Lifespan Development AP1023 PDF

Lifespan Development AP1023 Marcin Szczerbinski   (module coordinator) LECTURE 1 16/09/2024, BOOLE 4, 10am -- 11am Textbook: Psychology the science of the mind and behaviour - holt et. al 2024 - e-version canvas McGraw Hill The Textbook Chapter 3: Genes, environment and behaviour Chap 9: Langu...

Lifespan Development AP1023 Marcin Szczerbinski   (module coordinator) LECTURE 1 16/09/2024, BOOLE 4, 10am -- 11am Textbook: Psychology the science of the mind and behaviour - holt et. al 2024 - e-version canvas McGraw Hill The Textbook Chapter 3: Genes, environment and behaviour Chap 9: Language and thinking (language section only) Chap 11: Lifespan development 1: physical and cognitive development Chap 12: Lifespan development 2 : social and emotional development UCC Skills Centre:   advice on study and writing What's expected  1. Regular work - 5 credit module  - 1 credit = 20-25 hours of work - 5 credit module approx. 100 - 125 hours of work  - 8 hours per week now - final exam  2. Attendance  3. Active participation  4. Preparation  5. Keep up with core reading - distributed practice 6. Checking inbox regularly  Assessment - Online quiz Friday 1st November, multiple choice questions and short open questions 20% final mark - Exam (1.5 hours) 40 MCQ 40%, 1 open ended question out of 4 - 40% Questions - Check UCC book of modules  - Module syllabus  - Canvas  - Post question on canvas - discussion board  Emailing  - Dear.... - Introduce yourself fully, course, year, full name, module you\'re asking about Growth mindset opposed to fixed mindset  LECTURE 2 17/09/2024, BOOLE 4, 2pm -- 3pm [What does it mean to develop?] - Roles played/ place in society changes - Growing mentally and physically - Improvement - Change - Growth - Process - Evolve - Gradual Development -- change that is - Orderly / systematic - Stable (relatively) - Positive / useful / adaptive Developmental sciences: describing and explaining changes that occur within our lifespan 1. What is it that is changing -- identifying developmental milestones and describing how they are achieved 2. How does it change 3. Why does it change Metaphor -- baking a cake -- developing human being Recipe -- book/head/plan - genotype Ingredients -- environment physical/chemical/biological/social Process/action - End product Biological model of development -- Urie Bronfenbrenner Exosystem - indirectly affect life Macrosystem - culture Chronosystem -- changes associated with the passage of time / period of time we happen to be ( war time vs now) [What is the process ] What individual does interacting with the environment - Learning - Playing / fighting -- shaping us socially - Interaction with physical environment eg. Mud - Interacting with ideas eg books Why it changes Evolutionary psychology LECTURE 3 23/09/2024, BOOLE 4, 10am -- 11am Attachment in childhood and its long term consequences [Key questions for this week:] 1. What is attachment? How does it manifest itself\ -- The "what" question 2. Why do we attach at all? What function does attachment serve?\ -- The "why" question 3. How does it develop? What are mechanisms of attachment formation?\ -- The "how" question 4. Do people differ from each other in their attachment patterns/styles? If so, what are the consequences of those differences? What is attachment? And how does it manifest itself? - A strong emotional bond that develops between children and their primary caregivers\ -- Attachment ≈ love Behavioural manifestations of attachment: - [Stranger anxiety;] peaks at 6mths -- 18mths): distress over contact with unfamiliar people - Separation anxiety (peaks at 12-16mths -- 2-3 years): distress over being separated from a primary caregiver - [maintaining proximity] with the carer - Treating the carer as a [safe haven]: source of physical and emotional comfort; someone that helps you calm down, co-regulates your emotion - Treating the carer as a [secure base] from which to explore the world Develops (and then diminishes) gradually  Why do we attach at all? The [function] of attachment - Attachment behaviour: a near-universal feature of human babies -- but also offspring of many other mammalian and bird species - Any behaviour that is near-universal within a given species is likely to have evolved through natural selection, as it [enhances fitness] - [Fitness] = probability of an organism passing on its genes to the next generation What are the likely fitness benefits of infantile attachment? - Maintaining proximity, separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, treating caregiver as a safe base \>\> reducing the likelihood of harm/death? - Treating caregiver as safe haven and secure base \>\> better emotional\ resilience? - All aspects \>\> eliciting attachment/love from the carer; enticing carer to\ provide care? How does attachment form? The [mechanisms] of attachment formation - Is attachment simply [innate]?\ -- Innate = organised prior to experience, not requiring learning - Current scientific consensus: attachment is NOT innate, but human [propensity for attachment formation] -- inclination to develop attachment -- indeed is innate\ This innate propensity will be realized given the right\ environmental conditions of good enough stable and consistent\ care What are the environmental preconditions of attachment formation? What kind of care is\ necessary there? Two hypotheses: - HYPOTHESIS A: Attachment is a secondary by-product of being fed - a [conditional response] to being fed. Baby associates food comfort with the feeder, and so get attached to the feeder (whatever he/she/it may be) HUNGER (primary driver) → FOOD (primary reinforcer)\ → FEEDER (secondary reinforcer) - HYPOTHESIS B: Attachment as a [primary process] - [ ] reflection of our\ essential need for a relationship. It originates in the experience of\ [contact comfort] (skin-on-skin touch) Which hypothesis is true?\ - Evidence from [Harry Harlow's (1958)] "Surrogate mothers" studies  Is there a [critical period] for attachment formation in human babies? - Harlow's rhesus monkeys studies: early social deprivation had negative effects of subsequent functioning, which was proportional to the length of deprivation. Some later rehabilitation was possible though! (Harlow, Harlow & Suomi, 1971) - Human [feral children]: some evidence for the critical period -- but far from conclusive - Human adoption studies\ The study of Romanian adoptees (Rutter et al., 2004): some children who suffered period of terrible early deprivation had ongoing attachment difficulties, but most did attach once adopted by caring stable families.\ -- Attachment disorders (disinhibited attachment) was present in 16% of those adopted before 18 months; 33% in those adopted between 24 and 42 months) - Van den Dries et al., (2009, meta-analysis): adopted children equally securely attached than non-adopted as long as adoption occurs during first 12 months of life Conclusion: there is a [sensitive period] for attachment formation in humans -- rather than the *critical* one Some myths about human attachment 1. MYTH 1: attachment is formed at the moment of birth - In some species of animals attachment may indeed form almost immediately \[see the phenomeon of imprinting\] -- but homo sapiens is not among them - Parents may attach to their newborn infant almost\ immediately -- but infant needs time and relevant\ experiences 2. MYTH 2: at first, baby attaches to a single person -- their mother - multiple attachment are the norm - It need not be the mother (let alone biological mother) - It need not be an adult (in the absence of adults, infant may attach to siblings or even non-related peers) - The baby attaches to whoever offers them comfort fairly consistently 3. MYTH 3: excellent child care is necessary for the attachment to form - Good enough care suffices -- as long as minimal responsivity and consistency of care is provided attachment will form 4. MYTH 4: attachment forms the same way, and manifests the same way, across the cultures - It does not (Keller, 2018) Negative consequences of attachment myths: - unreasonable expectations placed on mothers (see e.g. attachment parenting philosophy) \>\> maternal self- blame and guilt - misguided actions of child services Individual differences in the quality of attachment - Not all attachments that do form are equally strong and positive - Mary Ainsworth: Strange situation procedure to study the quality of attachment in infants\ -- Elicits stranger and separation anxiety\ -- Used children's reactions to suggest attachment styles Summary of episodes of the strange situation procedure Ainsworth's classification of attachment styles  LECTURE 4 24/09/2024, BOOLE 4, 2pm -- 3pm What causes different attachment styles - Genes? / behavioural genes - Caregivers? / responsivity and consistency/ Caregiver's mental representations of own history of attachment - Caregiver's mind-mindedness: ability to consider things from the child's point of view; to 'read child's mind' / Mother's appropriate mind-related comments about the child are associated with secure attachment Attachment styles: the lifespan perspective Key lifespan questions regarding attachment:\ - How can we describe attachment styles at different\ stages of development?\ - Does Ainsworth's classification (secure, anxious-resistant, anxious-avoidant,\ disorganized) developed with toddlers, also apply to older children,\ teenagers and adults?\ - How stable are individual differences in attachment\ styles?\ - E.g. do babies who show anxious-resistant attachment to their parents at\ 2yo tend to form anxious-resistant attachment to their peers at school,\ anxious-resistant romantic relationships as adults, and so on?\ - What are the consequences of different attachment\ styles for health, wellbeing, quality of relationships, etc.?  Adults attaching to adults Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) 1. First dimension: attachment anxiety - Extent to which you feel that they you are worthy of love, affection,\ and positive regard 2. Second dimension: avoidance - Extent to which you believe that others are trustworthy and available - Working model of others Stability of attachment styles across lifespan - Opie et al. (2020): attachment styles in childhood do correlate with attachment styles later on -- but the relationship is rather weak (and found in some studies only) - Hypothesis: as a result of early attachment experiences children build a [working model of relationships], which shapes child's expectations -- but this model is continuously updated in the light of evidence from later interpersonal experiences. - Positive experiences shift the model towards security -- negative experiences towards insecurity - Working model of a relationship = [working model of self] + [working model of others]\ - (see Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991 \[above\]) Differences in attachment styles: consequences 1. Social and emotional competencies - Growth of self-reliance, emotional regulation, and social competence, especially during middle childhood (e.g. Sroufe, 2005; 30-year longitudinal study) 2. Life Histories - Staying in education vs dropping out of school, onset of puberty, age of sexual initiation, having first child, etc - Belsky et al. (1991) stressful family environment in early childhood leads to insecure attachment which leads to 'faster life' trajectory \[for more discussion, see later lectures\] 3. Coping with mental health problems - E.g. Lee & Hankin (2009). A longitudinal study of 11-17 you, lasting 5 months (4 measurement points, approx. 