citizens were encouraged to establish light consumer industries encouraged an open door policy with the West to foster trade abolished central planning and price controls privatised inefficient state-owned enterprises. Results: A new prosperous middle class developed in the cities, while richer peasant farmers arose in the rural areas. China’s economy has grown phenomenally. These new policies have also caused hardship for many: poorer farmers have been forced off the land by richer farmers as the land has been consolidated. Unemployment has grown in the cities due to the migration from rural to urban areas. Food prices have increased. China is still not democratic, and the authorities have dealt harshly with pro- democratic marches. Impact on rest of world West: Investment = friendly policies and low wages to Chinese workers attract investment to China. Capital and technology have led to massive growth and productivity in China, making the West wary. Africa: China has expanded her interests in Africa and the BRICS countries. It is interested in the countless raw materials in Africa as well as agricultural products. China provides a huge market for commodities and raw materials. This has often led to agreements with brutal dictators. Developing economies: China has invested in many developing economies and has extended the infrastructure and markets there. It has also formed the China–Africa Forum to influence African leaders. 12 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Case Study 2 The extension of the Cold War – CASE STUDY 2: Vietnam Key question: How was a small country like Vietnam able to win the war against the USA? (1945 to 1975) In this case study you will revise the following: NB: Check if you must study China Background to the struggle against the colonial powers. or Vietnam for Stages of the war. your exam! How is the Vietnam War remembered today? Background: Vietnam’s struggle against the colonial powers China ruled the area that became known as Vietnam for thousands of years. In the 10th century Vietnam gained independence that lasted until the French colonised the region after 1858. French missionaries helped to introduce French language, education, customs and religion. By 1864 a colony was established in the south called Cochinchina. China became involved in the region and it led to the Sino-French War 1864–1885. China had to withdraw and the French established three regions of control in Vietnam. The control of the French was extended when it also occupied Laos and Cambodia. French colonial rule was politically repressive and economically exploitative. The French claimed to modernise Vietnam with a network of infrastructure, but they also introduced forced labour, heavy taxes and a centralised government. Life for the Vietnamese peasants was hard. Vietnamese resistance was initially passive in nature, but as nationalism grew, resistance grew too. After World War I, Ho Chi Minh began coordinating the resistance: went to live in Paris in the 1920s where he became active in the French Communist Party. visited Moscow in 1924 and became convinced that a Communist inspired revolution was needed in Vietnam to shake off the yoke of colonialism. realised that nationalism would awaken an anti-colonial revolt. he operated from a base in China close to the border of Vietnam (faced arrest in his own country). organised Vietnamese nationalist exiles = Vietnam Revolutionary League. Japan occupied Vietnam during World War II and the natural resources were used to fuel the Japanese war effort. He returned to Vietnam (1941) → set up Viet Minh (Vietnam Independence League). He formed an alliance with the US to fight the Japanese in the Vietnam jungle. When Japan was defeated in 1945, the occupied territories were returned to France as French colonies. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 13  Case study Unit XX 2 Ho Chi Minh’s guerrilla fighters occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government and he declared himself president of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam → The US refused to recognise his state. After World War II: In September 1945 about 1 400 French soldiers freed from Japanese internment camps went on the rampage attacking and killing many Viet Minh guerrillas as well as innocent civilians. The Viet Minh retaliated by organising a general strike → shut down commerce and electricity and water supplies. In October 1945 French reinforcements helped to restore French control. → For four months Ho Chi Minh tried to negotiate full independence for the Vietnamese. BUT → French ships bombarded and occupied the port of Hai Phong. → Led to the start of a guerrilla campaign against the French by the Viet Minh. The French Indochina War: 1946–1954 The first few years consisted of low-level guerrilla wars against the French. Once China was taken over by the Communists in 1949, Ho Chi Minh’s guerrillas could count on Chinese support against the French. The war became more conventional as the USA backed the French and the USSR assisted Ho Chi Minh’s troops. In 1949 the French backed Bao Dai as the leader in the South but he was weak. The Vietnamese National Army was set up in the South. China continued to back the Viet Minh in the North. Truman authorised $15 million to contain communism in Vietnam. Eisenhower replaced Truman in 1953 → increased US military aid to the French. General Giap – a brilliant military strategist – led the Viet Minh. The French set up a defensive complex at Dien Bien Phu, but Genl Giap introduced a siege that lasted for 57 days before the French were forced to surrender. The US did not get involved in rescuing the French and, as a result, French colonial rule ended. In 1954 the Geneva Peace Accord was signed between France and Vietnam. This Accord agreed to a temporary division of the country along the 17th parallel: Ho Chi Minh gained control of the North while Ba Dai controlled the South. Elections were to be held within two years to reunify the country. Ho Chi Minh set up a ruthless Communist state in the North and imposed a cleansing of the countryside. Land was confiscated and made into communes. Landowners were tried and brutally executed by people’s tribunals. In 1955 Diem replaced Bao Dai as president. The USA formed SEATO – a regional organisation to contain communism. The USA wanted to entrench capitalism and democracy in the region to counter the spread of communism. 