5 weeks apart). - Results: anxious and avoidant attachments (measured at the beginning of the study) predicted higher anxiety and depression at the end of the study -- irrespective of initial levels of anxiety or depression - E.g. Tasca & Balfour (2014) a review of research on\ attachment and eating disorders\ Results:\ -- Attachment insecurity is a risk factor for eating disorders (the mediating\ variables may be perfectionism and maladaptive emotion regulation\ strategies)\ -- Higher attachment avoidance may lead to dropping out of therapy\ -- Higher attachment anxiety may lead to poorer treatment outcomes 4. The choice of romantic partner - Opposites attract" or "Similar attract"\...Partner preference as a matter of attachment style? Holmes & Johnson (2009) review - Secure individuals prefer secure partners - Less clear for insecure individuals. It might depend on stage of\ relationship and working model of relationship 5. Marital/relationship satisfaction\ -- Candel & Turliuc (2019) systematic review:\ Results: "higher levels of attachment avoidance and higher levels of\ anxiety were associated with lower personal relationship satisfaction\ and a lower level of the partner\'s relationship satisfaction. All these\ relationships were equally strong for both sexes" (p. 196) 6. Parenting skills\ -- Maternal internal model of attachment may have impact on the quality of childcare she offers -- which in turn impacts on child's own attachment. This may result in [inter-generational transition of attachment patterns]\ Shah et al. (2010) , van Ijzendoorn (1995): the relationship is\ particularly strong for secure attachment, less so for other styles\ Differences in attachment styles:\ consequences - Some continuity exists from early childhood until adulthood \[but it need not be very strong\] - Genes matter \[but their expression is modified by experience\] - Early experience matters \[but its role may be modified by later experience\] - Negative effects of [adverse childhood experiences] can be undone to some extent - Relationship between early years and later years are [probabilistic] rather than [deterministic] Questions to consider - What is attachment? How does it manifest itself at different stages of development -- from adulthood to old age? - What function does attachment serve for young children? - What are the necessary minimal preconditions for\ attachment formation?\ -- In the child?\ -- In child's environment 1. Attachment styles: - How can we study and identify different attachment styles\ In children?\ In adults? - What are the main types of attachment styles\ In children?\ In adults? - What is the working model of attachment? What role does it play in controlling our behaviour? - What are the consequences of individual differences in attachment styles\ Long-term (e.g. attachment styles in infancy \>\> functioning during school\ age)\ Short-term (e.g. attachment styles in young adulthood \>\> functioning in\ young adulthood) LECTURE 5 23/09/2024, 10am -- 11am The family -- nature and nurture Domain: socio-emotional development. Two aspects: - Socialisation: acquisition of norms, values and behaviours that are normative \[i.e. expected\] for a given culture - E.g. particular language/dialect, etiquette, moral beliefs, religious beliefs & practices, etc. etc. - Socialisation \>\> greater similarity within a given cultural group - Individualization: acquisition of characteristics that are unique to a given individual - E.g. personality, character, own worldview, attitudes, etc. etc. - Individualization \>\> greater differentiation within a given cultural group Key questions: - What are the main forces responsible for socialisation and individualisation? - Social environment forces\ -- Early parenting (necessary for attachment formation) \[week 2\]\ -- Later parenting \[week 3\]\ -- Sibling relationships \[weeks 3-4\]\ -- Peer relationships \[week 4\]\ -- Formal education (preschool, school) \[weeks 4-5 - and later\] - Biological forces\ -- Genetic make-up \[weeks 3-4 - and later\]\ -- How do those forces operate -- what are the mechanisms? - Weeks 2-4: focus on parenting: how parents raise their children\ -- Week 2: parenting during infancy and toddlerhood and the formation of infantile attachment\ -- Week 3: parenting in middle childhood and teenage years - Especially the concept of parenting styles Parenting styles: what they are and how they matter (or don't) - Several theoretical models of parenting/child rearing styles exist\ -- Maccoby & Martin (1983) model is most popular by far -- so we shall begin with it Maccoby & Martin (1983) - Two [parental attitudes] towards offspring:\ -- [Warmth/closeness] (acceptance of the child, responsiveness to his/her needs)\ -- [Control] (demand, achievement expectations)\ -- Both attitudes are continua rather than discrete categories - [Parenting styles:] specific combinations of two parental attitudes - Each style results in different child outcomes -- emotional, social, cognitive Maccoby & Martin (1983) model: evaluation - Correlational studies: evidence largely consistent with the model\ -- But there are reasons to doubt its validity 1. Problem 1: the model may be simplistic\ -- Are there just two basic parental attitudes which result in four parenting styles?\ \-- How about e.g. overprotective/overanxious parenting, or lack of consistency in parenting demands?\ -- Not captured very well in the model\ -- For more dimensions see e.g. Young's model \[attachment on Canvas\]\ -- Is very high control and very high acceptance really the ideal? Isn't the middle ground better?\ \-- See Ziemska (1969, 1986) model 2. Problem 2: the model may not catch the contemporary challenges to good parenting too well\ -- Gray (2019) The core problem today is the demise of [trustful parenting] and the raise in [fear-based parenting], namely:\ \-- [Helicopter parenting], [snowplough parenting]\ -- Overprotective, overinvolved - [Fuel-injetor parenting, tiger mother parenting\ ]-- Overcompetitive, over-demanding 3. Problem 3: what makes the best parenting style may be context- dependent\ -- E.g. culture-dependent: - US: white families: authoritative parenting may result in best outcomes. But in black families authoritarian parenting may produce just as good, or better, outcomes than authoritative parenting - Possible reasons for such context variability 4. Problem 4: Different children may require different parenting styles -- and the same style may mean something quite different for different children - They key is not what you do to the child but how the child experiences (or processes) what you do - E.g. parenting a temperamentally shy preschooler (as opposed to an uninhibited one) - Thomas & Chess (1977) concept of the [goodness of fit] between child's natural characteristics and parenting practices 5. Problem 5: Different children may evoke different parenting styles, depending on\ their behaviour - 'difficult' children often receive lower quality parenting, because parents find it harder to accept them, to be patient with them, co-operate with them, give them wise freedom and affirm their rights 6. Problem 6: Relationship between what parents do (parenting styles) and how\ children turn out to be may in fact be a matter of biology rather than experience\ -- mediated by the genes parents share with their offspring. The role of heredity in child development The claim I want to defend today: Who parents are (heredity) often matters more than what parents do (upbringing) -- unless what they do is really unusual Behavioural Genetics - The field of science that tries to explain human (or animal) behaviour in terms of\ relative contribution of genetics and environment Key concepts 1. Phenotype: observable traits (characteristics) of an organism 2. Genotype: genetic makeup of an organism, information encoded in cell DNA 3. Heritability: proportion of phenotypical differences between organisms that can\ be attributed to genotypical differences (i.e. differences in their DNA) 4. Shared environment: - All environmental input (resources and experiences) that is shared by two (or more) people and results in them becoming more alike - Think of examples from your own childhood -- your own family of origin 5. Unique environment: - All environmental input that is: - specific to one person (i.e. not shared with others), or - Shared by two (or more) people but experienced differently by them, resulting in them becoming more different - Think of examples from your own childhood -- your own family of origin LECTURE 6 1/10/2024, BOOLE 4, 2pm -- 3pm Behavioural genetics -- METHODOLOGY - Analysing the similarity between relatives that differ:\ -- In genetic relatedness (e.g. identical twins vs. fraternal twins vs. adoptive "pseudo-twins") - Predictions?\ -- In environmental relatedness -- shared environment (e.g. siblings raised together vs. those raised apart) - Predictions? Behavioural genetivs: EVIDENCE  Behavioural genetics: findings - Phenotypical similarity is proportional to genetic relatedness\ -- e.g. Identical twins are more similar than non-identical ones - Conclusion: virtually all traits (including psychological ones) are heritable to some\ extent -- though how much depends on a trait\ -- e.g. IQ versus political views - Shared environment has (usually) small impact on phenotypes - Siblings reared apart generally end up just as similar as those reared together - Adopted children are generally more similar to their biological parents and siblings than their adoptive parents and siblings - If substantial impact of shared environment is observed (e.g. on IQ) it tends to be limited to childhood -- it disappears after we leave home - The role of heritability usually increases with age - Unique environment has usually greater impact on phenotypes than shared environment Behavioural genetics: MECHANISMS - When the genes control behaviour, they do it only indirectly: - Genes and environment are not\ independent forces -- they CONSTRAIN\ each other -- are CORRELATED with each\ other - The can also INTERACT with each other Gene-environment correlation - Three types of gene environment correlation 1. Passive gene-environment correlation.\ Insofar as parents and children share the genotype, the child should respond favourably to parental upbringing efforts. This is because parents' behaviour,\ determined partly by their genes, is likely to fall on the 'fertile ground' of the child who shares the same genes.\ - Examples? 2. Evocative gene-environment correlation. Reactions of other people triggered (evoked) by person's inherited characteristics\ - Examples 3. Active gene-environment correlation: niche picking. Actively seeking an environment that is congenial with one's own inherited characteristics\ - Examples? - Statistics: the difference between correlation and interaction - What is [gene-environment interaction?] An example of gene-environment interaction: Caspi et al. (2002) research on antisocial behaviour\ -- Independent variables: monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene activity (low or high); maltreatment in childhood (present or absent)\ -- Dependent variable: antisocial behaviour in early adulthood LECTURE 7 7/10/2024, BOOLE 4, 10am -- 11am Is it all In the genes then? - No! common misunderstandings: - There is no "gene for" intelligence, autism, musical talent, being gay, etc. - Genes control behaviour only indirectly \[see above\] - The control it probabilistically, not deterministically -- because how each individual\ gene is expressed depends on environment (and on other genes) - Gene-environment interactions \[see above\] - Heredity determines [individual differences between people] in response to environment. It does [NOT] determine the [outcome] of development -- does not put absolute upper limit on growth - Examples: secular trends in height, weight, reading skills, IQ - Implication: even when the role of heredity is strong, you can powerfully influence the developmental outcomes (for better or worse) by modifying the environment.\ -- examples - Maccoby (2000): all criticisms of Maccoby & Martin (1983) model mentioned above may be true to some extent -- but for some independent role of parenting styles in shaping children's outcome has been found nevertheless\ -- This is perhaps most apparent in the case of\ neglectful parenting: gross child neglect and abuse\ may have huge and long-term consequences - Judith Rich Harris, Alison Gopnik: what matters most is a good relationship with your children. That's what parents should focus on -- rather\ than try to „design" their children according to a particular plan - Good childhood is precious in its own right -- not just as a preparation for the future [Siblings and development ] [Siblings ] - The importance of sibling relations - Do interactions with siblings influence our developmental outcomes? Do we observe stable [birth order effects?] - IQ: the resource dilution model (Douglas Downey) and the confluence model (Robert Zajonc) - Resource dilution model: division of finite parental resources across growing number of children - Confluence model: average intellectual climate of the family and how it is affected by younger siblings - Personality & attitudes: "born to rebel" hypothesis (Frank Sulloway) - Do interactions with siblings influence our developmental outcomes? Do we observe stable [birth order effects?] [EVIDENCE:] - Birth order has small impact on IQ, no impact at all on personality or attitudes (Rohrer et al., 2015, 2017) - Impact on educational achievement -- consistent with resource dilution rather than confluence model (Kunz & Peterson, 2010) [POSSIBLE INTERPRETATIONS OF THE EVIDENCE:] - Interactions with siblings does not have a long-term impact on our personality or attitudes - Interactions with siblings DOES have long-term impact on those outcomes -- but what this impact is depends on how birth order interacts with several other factors - [birth spacing], whether older siblings are same sex or different, individual characteristics of older siblings - Birth order may impact on 'at home' personality, but not on 'out of home' personality (J.R.Harris) - Fraternal birth order effect on male homosexual orientation - The effect and its hypothetical biological mechanisms (Balthazart, 2018)\ -- Is it real though? (Vilsmeier et al., 2023) [Problems for revision ] - What is parenting? - What are the key claims of Maccoby & Martin (1983) parenting styles model? - What does the model say about parenting attitudes and parenting styles? - What predictions does it make about the impact of parenting styles on child's development? - Maccoby and Martin (1983) model postulates a direct causal relationship between parenting styles and children's developmental outcomes -- each parenting style will 'produce' a different type of the child (and authoritative style is the best). What are the problems with these claims? - In other words, how is the relationship between parenting styles and developmental outcomes of children more complex than the model predicts? - What are the alternative (to Maccoby & Martin) ways of describing/classifying parenting styles? - What do you know about behavioural genetics?\ -- What questions does it ask?\ -- What are its methods / study designs that it uses?\ -- What are its key findings? Focus on developmental aspects in particular - What are gene-environment correlation and gene-environment interaction?\ -- What is the difference between them?\ -- What three types of gene-environment correlation do we know? Can you give examples?\ -- Can you give examples of gene-environment interaction? - Some of the effects traditionally attributed to upbringing ("the power of parenting") may in fact be the effects of heritability ("the power of genetics").\ -- Can you explain this statement?\ -- Can you quote some evidence to support it? - What do we know about the role of siblings in shaping our personality and intelligence? - Does birth order effect exist? \[Hint: consider this separately for personality and\ intelligence\]. If it does, what is the likely mechanism? [LECTURE 8 8/10/2024, BOOLE 4, 2pm -- 3pm] [Social development beyond the family] [Group socialisation theory (Harris 1995, 1998)] [Questions:] - What makes us more alike? - Process of [socialisation:] adopting culturally approved patterns of behaviour - What makes us different from each other? - The process of [individualisation], especially the development of personality - [Personality:] reasonably stable individual differences in the patterns of emotions and behaviour - Personality models, e.g.:\ Eysenck's model: extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism\ "Big Five" model: extraversion, neuroticism, openness to new experience, conscientiousness, agreeableness [Answers ] - Some socialisation and individualisation outcomes, traditionally seen as the product of parenting, are in fact the product of:\ a) [heredity\ ]-- See behavioural genetics research discussed last week. See also Plomin et al., 2016)\ b) [Peer influences\ ]-- [Peer groups]: general characteristics\ -- The socialising impact of peer groups: - Acquisition of social customs, norms and roles through [group conformity] (e.g. second language/dialect/accent; values and attitudes; gender roles) - Peer [group conformity] vs. [peer pressure] - Peer group conformity vs. conformity with adult norms - The individualising impact of peer groups:\ - Establishment of [dominance hierarchies\ ]- Friendships - Social play as the key context in which peer influences operate - See week 10 lecture - Social learning and behaviour is context-specific - What we learn socially in one context, we tend NOT to transfer (generalize) to other context - This context-specificity is adaptive! - Parenting does impact on socialisation and personality at home -- but not beyond! - Our experiences with siblings do not generalize beyond sibling relationships, either\ -- E.g. Lack of consistent [birth order effects] on personality - People don't develop one personality, but different personalities in different social contexts! - Experiences with peers (+ heredity) are the main factors determining our adult "public" personality and values - "child's environment" is much more than "nurture" [Practical implications of group socialisation theory] - Evidence potentially inconsistent with the group socialisation theory: gene-environment interaction - The type of upbringing/nurture one receives may matter little or matter a lot, depending on the genetic susceptibility of the child (the kind of "genetic potential" child has - E.g. Caspi et al. (2002) study \[see week 3 lecture\] [Early childhood care and education ] - Caring for and educating 2-6 year olds: cross-cultural and historical perspective\ -- The origins of formal out-of-home early childhood care and education \[ECCE\] - ECCE participation: is it good for the child?\ -- An ethically and politically charged issue -- beliefs, values and evidence are hard to disentangle\ -- [EVIDENCE]: mixed. Some studies show impressive long-term benefits of ECCE -- others show few benefits, or even harm - Much depends on: the outcome being measured (e.g. academic outcomes vs. emotional well-being) age of entry, the type of childcare, its quality and its duration -- and on child's individual characteristics [The impact of ECCE on child development: what do we know?] - [RESEARCH METHODOLOGY]\ -- Long-term longitudinal research is necessary to find out what works\ -- It is necessary to look at a range of outcomes - Academic learning -- but also emotional wellbeing, social skills, initiative and creativity, etc. [FINDINGS ] - ECCE that starts very early (1st year of life) and is intensive (10 hrs week+) is associated with less-secure mother-child attachment, as well as some\ adverse social effects \[aggression, disobedience\] that may extend as far as adolescence - Possible mechanisms - 3-5 year olds: intense focus on academic skills & "school-like" instruction may produce some short term advantages in terms of school readiness, but appears to be harmful in the long run (lower achievement and motivation, more behavioral\ problems - Possible mechanisms - High quality preschool ECCE is associated with many benefits (social, educational, cognitive) -- especially for children from disadvantaged backgrounds - What is high quality ECCE?\ - Sensitive and responsive care\ - Following the needs of the child -- but also of the family!\ - [Developmentally appropriate] learning goals - Examples - Developmentally appropriate ways of learning\ -- Ample opportunities for [free play], i.e. one "with no adult directors or close supervisors" (Gray, 2012) [SCHOOLING] - Compulsory schooling (aka [forced schooling]): cross-cultural and historical perspective - Why do we send children to schools? What functions does school serve? - Acquisition of basic skills ([the three Rs,] etc.) - Cultural [indoctrination] - Opportunity to discover and develop talents/potentials, start exploring potential career paths - Peer group: aptitude, attitudes and social capital children bring in - School morale/ethos - Real (as opposed to declared) school rules and policies - Relationship among staff (mutual support, cohesion) - Inspirational and authoritative school leadership\ -- Inspirational teachers\ -- Teaching methods - Value-added analysis of school performance Forced schooling: criticism and alternatives - Human rights perspective - Psychological perspective (learning and motivation theory, developmental theory) - [Self-directed learning] alternatives to forced schooling - Unschooling - Democratic schools [Human learning: the role of more knowledgeable other ] [How homo sapiens learning differs from learning in other apes ] - Better independent problem solving? - Much better [observational learning] (i.e. earning by imitation) - Ability to benefit from [unintentional modelling] - More knowledgeable others offering [explicit instruction (]i.e. teaching), which the learner can benefit from\ - a uniquely human feature [More knowledgeable other and the zone of proximal development ]  [Effective instruction within the zone of proximal development ] - Bruner: "more knowledgeable other" as a source of [scaffolding] within the zone of proximal development - Common forms of scaffolding: - Explicit modelling (demonstration) - Especially the modelling of self-talk, which will evolve into inner speech\ - Encouragement\ - Hinting/prompting\ - Presenting alternatives\ - Directing to resources/supports Success instructor takes away the scaffolding and fades away, the student takes over [Problems for revision ] Consider the Group Socialisation theory of J.R.Harris - What are its key claims? How is this theory different from the Standard Social Science Model? - What evidence does J.R.Harris advances to support her theory? - Why is the theory considered controversial (or even offensive) by some people? - What is your perspective on the theory, given everything you learned so far about the factors influencing the course of human development? - What is 'educational success'? Consider how different people conceptualise this success differently (e.g. Immediate vs. long-term improvement; good exam\ achievements vs wellbeing vs job & career success) - Consider also how those different operationalisations of educational success may lead to disagreement as to what constitutes 'good education' - There is evidence that preschool education can have long- term impact on children's lives -- both positive and negative, depending on how that education is structured. Considering this evidence\....