14 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Case study Unit XX 2 Stages in the Vietnam War After their defeat at Dien Bien Phu and the Geneva Accords, the French withdrew their troops to fight the anti-colonial struggle in Algeria. President Diem appealed to the US for aid against the People’s Liberation Armed Forces (PLAF also known as the Viet Cong) who were Communists. The Communists in the North supplied the Viet Cong with weapons, guidance and reinforcements. PHASE 1: Struggle between the South Vietnamese army and the Viet Cong January 1957: the USSR proposed the division of Vietnam into two parts → plan rejected by the USA. Oct 1957 Viet Minh (Communists from the North) launched a campaign of destruction, bombings and assassinations in the South. The Viet Cong backed by the US were too strong and Ho Chi Minh adapted his strategy to guerrilla warfare. The Ho Chi Minh Trail became the major supply route to the South and guerrillas sometimes crossed the border into Laos and Cambodia. Corruption, autocracy and low morale led to support for the Viet Cong in the South. Increased opposition grew from the intellectuals, Buddhists, peasants and students against Diem’s regime. After two unsuccessful coup attempts, Kennedy increased the number of US troops in the South to prop up Diem’s regime. 1962 = over 11 000 US troops in Vietnam. Meanwhile the USSR began airlifting supplies to the Viet Minh in the North. Diem’s oppression of the Buddhist community, which was denied religious freedom. WHY? Buddhist marchers were targeted and in protest a Buddhist 1963: Crisis year monk set himself alight. The US tried to intervene to get the rights of the Buddhists restored, but government troops raided religious sites. Some of Diem’s generals launched a coup on Diem’s regime with US consent, and arrested Diem and his brother. Diem and his brother were assassinated November 1963. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 15  Case study Unit XX 2 After Kennedy’s assassination in Dallas, Texas, Lyndon B. Johnson became the US president. GULF OF TONKIN RESOLUTION In Aug 1964 North Vietnam launched an attack on an American ship in the Gulf of Tonkin. The US bombed North Vietnam in retaliation after the US Congress passed the Tonkin Resolution. The US used the Tonkin Resolution, backed by the DOMINO THEORY to enter the war more fully to counter the spread of Communism. The North Vietnamese–USA struggle PHASE 2: Many juntas succeeded Diem’s government. Eventually Nguyen van Thieu became president in 1965. China and the USSR supplied arms and support to North Vietnam. March 1965 – 3 500 US marines arrived in South Vietnam. The USA did not have enough volunteer soldiers and introduced conscription (known as the draft). After another attack on US bases in the south in 1965, Johnson ordered Operation Rolling Thunder to bomb the Communists into surrendering. This operation lasted three years and the US dropped one million tonnes of bombs on Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Despite destruction of major military targets the North Vietnamese would not surrender. 1967 = new constitution set up in the South = civilian government under Thieu The US introduced Operation Ranch Hand, a chemical warfare strategy to defoliate the jungles and expose the Ho Chi Minh trail. What were Agent Orange and Agent Blue? Agent Orange was a chemical that caused defoliation and also chromosomal damage in humans. Agent Blue was a chemical used to destroy crops so that the NLF did not have food. 16 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Case study Unit XX 2 Climax of the war: Tet Offensive WHAT WAS IT? An offensive by the North Vietnamese and the NLF. WHEN? 1968 WHY? To reach Saigon and force the South Vietnamese government to capitulate and the US forces to withdraw. WHO? North Vietnamese and NLF vs. South Vietnamese army and US troops. WHERE? Launched attacks across 17 degrees North into the South as far south as Saigon. WHAT HAPPENED? President Thieu introduced conscription in an effort to resist the attacks. Thousands of non-Communists in the South were murdered by Communists from the North. US troops suffered casualties and trauma as Communist forces had infiltrated the South. The Communists from the North suffered terrible casualties. The My Lai Massacre illustrated the madness of war as US troops wilfully and deliberately killed innocent villagers during a mad killing spree. WHY did the US decide to stop the war? Increasing civilian opposition in the USA as a result of the media making more and more Americans aware of the impact of the war. Student, anti-war and disarmament groups called for the war to end. Marches and protests increased, calling for the end to war. The cost in both lives and money made the continuation of the war untenable. It led to a polarisation in US society and many claimed the war was unjustifiable. Women and students led opposition movements. Photojournalists showed photos of killing and destruction that led to more opposition, e.g. the killing of a NLF officer by General Ngoc Loan. HOW did it end? Peace talks began in Paris in May 1968. Russia approved but not China. President Johnson ordered the bombing raids to stop. In 1969 President Nixon, Johnson’s successor, formulated the Nixon Doctrine to end the war in Vietnam. Vietnamisation was applied so that trained troops and officials could replace US ones. In 1971 thousands of war veterans marched to the White House and threw their medals and decorations on the steps in protest against the war. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 17  Case study Unit XX 2 The official ending of the war Kissinger used a direct approach in talks with the North Vietnamese. By 1972 an agreement had been brokered between him and Xuab Thuy and Le Duc Tho from North Vietnam → BUT: President Thieu and other leaders in the South as well as the NLF rejected the draft peace agreement. Nixon authorised intensified bombing raids against the largest cities in the North in December 1972. There was widespread condemnation of the US attacks. On 23 January 1973 the final draft peace treaty was signed after the US promised to assist the South. Although the hostilities between the USA and North Vietnam had ended, the civil war did not. On 30 April 1975 the Vietnamese War ended when North Vietnamese troops occupied Saigon and captured the presidential palace. Why did the US not win the Vietnam War? Why did the US not win the Vietnam War? The Americans misjudged the war and knew little of the terrain where they were fighting. US belief they could not lose the war. Guerrilla tactics used by Ho Chi Minh. Cuban Missile Crisis: Johnson thought the North Vietnamese would back down when threatened. 18 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Topic 1 Unit XX Summary and questions Summary In Topic 1, your historical enquiry focused on answering the following key question: Key question: How did the Cold War period shape international relations after the Second World War? In order to answer this key question, you studied the concepts outlined below. Unit 1 What were the origins of the Cold War? The roots of the Cold War stretch to the Russian Civil War, but became a global threat to world peace after World War II when the West (mainly the USA and its allies) and the East (mainly the USSR and its allies) confronted each other over ideological differences summarised as capitalism and communism. Although this confrontation never resulted in direct conflict, it did cause a number of crises (e.g. the Berlin Blockade, Berlin Crisis and Cuban Missile Crisis) that had the potential to escalate into nuclear war. It also resulted in each superpower creating spheres of interest, either to spread its own ideology or to contain the ideology of its opponent. Proxy wars often erupted in these spheres of interest. The Cold War, which started in 1947 with the Truman Doctrine, ended when the Berlin Wall was dismantled (1989) and the USSR dissolved (1991). Case study 1 China The Chinese Empire disintegrated when the British defeated the Chinese army during the First Opium War (1839–1842). By 1900, a new generation of Western-educated Chinese had begun to control the government and a provisional government led by the respected nationalist leader Sun Yat-sen was established in Nanking in 1912. However, much conflict ensued with the nationalists and communists vying for power. Eventually Mao Zedong, after the Long March (1936) and the defeat of the nationalists, established the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in October 1949. Mao imposed communism and, through his Great Leap Forward and Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, tried to destroy the class system in China and modernise the country. He used his Red Guards to enforce his vision. Mao also tried to spread communism to surrounding countries and had wars with Tibet, India, Vietnam and Thailand. Although Mao’s policies resulted in much suffering and millions of deaths, they did result in China becoming a very powerful nation. After Mao’s death (1976), China became friendlier towards the West because the new leaders realised that the country could not flourish economically in isolation in a globalised world economy. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 19  Topic 1 Unit XX Summary and questions Case study 2 Vietnam Vietnam was also an ancient culture that disintegrated with foreign (French) occupation in the 1800s. However, the Vietnamese resisted colonial rule and after World War II (1945) Ho Chi Minh set up a communist state in northern Vietnam even though Vietnam was still a French colony. His intention was to unite all of Vietnam by engaging the French in guerrilla warfare. He was successful and through the Geneva Peace Accords North Vietnam was formally recognised, with South Vietnam being declared south of the 17th parallel. This spilt into North and South Vietnam reflected the Cold War tensions, with the USSR supporting the North and the USA supporting the South. Because the government in the South under Ngo Dinh Diem was corrupt, and because the North and many people in the South wanted a single Vietnam, war broke out between the South and the Viet Cong. The USA, fearful that the South would fall to the communists and create a domino effect in the region, sent in thousands of soldiers and weapons to help the South. However, the Viet Cong used guerrilla tactics, which the US – who were a conventional fighting force – could not cope with. After the loss of thousands of lives and increasing protests and pressure in the US and worldwide, the US was forced to withdraw from Vietnam after the Paris Peace Agreement in 1973. In 1975 North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam and the country was once again united into a single Vietnam. 