\ -- If we want to provide preschool education that has long-term positive impact on children's achievement as well as wellbeing, what should we do?\ -- If we want to provide such education, what should we avoid? [Consider contemporary system of schooling] - Why has the institution of universal compulsory schooling come about? What are its key functions? - Some children have good school experiences, others traumatic ones. Some are\ stimulated by their schools to develop their potential fully -- why others not at all. What features of the school environment may be responsible for those differences? - Some psychologists and educationalists criticise the current system of universal\ compulsory schooling as fundamentally flawed. What are their arguments and\ evidence? What alternatives do they offer? - What does the concept of the zone of proximal development tell us about the nature of learning and instruction? - What may happen within „the zone" which facilitates learning? LECTURE 9 21/10/2024, BOOLE 4, 10am -- 11am Modalities of language receptive vs. expressive language - [Receptive language] is generally better than expressive Language acquisition: [foetal stage ] - Beginnings of receptive phonology: rudimentary speech perception and memory (mainly prodosy) Language acquisition: [infancy] - Receptive phonology (speech perception): rapid development of the ability to discriminate and categorize speech sounds - Perceptual narrowing phenomenon - Statistical learning - Expressive phonology (speech production): - Crying ⇒ cooing ⇒ babbling ⇒ first words Stages of speech development in infancy n.b ages indicate the onset of particular behaviour. They are very rough guide -- huge individual differences exists - different behaiours do not replace each other rapidly and may overlap - One word utterances: [holophrases] - Adults: [child directed speech (motherse)] - Pragmatics - [Turn taking] in carer-infant 'conversations' - [Proto-communicative gestures ] - [Proto-imperative pointing] - [Proto-declarative pointing ] [Language acquisitions: early childhood ] - [Vocabulary aqusition: milestones ] - Vocabulary = semantics + phonology + morphology - 9-12 months: first understandable words produced - Average 12-month-old: receptive vocabulary of 10 words or more, expressive of 5 words - Average 24 month old: expressive vocabulary of 150 words (but this may vary considerably) - [Vocabulary spurt] (rapid increase in naming) after a critical mass of 150 words is reached - From then on, several new words a day are mastered (receptively and productively) - How do we learn new words? [Word-learning biases (constraints)] = general assumptions we make about the meaning of new words - [Social constraints:] using joint attention to identify a referent - [Lexical constraints:] rules of thumb as to what new words may refer to, e.g.\ -- Mutual exclusivity\ -- Whole object - [Linguistic constraints:] relying on grammatical cues to make an educated guess at word meaning - Phonology acquisition - Perception generally ahead of production - Phonemic contrasts can be perceived yet the child is unable to articulate them - Systematic [phonological processes] evident in articulation, e.g. - Weak syllable deletion:\ -- e. g. /nænæ/ for 'banana', /foʊn/ for 'telephone', etc. - Cluster reduction:\ -- e.g. /paɪdə/ for 'spider', /æt/ for 'ant', etc. - Consonant harmony:\ -- e.g. /gog/ for 'dog';/ɡʌk/ for 'duck', etc. - The causes of phonological processes - Syntax and morphology acquisition - 2nd year of life: [two word utterances]: e.g. more car, more read, bye-bye Papa, there potty, mommy stair - The importance of combining words - 2-4 years: children's discovery of grammatical rules apparent e.g. in language errors - Neologisms: I'm supping, I'm talling, I'll have to unhang it, etc. - Inflectional [overgeneralization errors]: he goed, comed, hitted, two foots, many sheeps, etc. - Errors as a window into child's mind! [Pragmatics ] - Listening skills -- ability to shift perspective - Linked with our learning of how the mind works Language acquisition: [school age] - Learning to read and write - Development of [metalinguistic skills] (linguistic awareness) - Especially [phonological awareness] - Gradual shift from learning to read towards reading to learn - Reading as a primary vehicle for the acquisition of new vocabulary - Narrative skills: [story grammar] - Mastery of context-appropriate ways of using language - Dialect switching - Register / style [Language and social environment ] - What is the minimal input required? [Sensitive period] in language acquisition - Evidence from feral children (e.g. Victor of Aveyron, Genie) - Evidence from bilingualism - Bi- and multilingualism - Multilingualism as a norm across the world - Consecutive vs. sequential multilingualism - Potential advantages and disadvantages - Parental language input and children's language development - Elaborated code vs. restricted code (B. Bernstein) - Differential effects of 'business talk' and 'commentary and chit-chat' (Hart & Risley, 1995) - Parental language input → children's language: is it really a causal relationship? [Problems for revision] 1. What are the key components of language? 2. What are the key milestones in the development of speech perception? 3. What are the key milestones in the development of speech\ production? 4. What are the key milestones in the development of vocabulary 5. What processes enable children to acquire vocabulary? 6. What are the key milestones in the development of pragmatics\ of communication? 7. Children take active approach to learning grammar -- their construct grammatical rules in their minds. How do we know that? 8. What child-directed behaviours of parents and teachers have the potential to boost children's language development? Quiz assignment reading. 21/10/2024, library,12pm --2pm [Chapter 3: Applying evolution by natural selection to human development] [Due: 31/10/2024] [completed] [18 concepts -- 1 hour ] - The remnants of Neanderthal genes emanates from interbreeding - About 1.6 million to 100,000 years ago, human brains tripled in size - The gradual change in organic life that may eventually lead to the formation of new species is known as evolution - Origin of species was published in 1859 - According to Darwin's principle of natural selection, as the environment changes, new characteristics may contribute to survival and the ability to pass on ones genes - The research field that seeks to explain how evolution shaped modern behaviour is called evolutionary psychology - The brain size of early hominids is comparatively similar to the brain size of modern chimpanzees - Biological evolution is defined as the gradual change over time in organic life that may eventually lead to the formation of new species - Darwins concept of natural selection is synonymous to the 'survival of the fittest' concept originally coined by Herbert spencer - Kin selection refers to the evolutionary strategy in which behaviours are selected that favour the reproductive success of an organisms relatives even if that is at a cost to the organisms own survival and reproduction. - Characteristics that increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction within a particular environment will be preserved in the population and therefore become more frequent over time. This process is called natural selection - Researchers who investigate the influence of evolution on characteristics of a species *in general* are called evolutionary phycologists. In contrast, researchers who investigate the influence of genes and environment on *individual differences*, are called behavioural geneticists. - A behaviour in an organism that reduces its fitness to survive and reproduce while increasing another organism\'s fitness, assuming that the favour will be returned later, is called reciprocal altruism. - About 1.6 million to 100,000 years ago, human brains tripled in size. - Cleaning symbiosis among fish and octopus where fish remove and eat parasites on the octopus for food exemplifies reciprocal altruism - According to Darwin\'s principle of natural selection, biologically based characteristics that contribute to survival and reproduction increase in the population over time because those who lack the characteristics are less likely to pass on their genes - The evolutionary strategy in which behaviours are selected that favour the reproductive success of an organism\'s *relatives *even if it is at a cost to that organism\'s *own *survival and reproduction, is called kin selection - Which of the following are culturally universal characteristics?: co-operative relationships, basic emotions, language acquisition - An important principle in evolutionary psychology is that behaviour does not occur in a biological vacuum; it always involves an organism acting within (and often in response to) an environment - In Robert Trivers\' (1971) research, the statement \'I'll scratch your back today for you to scratch mine tomorrow\' denotes reciprocal altruism - When bats are deprived from food, starvation is avoided by begging for food from other bats in the colony, who indeed share food even with non-relatives. This is an example of reciprocal altruism - In which of the following ways do men differ from women in their attitude towards mating strategies and preferences?: short term mating and greater number short term sexual partners - Match: - Facial perception and orientation -- bonding with caregivers - Primitive and mathematical skills -- proportional judgement - Group belongingness -- survival and reproductive success - Basic emotions -- social communication - Male aggression -- dominance and reproductive success - Which theory assumes that mating strategies and preferences reflect inherited tendencies, shaped over the ages in response to different types of adaptive problems that men and women faced? Sexual strategies theory - Despite the general agreement on the interaction between biological and environmental factors, the debate in evolutionary psychology has focused on the questions: 1. How general or specific are the biological mechanism's that have evolved 2. How much are biological mechanisms influenced by the environment - Which theory assumes that men and women display different mating preferences because society guides them into different social roles? Social structures theory - Which two competing explanations for sex differences have been proposed in research on mate selection and preferences? 1. Sexual strategy theory, 2. Social structure theory - The evolutionary personality theory looks for the origin of universal personality traits in the adaptive demands of our evolutionary history. - According to the sexual strategies theory, mating strategies and preferences reflect inherited tendencies shaped over the ages in response to different types of problems that men and women face. - The idea that multiple, even contradictory, behavioural strategies might be adaptive in certain environments and would therefore be maintained through natural selection, is called strategic pluralism - The social structure theory assumes that men and women display different mating preferences because society guides them into different roles - Which research field looks for the origin of presumably universal personality traits in the adaptive demands of our species\' evolutionary history? Evolutionary personality theory - Introversion and extraversion (two contradictory personality traits) might both be adaptive, depending on the situation. Therefore, both would be maintained through natural selection. This is an example of strategic pluralism Reciprocal altruism [Chapter 11: what is developmental psychology? What does it do?] [Due 31/10/2024] [completed] [12 concepts ] - Why might the cognitive information processing abilities that we possess at different stages of development have an important bearing on how we understand and can interact in social situations? Our social environment is a form of complex information - Which of the following are main goals of developmental psychology? - To describe biological changes that occur as we age - To ask what causes or drives developmental change - To describe psychological changes that occur as we age - To describe behavioural changes that occur as we age - Which of the following would be a concern for the issue of stability versus change in the description of development? If characteristics change throughout adulthood - How would theorists who see development as discontinuous describe developmental changes? A progression of qualitatively distinct stages - Nature = genetic inheritance - Nurture = environmental factors - All cognitive abilities can develop in the absence of social interactions? False - How does a sensitive period differ from a critical period? Normal development is still possible even if experiences are missed in a sensitive period. The sensitive period is optimal but not necessary - Which area of psychology has the main goals of examining and describing changes that occur as we age and questioning the causes of these changes? Developmental psychology - Which of the following examples illustrate a critical period? A foetus exposed to a drug is not able to develop normal limbs - Which issue of developmental psychology questions if characteristics remain constant across the lifespan as we age? Stability vs change - Which of the following defines a sensitive period? An optimal age range for a certain experience to occur for development to proceed normally - Continuous development = development occurs in a gradual way - Discontinuous development = development occurs as a progression of qualitatively distinct stages - Which type of research design studies development by comparing people of different ages at the same point of time? Cross sectional design - If a theorist proposes that change occurs due to \'nature\' rather than \'nurture\', what would they see as a key cause of development? Genes - Which of the following are criticisms of longitudinal designs? They can be time-consuming, Participants may drop out of the study, They may only be representative of the cohort studied - A sequential design combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches testing different ages at multiple points in time. - An age range during which certain experiences must occur for development to proceed normally or along a certain path is called a critical period. - The microgenetic design is a type of longitudinal approach that measures individual trajectories of development on a small scale. - A cross-sectional design compares characteristics or abilities of people of different ages at the same point in time. - A longitudinal design repeatedly tests the same cohort as it grows older. - Which method illustrates a sequential design? 10 year olds and 30 year olds are given a memory test, then al tested again every 5 years - Which of the following illustrates the micro genetic design? A group of children are tested weekly to study changes in mathematical strategies LECTURE 10 22/10/2024, BOOLE 4, 2pm -- 3pm [How do children begin to make sense of the world] [Key questions ] - How do children acquire mind capable of understanding the world? - What are children capable of understanding at different stages of development? - the „what" question - How is that growing understanding possible? What are the mechanisms? - The „how" question [Explaining cognitive development: Jean Piaget and genetic epistemology] - Jean Piaget (1896-1980) - What is [ genetic epistemolopgy?] [Piaget's genetic epistemology -- key elements ] - Main question: How come a newborn (a purely biological entity) becomes capable of thought? - What is the structure of child's mind at various stages of development? - How do basic categories for organising knowledge (e.g. space, causality, object, number) emerge - Basic mechanism of the development of\ thought: equilibration of cognitive schemas - [Cognitive schemas]: way of organising a specific chunk of knowledge - [Sensorimotor schema]: organise basic actions performed on objects - [Operations:] organise actions that are performed mentally ("in one's head"); have the property of being reversible - [Equilibration of cognitive schemas]: striving for balance between assimilation and accommodation - Assimilation\ -- Using existing schemas to act upon the world/interpret it\ -- Absorbing new things into the old schema - [Accommodation]\ -- Adapting existing schemas to fit the reality\ -- Change in a schema resulting from new information taken in by assimilation - Discontinuity of cognitive development: transition through a series of discrete [stages] - Each subsequent stage is qualitatively (not just quantitatively) better than the previous one - Higher stage = more versatile (reversible), abstract and less egocentric (more decentred) thinking - Four stages\ -- [Sensory-motor] \[0-2 years approx\]\ -- [Preoperational] \[2-7 approx\]\ -- [Concrete operational] \[7-12 approx\]\ -- [Formal operational] \[12+ approx\] - All knowledge is constructed through child's own activity, not innate - Only reflexes are innate - Cognitive development as progressive [decentration] of thought - Decentration = grasping the distinction between one's own perspective, and perspective of others - Decentration = grasping the distinction between outward appearance and underlying reality - Decentration = objectivity - Decentration = overcoming [childhood egocentrism] [Childhood egocentrism ] - Examples of childhood egocentrism (i.e. egocentric thought) at the pre- operational/intuitive stage of development (≈ 2-7 years) - Difficulties in grasping the principle of conservation of volume, mass, length, number - Inflexibility of perception\ -- e.g. Part-whole perception (Elkind, Koegler & Go, 1964) - Animism, finalism, artificialism - Difficulties with justifying own point of view -- providing assertions with no justification - Parallel play - Egocentric speech [Piaget's theory: how does it fare in the light of more recent evidence?] - Piaget might have underestimated the speed of cognitive development - Two reasons for that - There may be more [innate knowledge] (and innate learning mechanisms) than Piaget believed - Development is almost certainly not domain-general, but domain-specific - There are separate developmental domains, each with its own unique developmental history *For the evidence concerning these three claims -- see below* [Findings that challenge piagets theory ] - Sensorimotor stage: infants grasp fundamental conceptual categories (space, objects, numer, causality) much faster than Piaget concluded - Evidence: e.g. impossible physical events studies of Rene Baillargeon - Why did Piaget underestimate infant knowledge? - Pre-operational stage: How egocentric (as opposed to decentred) children appear to be depends on how familiar the problem is to the child - Evidence: e.g. - Three mountain task (Piaget & Inhelder, 1957) vs policeman and doll task (Hughes, 1975) - Classic Piagetian conservation of number experiment vs its „naughty teddy" variant - Conclusion: childhood egocentrism may be overcome faster than Piaget believed - Dissociations between domains: How children develop cognitively in one domain may have little in common with how they develop in another domain [Children's cognitive development: contemporary theories] [Nativist accounts of development] - There is [innate knowledge] - Knowledge that is organized ahead of experience - Knowledge that is not learned - Knowledge that we are literally „born with"\ But some knowledge we are born with is learned at fetal stage of development -- so such knowledge doesn't qualify as „innate" - "Hard wired" into the brain (so ultimately also encoded in the genes -- at least partly) - Shared by all (typically developing) humans - Procedural (= a skill) rather than declarative (= a set of propositions) - Tacit = not conscious - There is structural continuity between the children's and adults' minds - Developmental change: mostly quantitative (more efficient thinking) rather than qualitative (radically different thinking) - Children's minds are modular - Each module a separate adaptive 'tool' shaped by evolution - E.g. Tooby & Cosmides: children's minds are like Swiss army knifes - Prominent proponents: N. Chomsky, S. Pinker, E. Spelke - E. Spelke: [core knowledge,] which is innate and which experience builds on - Human cognition is founded, in part, on four systems for representing objects, actions, number, and space. It may be based, as well, on a fifth system for representing social partners. Each system has deep roots in human phylogeny and ontogeny, and it guides and shapes the mental lives of adults [(Spelke & Kintzler,2007, p. 89)] [Constructivist accounts of development] - Inspired directly by Piaget's theory -- modifying it only slightly - Very little is innate -- only basic learning mechanisms, rather than knowledge - Child actively constructs their own knowledge, through own exploration and interaction with others - Discontinuity between child and adult mind - Developmental change is qualitative -- radically new modes of thinking develop - Child's mind is not modular to start with -- modules are only the end product of development - Prominent proponents: A. Karmiloff-Smith, A.Gopnik (but see below) - Theory theory (e.g. A. Gopnik, A. Meltzoff, H. Wellman) - A child is like a little scientist. They constantly builds, tests and revises theories about the world around him - But: initial primitive theories a child starts with are innate - *The basic idea is that children develop their everyday knowledge of the world by using the same cognitive devices that adults use in science. In particular, children\ develop abstract, coherent, systems of entities and rules, particularly causal entities and rules. That is, they develop theories. These theories enable children to make predictions about new evidence, to interpret evidence, and to explain evidence. Children actively experiment with and explore the world, testing the predictions of the theory and gathering relevant evidence. Some counter-evidence to the theory is simply reinterpreted in terms of the theory. Eventually, however, when many predictions of the theory are falsified, the child begins to seek alternative theories. If the alternative does a better job of predicting and explaining the evidence it replaces the existing theory. [(Gopnik, 2003)]* [Is synthesis possible] - The two competing accounts given above are not completely mutually exclusive [Questions to consider ] 1. Jean Piaget's genetic epistemology: a. What is this theory actually trying to explain? b. What are its key claims? c. What key stages of cognitive development did Piaget identify? What are the key characteristics of children's thinking at each stage? d. What methods did Piaget use to study children's thinking? e. How does Piaget's theory fare in the light of more modern research? What aspects of that theory are doubtful or have to be rejected? 