20 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Topic 1 Unit XX Summary and questions Questions 1 Key question: What were the main developments in the Cold War 1948–1961? 1.1 Why did the London Conference of 1948 create tension about Germany? 1.2 What event prompted Stalin to impose the Blockade? 1.3 How long did the Berlin Blockade last? 1.4 Name two results of the Berlin Blockade. 1.5 What do the letters NATO stand for? 1.6 What did Khrushchev demand at the 1961 summit? 1.7 If the Berlin Wall became a symbol of all that was bad and repressive about Soviet rule, what did Kennedy say West Berlin was a symbol of? 1.8 Who was the American-backed dictator of Cuba before Castro’s successful revolution in 1959? 1.9 Which American organisation funded, trained, armed and transported the invasion of Cuba in April 1961? 1.10 What was Castro’s reaction to the Bay of Pigs invasion of April 1961? 2 Key question: How did Mao Zedong rise to power? 2.1 In the People’s Republic of China, which factor best reflects Marxism? 2.2 What was the main aim of the Great Leap Forward in China? 2.3 Why did the Communist government in China discourage organised religion? 2.4 Name the major goal of the Cultural Revolution in China during the 1960s. 2.5 Identify the main reason the Chinese Communists gained control of mainland China in 1949. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 21  Topic 1 Unit XX Summary and questions 3 Key question: How did the USA get involved in Vietnam? 3.1 What was the treaty of 1954 that split Vietnam at the 17th parallel? 3.2 Who was the communists’ leader? 3.3 How did Diem lose power in 1963? 3.4 What did Congress agree in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution? 3.5 What event finally pushed the US into going to war in February 1965? 4 Key question: What was the nature of the war in Vietnam? 4.1 What was Operation Rolling Thunder? 4.2 What kind of war did the communists wage? 4.3 Where did an American “Search and Destroy” patrol commit an atrocity in 1968? 4.4 What was the name of the direct attack launched by the NVA in January 1968? 4.5 Describe the main outcomes of the NVA offensive of January 1968. 22 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Topic 2 Independent Africa Overview In this topic you will revise: what the ideas were that influenced independent African states the successes and challenges faced by independent Africa – political and economic social and cultural the impact of internal and external factors on Africa during this time Africa in the Cold War. UNIT 1 Page 24 Ideas that influenced Forms of government independent African states CASE STUDY 1 Page 26 Newly independent Congo and Tanzania Comparative case Successes and challenges faced by independent studies: Congo and Africa TOPIC 2 Page 23–48 Tanzania The Cold War UNIT 2 Page 34 Impact of internal Impact of internal and external factors on Africa: and external factors 1960–1980 on Africa UNIT 3 Page 35 Africa in the Cold War: USSR, USA, Africa – a Cold War battlefield Cuba, China and South Africa How was Africa drawn into the Cold War? Angola – the focus of competing spheres of influence CASE STUDY 2 Page 37 Colonialism and independence in Angola Angola Why did civil war break out in Angola in 1974? Outside involvement in the Angolan Civil War Impact of the Angolan Civil War on regional stability Significance of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale The changing nature of international relationships after 1989 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 23  Unit X Topic 1 XX The ideas that influenced independent African states Key question: How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s? Definition of the concept INDEPENDENCE The term INDEPENDENCE can be associated with ideas such as emancipation, decolonisation and autonomy. It involves change that affects political systems, society, culture, economics and philosophy to name but a few. In order to understand the degree of change and the legacy of it, you need to reflect on the political, economic and social systems in Africa before and during colonial rule and then compare these to the period that followed decolonisation after World War II. Forms of government When decolonisation happened after World War II, many of the ex-colonies either adopted or tried to adapt the ideology and system of governance of the colonial period or chose to align themselves with the ideology of the power that assisted them during the struggle for independence. The vacuum left by the colonial powers meant that newly formed African states had to ‘create’ new forms of government to make the transition to independence. This often led to new allegiances or the consolidation of new alliances. Form of government Characteristics Examples where it or ideology was implemented African Socialism Based on European Socialism but marketed Tanzania by Julius as a unique brand of socialism that is based Nyerere on true spirit of African beliefs. Senegal – Léopold Viewed as being uniquely African in a Senghor localised sense. Ghana – Kwame Socialism seen as the in-between phase of Nkrumah and economic development between capitalism Guinea – Sékou Touré. and Marxism. No private ownership but communal ownership. Its focus was more on the community rather than a ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ as intended by Marxism. Collective ownership meant state ownership. There would be no social classes in society nor a dictatorship by a certain class over the others. Instead the state would be run by a coalition of representatives of all the tribes. 24 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Unit XX 1 Form of government Characteristics Examples where it or ideology was implemented Capitalism An economic system based on the investment This was the of capital and the use of labour and resources ideology of Western to make a profit. democracies and the It merged as a counter to feudalism. colonial powers. It promotes private ownership, enterprise and Colonial powers the accumulation of wealth by an individual. used the labour and It allows for private investment and incentive raw materials in the with much freedom of choice. colonies to amass fortunes with little benefit for the African states. This made many newly independent states opt for an alternative ideology to shun capitalism. Democracy Citizens share power through elected Many African states representatives. opted for democracy Regular elections and free and fair campaigns but not capitalism. allow for public participation in the voting Despite declaring this, process. few African leaders It is based on a multi-party system. respected democratic It promotes human rights and safeguards principles and did not individual and civil liberties. adhere to the rule of Majority rule is recognised but with the law. protection of minority rights. As a result many No social class is viewed as superior; equality African states became is respected. one- party systems or dictatorships. One-party state Only one party is tolerated. After decolonisation The system is enforced by a dictator. most African states No opposition is allowed. became dictatorships. Legislation is often used to enforce dictatorial Two examples: Zaire rule. and Tanzania. Elections are held but candidates represent the same party. The military is usually used to prop up the dictator. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 25  Case Study 1 Congo and Tanzania: A comparative case study Key question: What were the political, economic, social and cultural challenges and successes that Congo and Tanzania experienced between 1960 and 1980? Newly independent Congo and Tanzania You need to revise the successes and challenges faced by independent Africa: the kinds of states that emerged: aims and visions political successes and challenges economic successes and challenges social and cultural successes and challenges. How did the Congo become a tool of the Cold War? Belgian Congo achieved its independence in 1960 A crisis arose soon afterwards when Katanga Province declared itself independent under the regional premier Moise Tshombe. Tshombe had the support of the Belgian government and mining companies such as Union Miniere. The UN refused to suppress the rebels in Katanga. As a result Patrice Lumumba, the first premier of Congo, called on the USSR to help put down the rebellion. They obliged. This alarmed the USA who put pressure on the head of the army of Congo, Mobutu, to act against Lumumba. The CIA sponsored a coup against Lumumba’s government initiated by Mobutu. Lumumba was imprisoned and executed by firing squad on 17 Jan 1961. This event was committed with the assistance of the Belgian government and the CIA. Congo became The Congo was a valuable a tool of the source of minerals especially West in the Cold cobalt for Western technology War. and industries. Mobutu renamed Congo = Zaire in 1971. When Katangan rebels based in Angola in 1977 attacked Zaire → Belgium, France and US supported Mobutu. 26 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Case study Unit XX 1 Significance of these events in the Congo Zaire became another example of Cold War politics as the USA and the USSR used the conflict to protect their own spheres of influence and to safeguard their own ideology. It also shows how the Congo (Zaire) did not manage to maintain full autonomy as it was backed by a superpower and Western powers and became a political pawn of the West. How did Tanzania apply African Socialism? 1 Tanganyika became independent in 1961 and was renamed Tanzania. Julius Nyerere became Prime Minister and his party, TANU, formed a government. 2 In 1962 Nyerere became president after amending the constitution. 3 In 1967 the Arusha Declaration was accepted which showed a support for socialism. 4 The Arusha Declaration promoted socialism as rooted in African homegrown values and potential. 5 Socialism was seen as an African tradition of peasantry, communal living and sharing 6 Nyerere said that African Socialism did not derive from European socialism and Marxism but rather could teach European socialists about the true nature of socialism. 7 In ujamaa, all humans care for one another and are bound together by affection and solidarity. 8 Emphasis was placed on education. Elitism was ended by introducing universal education based on traditional and Western models. 9 Recognition was given to the importance of traditional values, indigenous knowledge and wisdom. 10 Soon after the Arusha Declaration was issued, banks and many large industries were nationalised in Tanzania. Successes and challenges faced by independent Africa The types of states established, the leadership strategies, and the ideologies and policies that were adopted by various African leaders were influenced by: colonialism → left a mixed legacy in Africa = positive and negative consequences the international context of Cold War politics. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 27  Case study Unit XX 1 What kind of states emerged in Congo and Tanzania State Leader Type of state Congo Mobutu Sese Seko Centralised Unitary Military regime / dictatorship One-party rule The state assumed a guardian role and resorted to forceful maintenance of law and order. ‘Mobutuism’ emerged: cult figure who used state power to prop up his power. He was more interested in building an authoritarian state than a united nation. A consolidated, national identity was not achieved. Tanzania Julius Nyerere A single-party state Socialist ideology Aimed to mobilise all Tanzanians to help build a nation. He succeeded in overcoming ethnic differences to establish a united Tanzania. Tanzania assumed a national identity. Elections were held to choose the ‘best’ individual but only one party, TANU, existed. Nyerere became president for life. Political successes and challenges faced by independent Africa African leaders in the late 1950s brought their own ideologies and policies to the process of decolonisation → large impact on the foundations laid for countries at and after independence. What type of political leaders emerged in the Congo and Tanzania? Patrice Lumumba: Pan-Africanist and nationalist in Congo Challenged as leader by Moise Tshombe and Joseph Kasavubu: They both came from larger ethnic groups and strong regional power bases. Lumumba founded MNC in 1958 aimed for a national Congolese identity. 30 June 1960 = Congo independent: Kasavubu became President and Lumumba Prime Minister. He had to form the ‘new’ government. He wanted: a unitary Congo believed in ‘positive neutralism’ or a return to traditional African values rather than the adoption of external ideologies. He was murdered by the Katanga secessionist regime. 28 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Case study Unit XX 1 Mobutu Sese Seko: capitalist, dictator Initially in favour of Lumumba’s centralised state. BUT, when Katanga started secessionist struggle, he sided with Kasavubu and gave covert support to him against Lumumba. His troops captured Lumumba and handed him to Katangan rebels for execution. Led a coup in 1965, overthrew Kasavubu and became president of Congo: only allowed one party, MPR, to operate led a corrupt regime in Congo (renamed Zaire in 1971) which focussed on self- enrichment wanted to be seen as a nationalist hero → built up a cult around his personality: → developed Mobutuism: one-party state, dictatorship. Julius Nyerere: African socialism, social equality and peace Mwalimu = teacher: peaceful change racial harmony rejection of tribalism, ethnic and racial discrimination. 1962: amended constitution became executive president of Tanzania. 1963: TANU only political party → Tanzania = one-party state: elections: all candidates from the same party. Believed in African Socialism: community needs rather than individual needs. Committed to equality and dignity: 1967: Arusha Declaration = socialist map for Tanzania wanted to reduce the income gap in society stood for democracy BUT soon became a dictatorship → he did not tolerate opposition. nationalisation of resources but not accessible to the people of Tanzania. Believed in non-alignment. BUT tended towards the Eastern bloc due to its involvement in Zanzibar. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 29  Case study Unit XX 1 What colonial legacies did the Congo and Tanzania inherit at independence? CONGO DETAILS Ethnic division and tribalism Colonialism had divided people along ethnic and tribal lines. Different ethnic groups were often scattered over more than one state e.g. Congo, Rwanda, Burundi. The map of Africa had been redrawn. These divisions persisted during the Cold War when different groups aligned themselves with opposing political blocs. Some African leaders, e.g. Lumumba wanted to forge a new national identity and eradicate ethnic divisions. Mobutu Sese Seko forged national unity through his despotic rule after Lumumba was killed. Fairly sophisticated civil ser- These collapsed after independence. vice and infrastructure. WHY? The local African population had not been educated or trained to take on the administrative and technical functions. Colonial withdrawal left a technical vacuum. The strategy to develop peasant agriculture and greater government intervention in industrial development to grow employment opportunities was hampered due to a lack of expertise. Financial grants had been squandered due to poor and inadequate controls. The nature of colonial industry It was dependent mainly on mining in certain areas leaving many regions under-developed and poverty stricken. The economy of Congo became reliant on the export of cheaper raw materials and imported more expensive manufactured goods. Congo remained trapped and leaders did not govern efficiently or innovatively after independence. THEREFORE: It was difficult for the independent states to thrive economically or to stay politically stable. Leaders did not always adopt the best practices or policies. During the Cold War, states often became the site of proxy wars as independent states found it virtually impossible to stay unaligned. TANZANIA DETAILS Lack of technical and Colonial officials withdrew rapidly leaving a vacuum. administrative capacity Little training was done to educate Africans for their new roles in government. Uneven development: rural Nyerere tried to force the population to move back to the rural areas and urban areas. and to develop communal villages there to eradicate poverty. His policy of villagisation was rejected and resulted in more poverty for his people. Foreign policy of non- Country remained dependent on foreign capital for its development. alignment adopted. Debt hindered development. It began links with the Eastern bloc e.g. China helped construct the TANZAM railway line. BUT Nyerere did manage to build a nation-state in Tanzania. He overcame ethnic and tribal differences. 