2. What does the term 'innate knowledge' mean? 3. What evidence is there suggestive of innate knowledge? 4. What is does the core knowledge account of cognitive development entails? How is it different from theory account? LECTURE 11 -- Catch up 5/11/2024, Home, 2pm -- 3pm [Intuitive psychology and the theory of mind ] [Children's intuitive theories about the world] - Whether we explain children's cognitive development adopting core knowledge\ approach [(e.g. Spelke & Kintzler, 2007)] or theory approach [(e.g. Gopnik, 2003)], we can agree that children try to understand the world and, in order to do so, they form, test and revise their own theories about the world - These theories are called [intuitive/naive/folk theories] - Three have been studies most: [intuitive/naive/folk physics, biology, and psychology] [Intuitive psychology] - ["Intuitive psychology] involves reasoning about persons and their mental lives. This domain is utilized during interactions with others and allows feelings, desires, motivations and intentions to be taken into account when reasoning about human behaviour." (Binnie & Williams, 2003) - Related concepts: folk psychology, naïve psychology, common-sense psychology [Theory of mind] - Theory of mind: the foundation of intuitive psychology - Theory of mind: tacit (implicit) understanding\... - that people have minds - that people are agents -- they are driven by desires and beliefs - of [mental state terms], such as think, know, want, feel, see, hear - Theory of mind ≈ [intentional stance] [Theory of mind and empathy] - Empathy: the ability to understand and share the feelings of another (Google's English Dictionary) - The ability to understand the feelings: [cognitive empathy] - The ability to share the feelings of another (being moved by the emotional state of another): [emotional empathy] - Theory of mind ≈ cognitive empathy - Theory of mind ≠ emotional empathy - Emotional empathy has a different origin and developmental pathways than theory of mind [The function of the theory of mind] - Theory of mind: necessary for negotiating social exchanges - e.g. repairing failed communication, building shared plans and goals, teaching, persuading, deceiving and avoiding deception - Machiavellian intelligence hypothesis - Links with emotional intelligence and social competence - Consequences of the absent (or weak) theory of mind [Measuring theory of mind] - A wide variety of tasks have been developed (Beaudoin et al., 2020) - Tasks measuring children's understanding of false beliefs were the first to be developed - Why is [a test of false beliefs] a good measure of theory of mind? - Examples of false beliefs tasks: - [Unexpected transfer task] (aka 'Sally-Anne' task) (Wimmer & Perner, 1983; Baron-Cohen et al. 1985) - [Deceptive box task] (aka 'Smarties task') (Perner et al., 1987) [Development of the theory of mind] - Early precursors (and probable prerequisites): - 2 months: - interest in and responsiveness to social stimulation (e.g. smiling at faces) - 12 -- 18 months: - Proto-communicative gestures (e.g. proto-declarative pointing) - 18-24 months: - Recognition of self in a mirror (the mirror test; - [Symbolic play] (very important!) - Reciprocal co-operation with others - Simple acts of altruism (e. g. giving a toy to another child) - Use of [mental state terminology] (think, know, want, feel, see, hear, and their higher-order derivatives [The emergence of full (explicit) theory of mind] - Evidence: successful completion of false belief tasks - Timing: preschool years - False belief tasks are completed successfully by most people with language age above 4 years - But much later (if at all) by children with autism! - Prerequisites of success on false belief tasks: - sufficient verbal ability, - Sufficient nonverbal ability (general reasoning skills) - Specific mentalizing (i.e.) theory of mind ability - Conclusion: the development of the theory of mind is probably [domain-specific] [Autism and the theory of mind] - Is autism a specific deficit in the theory of mind? [Questions to Consider] - What is intuitive psychology? - What is theory of mind? Why is it the foundation of intuitive psychology? What would be the consequences of having no theory of mind -- or very limited theory of mind? - How it theory of mind studied -- what tasks are used to study it? - What developmental milestones leading to a fully- developed theory of mind? When do they occur? - A person with under-developed theory of mind may lack cognitive empathy -- but it does not mean that they lack emotional empathy. Can you explain this claim? LECTURE 12 -- Catch up 5/11/2024, Home, 2pm -- 3pm [Moral Development] [What is morality?] Morality vs ethics - Morality: personal and societal beliefs on what is right or wrong - Ethics: systematic reflection on morality, the philosophy of right conduct - Often applied to a particular group or context (e.g. ethical code of conduct\ for doctors, lawyers, students, etc.) - The domain of morality - Moral values - Moral feelings - Moral reasoning - Moral judgement - Moral action [The mechanisms of moral judgement] - The deliberative model - Moral reasoning/deliberation -\> moral judgement (+ moral feelings?) - The intuitionist model - Moral feelings/intuitions -\> moral judgement (+ moral reasoning/deliberation?) [Development of moral reasoning: Jean Piaget's perspective] - Approach: the deliberative model - Methodology: interview (exploring children's reasoning about moral dilemmas) - Findings: - [heteronomous morality] (approx. 5- 9 years)\ Child sees moral rules are arbitrary and imposed from the outside; all that matters is consequences of one's actions - [autonomous morality] (approx. 9+ years)\ Child accepts moral rules as necessary, grasping the distinction between moral rules and social conventions, between one's intentions and the consequences of one's actions\ Moral development: another example of gradual overcoming of child's cognitive egocentrism? [Development of moral reasoning: Lawrence Kohlberg's perspective] - Directly inspired by Piaget (constructivism, focus on moral reasoning, discrete stages of development) - Methodology: interview (exploring children's reasoning about moral dilemmas) - A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one\ drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid \$200 for the radium and charged \$2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman\'s husband, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about \$1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay\ later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I\'m going make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man\'s store to steal the drug for his wife. [Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?] - **Findings**: Kohlberg's [ three-level six-stage model of moral development] [Criticism of Kohlberg's model] - Exclusive focus on the [ethics of justice] (as opposed to [ethics of care], and other potential forms of ethics) (Carol Gillingham) - Excessive focus on the form and structure of moral arguments (moral formalism) as opposed to the actual content of moral claims (what we actually consider to be right or wrong) - Excess focus on moral deliberation, neglect of moral emotions/intuitions - Limited concern with actual moral action\ How people act when faced with a moral dilemma, rather than how they reason about it [Development of moral reasoning: moral rules vs social conventions] - The distinction between moral rules and social conventions - It emerges quite early (during preschool years) - It is mastered normally by autistic individuals, but poorly by psychopaths/sociopaths - ASD = normal emotional (affective) empathy \[which underpins moral/conventional distinction\] but poor cognitive empathy? - Psychopathy -- poor emotional empathy, good cognitive empathy [Development of moral emotions, reasoning and action: Moral Foundations Theory perspective] - The authors: Jonathan Haidt and the team - Key features\ [Intuitionist approach\ ] emotions first\ [Moral pluralism\ ] There are many foundations of morality (see below)\ [ Nativism\ ] Morality is built on innate cognitive components\ [Evolutionary perspective\ ] Those innate components evolved through the process of natural selection to meet some adaptive challenges faced by Homo Sapiens (and earlier hominids) [What are 'moral foundations?] - Cognitive systems structured prior to experience (i.e. innate). They offer 'the first draft' upon which our experience builds morality - Criteria for identifying foundations - How many foundations are there? - What may the word „morality" refer to? What phenomena do scientists try to explain, when they research morality? - What did constructivist psychologists (Jean Piaget and -- in particular -- Lawrence Kohlberg) find out about the development of moral reasoning? - What are the limitations of constructivist approach to the understanding of morality? - What is the difference between emotional empathy and cognitive empathy? How can we measure them? What groups of people may have difficulties with one -- or both -- types of empathy? - What are the key claims of the Moral Foundation Theory (Haidt et al.) - Graham, Haidt et al. (2013) describe their approach „a nativist, cultural-developmentalist, intuitionist, and pluralist approach to the study of morality" (p. 71). What do those adjectives mean? - What does the concept of „moral foundation" mean? What are the criteria for identifying separate moral foundation? - What five moral foundations did the theory identify originally? What are the key features of those foundations? - What are the implications of the Moral Foundations theory for our understanding of how morality develops, and why people differ in their moral outlook? Smart book assignment questions and answers 10/12/2024 [Chapter 11- adolescence and beyond -- physical and cognitive development] 1. What factor has determined the period known as adolescence? Culture 2. The terms adolescence and puberty can be used interchangeably. False 3. What is the pubertal landmark for girls? First menstrual flow 4. Which of the following is true regarding the onset of puberty in different cultures? In different cultures, onset of puberty may occur at different times 5. Which of the following is true regarding the outcomes of early maturation for boys and girls? Early maturation tends to be associated with fewer negative outcomes for boys than for girls. 6. Which of the following are true of adolescence? It is a product of western culture, it is a social construction 7. How is the period of adolescence related to puberty? There is overlap between adolescence and puberty though they are separate construct, Adolescence is characterized by social events while puberty is characterized by biological events 8. During adolescence, in what area of the brain is neural restructuring especially prominent? Pre-frontal cortex 9. What is the pubertal landmark for boys? First ejaculation 10. Which of the following reach their peak of functioning during young adulthood? Muscle strength, reaction time, vision 11. In North America, girls reach puberty around age 11 to 13, whereas in rural southern Mexico, 50 per cent of girls reach puberty well after age 13. What does this finding suggest about puberty? The onset of puberty differs by culture 12. How is basal metabolism affected by ageing? It slows 13. For boys who reach puberty early, which are potential consequences? There is a higher risk for drug use and smoking, They may have more success in athletics 14. Which of the following changes are often seen in middle age? Visual acuity declines, women stop menstruating and fertility declines 15. What is one of the findings of Resnick et al.\'s (2003) study on how the adult brain changes in late adulthood? Healthy adults have less tissue loss than adults with medical problems 16. What kinds of changes in the brain typically occur during adolescence? There is an increase in myelination of neurons, The adolescent brain is in a state of flux, Neural restructuring is prominent in the prefrontal cortex 17. Humans reach their peak of physical and perceptual functioning in young adulthood 18. Which of the following is an example of an adolescent engaging in a personal fable thinking pattern? Steve feels no one has ever suffered as much as he has when his girlfriend breaks up with him, Kayleigh believes that her parents could never understand the importance of attending a party 19. Basal metabolism is the rate at which the resting body converts food into energy. 20. Jason realises when he gets to school that he has a stain on his jeans and believes that everyone has noticed the stain and is discussing it with their friends. What type of adolescent thinking does this reflect? Adolescent egocentrism 21. Decrease in fertility and the onset of menopause which occurs in women at about the age of 50, are changes associated with later adulthood. 22. Elkind uses the term imaginary audience to describe oversensitivity to social evaluation in adolescence. 23. In Resnick et al.\'s (2003) longitudinal study, what part(s) of the brain showed the most age-related brain tissue loss? Frontal and parietal lobe 24. During adolescence, in what area of the brain is neural restructuring especially prominent? Prefrontal cortex 25. Adolescents who engage in risky behaviours do so probably because of a sense of invulnerability 26. When adolescents overestimate the uniqueness of their feelings and experience, this overestimation is called the adolescent egocentrism 27. In which of Piaget\'s stage should participants first be able to successfully solve a pendulum task problem according to his theory? The formal operational stage 28. The self-absorbed and distorted view of one\'s uniqueness and importance which usually appears during adolescence is termed adolescent egocentrism 29. What cognitive abilities have been found to reach adult-like levels during adolescence? Information processing speed 30. What do adolescents who engage in an imaginary audience thinking pattern believe? Everyone will notice how they look, their life is like being 'on stage', everyone is watching what they do 31. Why might adults perform more slowly on information-processing tasks? Abilities of perceptual speed may be declining 32. What is one of the findings of Resnick et al.\'s (2003) study on how the adult brain changes in late adulthood? Healthy adults have less brain tissue loss than adults with medical problems 33. In adulthood, how does memory for new factual information change? It declines 34. What type of adolescent thinking has been associated with an increased risk of engaging in risky behaviours? Egocentric thinking 35. In early research, when IQ scores were compared in cross-sectional studies, when did a noticeable decline begin 30 years 36. How do adolescents compare to concrete operational children when engaging in Inhelder and Piaget\'s (1958) pendulum task? Adolescents are more systematic with their testing, Adolescents are able to manipulate one variable and hold the rest constant 37. When did Luna et al. (2004) find that the ability to suppress task-irrelevant responses appears? Late adolescence 38. How are information-processing abilities affected by ageing in adulthood? There may be a trade off of speed for accuracy, Reaction time declines steadily, The ability to discriminate visual stimuli becomes slower 39. Which of the following describes how memory for factual information changes over adulthood? Memory for new factual information declines, The ability to recognize familiar stimuli is less affected by age than unfamiliar stimuli, Some types of memory decline more rapidly than others 40. Which of the following is an example of a task of fluid intelligence? Solving a mental rotation problem 41. Which of the following was found by early cross-sectional studies regarding intellectual changes in adulthood? After age 30 IQ declines 42. Which of the following is an example of a task of crystallized intelligence? Knowing the capital of a country 43. In which of Piaget\'s stage should participants first be able to successfully solve a pendulum task problem according to his theory? Formal operational thinking 44. Fluid intelligence tends to decline at an earlier age than crystallized intelligence. True 45. What cognitive abilities have been found to reach adult-like levels during adolescence? Information-processing speed, Visuospatial working memory, Inhibition of task-irrelevant responses 46. Why might adults perform more slowly on information-processing tasks? They may be trying to be more accurate, Abilities of perceptual speed may be declining, They may be using more conservative judgements 47. The ability to perform mental operations like abstract and logical reasoning is called fluid intelligence. 48. What factors have been found to be related to slower cognitive decline in adulthood? Stimulating jobs and activities, Marriage to a spouse with higher intellectual abilities, Above-average education 49. The term crystallized intelligence reflects a person\'s accumulation of verbal skills and factual knowledge. 50. What did research by Baltes and Staudinger (2000) on wisdom reveal about how it develops? It remains relatively stable after age 25, It increases between age 13 and 25 51. Which of the following have been supported by research regarding how intelligence changes during adulthood? Fluid intellectual abilities tend to decline before crystallized intellectual abilities, Cognitive decline can be slowed down with exercise and diet, Fluid and crystallized intelligence decline in late adulthood 52. Evidence that persons with long-term stability in cognitive functioning are associated with above-average education as well as cognitively-stimulating jobs and personal activities support a mental exercise hypothesis. 53. Psychologists use the term wisdom to refer to knowledge about human nature and social relationships, strategies for making decisions and handling conflict, and an ability to manage uncertainty. 54. A type of senile dementia, which accounts for about two-thirds of senile dementia cases, is Alzheimer's disease. 55. One of the first symptoms of dementia to appear is impaired memory 12: Adolescence and beyond; social and emotional development 1. The term adolescence can be defined as the period of development and gradual transition between childhood and adulthood. 2. Puberty is a period of rapid maturation in which a person becomes able to sexually reproduce true 3. Which of the following psychologists used the term \'storm and stress\' to describe adolescence? G. Stanley Hall 4. The pivotal crisis of adolescent personality development, according to Erikson, is identity vs role confusion 5. Identity diffusion -- People in this group have not yet gone through an identity crisis because they are unconcerned 6. Identity foreclosure -- People in this group have not yet gone through an identity crisis because they committed to an identity before experiencing a crisis 7. Identity moratorium -- People in this group want to establish a clear identity, are currently experiencing a crisis, and have not yet resolved it 8. Identity achievement - People in this group have gone through an identity crisis, successfully resolved it, and emerged with a coherent set of values 9. The period of development and gradual transition between childhood and adulthood is known as adolescence 10. Melanie has decided to go to law school because she comes from a long line of lawyers and her family expects her to go to law school too. According to Marcia\'s identity status concept, which of the following identity statuses best describes Melanie? Identity foreclosure 11. Markus has noticed that hair has started to grow under his armpits and on his chin. Markus is likely experiencing puberty 12. When asked \'Who are you?\', a person from a collectivistic society would probably answer, \'I am the son of hard-working parents, and a member of my community.\' 13. Which of the following psychologists posits that \'not all adolescents experience storm and stress, but storm and stress is more likely during adolescence than at other ages\'? Jeffrey Arnett 14. In a national survey, 80% of American teens living at home said they thought highly of and enjoyed spending time with their parents. 15. Erikson believed that an adolescent\'s \'identity crisis\' could be resolved positively, leading to a stable sense of identity 16. Research supports the truism of adolescence as a time of increased adolescent-parent conflict false 17. Building on Erikson\'s work, James Marcia studied adolescents and young adults and classified the identity status of each person. 18. Research shows that parent--teenager conflict is correlated with higher levels of antisocial behaviour (e.g., getting into fights) and lower self-esteem. Thus, parent-teenager conflict causes more antisocial behaviour and lower self-esteem in teenagers false 19. According to James Marcia, people who have gone through an identity crisis, and have successfully resolved it are in the identity achievement stage. 20. Which of the following is an added buffer that helps teenagers resist peer pressure to do misdeeds closeness to parents 21. \'I am an autonomous individual with clear boundaries separating me from other people\'. This is the identity of a person from a(n) individualistic (often Western) society. 22. How did Larson and colleagues (2002) study teenage emotionality over a long period of time in a novel and powerful way? Teenagers carried an electronic pager and completed questionnaires rating how happy or unhappy they were at random times of the day 23. The conflicts between adolescents and their parents have a lot in common. For example, Yau and Smetana (1996) found that the children in Chinese families in Hong Kong argue about choice of activities, household chores and homework. 24. In traditional cultures marriage typically is the key transitional event into adulthood (Arnett, 2001) 25. Three issues over which conflict has been shown to decrease (Galambos & Almeida, 1992) in the transition from childhood to adolescence are chores, appearance and politeness 26. Among American, Chinese and Taiwanese teens, those who report more conflict with parents also display more anti-social behaviour, lower self-esteem, higher level of school misconduct. 