30 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Case study Unit XX 1 What types of government emerged in the Congo and Tanzania? Congo Tanzania Kasavubu wanted a federalist TANU and later CCM focussed on post- state colonial structural re-organisation in Lumumba wanted a unitary Tanzania. and centralised state. The Arusha Declaration set out plans for Kasavubu and Lumumba UJAMAA VIJIJINI (ujamaa villages) deposed quickly leaving form Social, economic and political of government up to Mobutu equality will be achieved through Sese Seko to install. democratisation. Sese Seko supported No discrimination based on social status. centralisation, All productive capacity to be collectivised authoritarianism and military and nationalised. Based on socialism. control. Transformed Tanzania to be self-reliant. In 1967 He merged party and Became a one-party state (no opposition) state and all Zairians were A short period of self- government before born party members. independence prepared Tanzania better Mobutuism became state to make the transition. ideology: seen as divine But it also became a dictatorship and saviour. experienced political instability. What type of political instability and stability did the Congo and Tanzania experience? CONGO WHAT? WHY? Ethnic rivalry, tension Ideological differences between leaders e.g. Kasavubu and Lumumba. and uncertainty Congolese elites had different ambitions e.g. federalists vs Unitarians, regionalists and nationalists, etc. Secessionists gained the support of Belgian business to break away. This led to instability and civil war. Many deaths and anarchy existed in many areas. Soviet forces, the CIA, a UN force, mercenaries and Belgian and French soldiers made the situation more complex to solve. The murder of Lumumba and the death of Dag Hammarskjold (UN Secretary General) made matters worse. In 1965 some semblance of ‘stability’ returned when Mobutu Sese Seko seized power. He gained the support of some Western nations as an ally against the Eastern bloc and managed to establish a one-party dictatorship that lasted for more than 30 years. The West tolerated Sese Seko despite his dictatorial regime and massive corruption. Not really stable but rather dictatorial suppression of all opposition. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 31  Case study Unit XX 1 TANZANIA WHAT? WHY? Smooth transition to Period of self- government seemed to smooth over initial problems to independence some extent. Ujamaa seemed more appropriate to Tanzanian’s way of life. Tanzania’s centralised government brought stability initially. No civil war. 1964: Tanzania and Zanzibar united as a republic with Nyerere as president and Karume as vice-president. The two countries only really united under Nwinyi in 1985. Economic challenges and successes in independent Africa NOTE the overlap of political and economic aspects → not possible to split them when looking at economic challenges and successes in independent Africa. ZAIRE What type of economy was adopted? The new government drew up an economic and social expansion plan that placed emphasis on peasant agriculture and greater government intervention in industry. Aimed to process raw materials locally, avoid imports and increase employment. Adopted capitalist model. Production involved mainly cobalt and copper. Mono-culturalism (one product economy). Challenges Zairianisation and ‘radicalisation of the revolution’ led to problems. The nationalisation of trade led to chaos. Corruption devastated the economy. Mismanagement Infrastructure neglected. Dependent on massive financial aid. Sold off raw materials and minerals for the benefit of the West and quick cash returns; little development of Zaire. A new elite emerged leading to class distinction. Had to rely on foreign aid to avoid bankruptcy. Mobutu Sese Seko lived an opulent lifestyle and headed a corrupt regime. Successes Virtually non-existent but under retrocession policy of Mobutu Sese Seko large portions of Zairianised enterprises were returned to their original owners. He managed to keep the economy afloat by eliciting aid (this is a questionable ‘success’ – be able to argue a point here). TANZANIA What type of economy was adopted? Adopted African socialist model. Embarked on villagisation process to increase self-reliant food production and rural development. Main export crop was coffee. Mono-culturalism (one- product) Challenges Self-reliance led to further debt Ujamaa was unproductive as economic growth declined. Tanzania remained under-developed economically. Farmers resisted villagisation. Had to rely on foreign aid to avoid collapse. Successes Villagisation made service delivery in terms of health care and education easily accessible. Nyerere’s education philosophy was very successful. One of the highest literacy rates achieved in Africa. Stability in society and free from economic inequalities. Ujamaa led to some rural development. 