27. Positive influences on adolescent development include closeness to (positive role model) parents and peer pressure against misconduct.  28. Arnett (2007) coined the concept of \"emerging adulthood\" to describe the developmental phase of life from adolescence to the thirties. 29. Identify a finding of Larson et al.\'s (2002) research regarding teenage emotionality. Teenagers\' daily emotional experiences are more positive than negative. 30. Studies tend to show that happiness in adulthood develops in a(n) U shaped pattern 31. In pre-industrial and traditional modern cultures, the transition to adulthood is and was often marked by marriage, signifying that each partner has acquired the skills of adulthood and is deemed capable of raising a family. 32. Research supports the truism of adolescence as a time of increased adolescent-parent conflict. False 33. According to Erikson\'s psychosocial stage theory, which of the following stages is a major developmental challenge of early adulthood (ages 20 to 40)? Intimacy vs isolation 34. Research shows that parent--teenager conflict is correlated with higher levels of antisocial behaviour (e.g., getting into fights) and lower self-esteem. Thus, parent-teenager conflict causes more antisocial behaviour and lower self-esteem in teenagers. False 35. Arnett\'s (2007) concept of \"emerging adulthood\" is not a universal phenomenon in modern industrialized societies. True 36. According Erikson, middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65) brings with it the issue of generativity versus stagnation. 37. According to research, what is the relationship between happiness and age? We do not become less happy as we age 38. What psychosocial stage characterises late adulthood (65 and over)? Integrity versus despair 39. Which measure is typically used to measure attachment in adulthood? The Adult Attachment Interview 40. According to Main et al. (1985), there are four styles of thinking about adult attachment. Which one describes adults who are able to reflect objectively and openly on their previous attachment relationships, even if these were not always positive experiences? Autonomous 41. Research into early attachment and adult attachment styles has shown that there is a continuity between secure attachment in infancy and autonomous attachment in adulthood. 42. During middle adulthood, people experience generativity versus stagnation (Erikson, 1980). What does generativity refer to? Doing things for other people and making the world a better place 43. The final stage of Erikson\'s psychosocial model is integrity versus despair.  44. Belsky and colleagues (1991) argue that the evolutionarily adaptive response to a stressful environment is to orient towards maturing and mating at an earlier age. This is known as the quantity approach 45. Researchers have developed an Adult Attachment Interview to examine different kinds of conceptions of attachments in adults. 46. What is true regarding marital satisfaction? It declines over the first few years after marriage 47. According to Main et al. (1985), there are four styles of thinking about adult attachment. Which one describes adults who think a lot about their dependency on their parents and worry about pleasing them? Enmeshed 48. According to Donald Super, in which phase of career development do people begin to make their mark? Establishment 49. Match the infant attachment style with the typically demonstrated adult attachment style, according to Smith, Cowie and Blades (2003): a. Secure attachment -- autonomous attachment b. Anxious avoidant attachment -- dismissive attachment c. Anxious resistant attachment -- enmeshed attachment 50. Super (1957) developed a stage model of career paths but others have pointed out that career paths vary quite a bit especially for women 51. According Erikson, middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65) brings with it the issue of generativity versus stagnation. 52. Biological, psychological and environmental factors influence development and decisions that are made during \'the golden years\'. True 53. Belsky and colleagues (1991) propose that an insecure attachment is likely the result of a stressful environment in which the child finds themselves. 54. What are some of the characteristics of successful marriages? Emotional closeness, willingness to accept changes in the partener 55. According to Donald Super, from childhood to mid-20s, we are in a growth stage of career development. 56. Identify the factors that affect the decision to retire or not. Leisure interests, physical health, feelings about job 57. Which of the following are obstacles to women\'s career paths? Childcare and raising a family, taking care of parents 58. In general, people who retire because they choose to, rather than being forced to retire, report being more satisfied with life 59. Which of the following are factors that are taken into consideration in making the decision to retire? External circumstances that are beyond one\'s control, Health and physical stamina, Personal preferences and what a person enjoys doing 60. The correct order of Kübler-Ross\' (1969) five stages of grief among terminally ill persons is denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.  61. Which social group is more accepting of death than any other group? The elderly 62. Identify the factors that do not affect the decision to retire or not. Peer pressure 63. What are some of the effects of forced early retirement? Anger, depression Assignment questions and answers 11/12/2024 [Chapter 12: Moral development] 1. In his study of children\'s moral thinking, Kohlberg was interested in the reasons for the children\'s judgments of the moral dilemma scenarios. 2. Lola is evaluating a court case in which a man stole from a chemist to get drugs for his dying wife. Lola reasons that this act is wrong because it is illegal, but understands that the ethical implications of his wife not receiving treatment. Lola is showing post conventional moral reasoning 3. Why does Gilligan argue that Kohlberg\'s moral reasoning reflects a gender bias? Because women place greater value than do men on caring and responsibility of others\' welfare 4. Moral reasoning consistently strongly predicts moral behaviour. False 5. The study by Warneken and Tomasello (2006) which compared helping behaviour in infants and chimpanzees, is evidence for an innate component in prosocial behaviour. 6. To study children\'s moral thinking, Kohlberg used moral dilemma scenarios 7. In Kohlberg\'s moral dilemma scenario, when a person gives the reasoning \"People will think that Heinz is bad if he doesn\'t steal the drug to save his wife\", it shows that the person is in the conventional moral reasoning stage. 8. Carol Gilligan argues that Kohlberg\'s emphasis on justice reflects a gender bias 9. Moral reasoning does not necessarily translate into moral behaviour 10. Ella helps a stranger to solve a problem even though she knows there is no reward. Warneken and Tomasello (2006) suggest that this reflects an innate pro-social bias 11. Which of the following represent Kohlber\'s levels of moral reasoning? Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional  12. The study by Warneken and Tomasello (2006) which compared helping behaviour in infants and chimpanzees, is evidence for an innate component in prosocial behaviour. 13. In his study of children\'s moral thinking, Kohlberg was interested in the reasons for the children\'s judgments of the moral dilemma scenarios. Lecture notes 11/12/2024, Library [Self and identity] [What is self ] - Self, myself, me, I; What does it mean 1. Experience of oneself - Content (physical -- but also emotional) - Boundaries - Continuity - Challenges of unable self: borderline personality disorder 2. Facets of self-experience - Self-awareness - Autobiographical narrative - Self-representation - Self-evaluation - Social / public self [Self-awareness ] - 'I' as the subjective centre of all action and experience - 6-8 months: early self-awareness developed through the experience of agency (performing successful actions on objects) - 2^nd^ year: prerequisites of the theory of mind (physical self-recognition \[mirror test\] [Autobiographical personal narrative ] - Or autobiographical memory; stories we tell about ourselves - Typically emerge around 3^rd^ birthday - Childhood amnesia: limitations of memory encoding, self-awareness, self-knowledge ang language skills make it impossible for us to remember the first years of our life [Self-representation (self concept)] - who you think you are - 2-3 years: verbal self-reference (me, do it myself), self-conscious emotions \[see below\] early signs of conscience; identification by gender - 3 years: first self-descriptions, referring mostly tonconcrete features (big,strong) but also to psychological traits (good, naughty) which are not fully understood, however - School years: self-representations differentiated by domains (e.g. academic, social, athletic) and social roles (e.g. pupil, teammate, brother) self-descriptions of personality develop - Teenage years: sophisticated descriptions of personality features and their origin, values and group identities one identifies with; search for 'true self', concern with the self - [Adolescent egocentrism\ ] [Self-evaluation ] - The difference between [real self] and ideal self leading to self-esteem - The distinction between self-esteem \[the sense of worth\] and [self-efficacy] \[belief about one's ability to succeed in a given situation\] - Preschool years: evaluations generally optimistic; difficulties in distinguishing between desired and actual performance, or in recognizing limits of one's\ own capacities - Lack of [meta-cognitive skills] - School years: differentiation between real and ideal self emerges, evaluations more realistic, self-esteem and self-efficacy becomes differentiated by domain\ and decreases in some domains (e.g. scholastic) - Importance of [social comparisons], including performance-based comparisons (which can be fostered by school and broader culture) - Measuring self-esteem and self-efficacy in children and adults - Observation - Interview - Questionnaires (e.g. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale for adults) - Can you have too high self-esteem? - The distinction between healthy self esteem \[sense of worth\] and narcissism \[sense of superiority\] (Brummelman et al. 2016) - Do we pay too much attention to self-esteem and overstate its importance (Baumeister et al., 2003)? [Social self ] - Managing your self presentations in public; putting on "the masks" - 2nd year: first concerns about how we are perceived by others - 15-24: self-conscious emotions begin to emerge: embarrassment, jealousy, empathy, shame, guilt, hubris and pride - preconditions: self-awareness must be present (as evident in mirror self- recognition) - Connections with the emerging theory of mind - Preschool years: social-pragmatic skills are still weak \>\> management of self-presentation is not very successful - 7th year and beyond: increasing capacity at context- appropriate self-presentation; concerns about 'fitting in' - Teenage years: reflection on the difference between 'true self' and 'false self' [Self and identity - where do they come from] - The role of early experiences - The role of later experiences - School, playground, work, online communities, etc. - Biological underpinnings of self and identity - E.g. Hormonal influences on gender id