32 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Case study Unit XX 1 Social, cultural and educational practices in the Congo and Tanzania Clothing Nationalism expressed in costume and dress. Move to dress in a more uniquely African way. Kwame Nkrumah set the tone and pace for change and other elites followed. It stimulated local textile making, weaving, embroidery and dyeing industries. New elites chose dress to highlight their status. New hairstyles replaced European ones. Congo: Mobutu outlawed the wearing of suits and ties: the abacos imposed by decree. It was inspired by dress of Mao Zedong of China. Language Under colonial rule African languages had become marginalised as limited in scope and confined to oral tradition, rural areas and the language of adults. Between 1962 and 1964 research centres and African language departments were started at many African universities. Many new universities started as well as research on African traditions and languages. Nyerere translated Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar and The Merchant of Venice into Kiswahili. He used the translations to also educate his people about exploitation and the struggle for political and economic liberation. Educational Many of the founding fathers and leaders of the new states were educated at benefits mission schools or Western colleges. They became the vanguard of the struggle for political independence and took over power. Many leaders felt that education needed to be transformed from the Western model in order to achieve mental liberation and decolonisation of the mind. Intellectually African thinking needed to change. This was debated at many pan-African congresses. There was a need to combine Western intellectual and educational programmes with African ones. Education should be used to promote unity, national and cultural identity, philosophy, social justice, ideology, science, technology, search for knowledge and the development of skills in African states. This would reduce poverty and unemployment. Universities were modelled on Western ones but developed African ideas. Africanisation In Zaire, Mobutu Sese Seko confiscated all farmlands, industry, commercial and mining enterprises from foreign owners for re-distribution to Congolese. Called Zairianisation: negative trend due to lack of experience. Resulted in mismanagement, maladministration and corruption. Also introduced a policy called authenticite between 1970 and 1990, to remove the legacy of colonialism and to promote a centralised Congolese identity. Colonial names were replaced with local ones, he banned Christmas and neckties, as these were seen to be un-African. In Tanzania, Nyerere promoted self-reliance. This was often at the cost of expertise and experience. Local people were employed to promote and develop the newly created villages. These people were inexperienced and as a result villages were mismanaged. Enforced villagisation led to resistance and rejection by the local population. © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook 33  Unit 2 Topic X 1 XX The impact of internal and external factors on Africa Key question: What was the impact of internal and external factors on Africa between 1960 and 1980? Internal factors that impacted on Africa The legacy of colonialism: African states were under-developed and Africans lacked education and skills. Ethnic diversity: African leaders often exploited ethnic differences leading to civil wars and internal conflicts. State failure: Many leaders chose a centralised economic model and a one-party political system to develop the state → led to strict control, tyranny, corruption, poverty and under-development. Geographical location: Most of Africa is unsuitable for large-scale agriculture = no food security. + many countries → landlocked = hinders development + many diseases afflict animals and humans → makes development difficult. External factors that impacted on Africa The Cold War: States aligned themselves to one of the superpowers → development difficult. Foreign aid: Led to increased dependency and under-development + often bolstered regimes. Export–import cycle: African countries exported raw materials cheaply and then imported finished goods at a high price → contributed to underdevelopment and poverty. The 1973 oil crisis: Oil price increased → donor countries had to spend more money on importing oil and could not afford to give loans and aid to Africa + African countries had to pay very high prices to import oil = underdevelopment, poverty and bankruptcy. Bankruptcy led to loans and increased debt. Lenders demanded cut backs and high returns for money lent. 34 © Via Afrika Publishers » History 12 Study Guide eBook  Unit X Topic 31 XX Africa in the Cold War Key question: What were the motives of the USSR, the USA, Cuba, China and South Africa in Africa during the Cold War? Africa: Cold War battleground USSR & USA CUBA Rival liberation Castro wanted to spread the revolution movements in African overseas to liberate ex-colonies and provide states fought one another technical and financial support to African in civil wars. liberation movements with a socialist USSR backed most agenda. liberation movements, e.g. Stage 1: 1959–1979 = loose contacts with MPLA in Angola, FRELIMO left-wing guerrilla groups. in Mozambique, ZANU-PF Stage 2: 1975–1977 = sent combat troops to in Zimbabwe, SWAPO in Angola to support MPLA. SWA. Stage 3: 1977–1978 = sent combat troops USA supported their to assist Ethiopia against a Somalia opponents in the liberation military incursion. struggles, e.g. UNITA and Stage 4: 1979 = reduce military role in FNLA in Angola, RENAMO Africa but increase civilian and technical in Mozambique. programmes. CHINA China supplied weapons and military assistance to African states but also helped with development projects: Mao sent 150 000 technicians to work in agriculture, technology and infrastructure. Promoted socialism and communism in African states. Tried to counter Western aid by adopting principles that allowed for benefits for lender and donor countries. Invested in cost-effective projects where C