Psychology Development Across Lifespan PDF

PSYC100: PSYCHOLOGY Fall 2024 @ Koç University DEVELOPMENT ACROSS LIFESPAN Gözde Şentürk CHROMOSOMES AND GENES ❖Human cells (except gametes) have 23 pairs of chromosomes. ❖ Chromosomes’ building block is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) ❖ Chromosomes have sections ca...

PSYC100: PSYCHOLOGY Fall 2024 @ Koç University DEVELOPMENT ACROSS LIFESPAN Gözde Şentürk CHROMOSOMES AND GENES ❖Human cells (except gametes) have 23 pairs of chromosomes. ❖ Chromosomes’ building block is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) ❖ Chromosomes have sections called genes. Genes are the recipes for our structures. ❖Gametes are exception; a sperm has 23 chromosomes and a ovum has 23 chromosomes. ❖ Gamete: Mature reproductive cell (sperm or ovum) ❖ A mature female reproductive cell: ovum ❖ A mature male productive cell: sperm ❖ When the chromosomes of a sperm and ovum combine, they become 23 pairs of chromosomes. ❖ The chromosomal sex is determined when a sperm and ovum combines. ❖ 23rd pair of the chromosomes determines the chromosomal sex. (Carlson, 2014) SEX CHROMOSOMES. ❖ Female sex chromosomes: XX X Y X X ❖ One X from biological father, one X from biological mother ❖Male sex chromosomes: XY ❖ One X from biological mother, one Y from biological father. XX XX XY XY STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT ❖Germinal stage (Weeks 1-2) ❖ Conception happens when a sperm fertilizes an egg, hence forms a zygote. ❖Embryonic stage (Weeks 3-8) ❖ Starts when the cells get implanted to the biological mother’s uterus ❖ Brain, heart and other organs start to develop. ❖Fetal Stage (Weeks 9-40) ❖ Development of the sex organs (Spielman et al., 2020, p 294) HOW DOES THE DEVELOPMENT WORK? Continuous vs discontinuous development Continuous development: gradual development Discontinuous development: Discrete steps of development Nature vs nurture Nature: The impact of genetic and biology Nurture: The impact of the environment and upbringing INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT RIGHT AFTER BIRTH.. The newborn is an infant. The respiratory system starts its function Baby is born with fat which works as a nutrient storage. The baby may lose some weight in a few weeks. The baby cannot talk. How do we investigate their cognitions? Preferential looking: Looking at a stimulus longer indicates that the infant likes it. Habituation: Getting bored by already exposed stimulus. Reflexes Innate. Involuntary sets of behaviors (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) INFANT REFLEXES Grasping reflex Moro reflex (startle reflex) Rooting reflex Stepping reflex Sucking reflex (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) BRAIN DEVELOPMENT: FIRST 3 YEARS Rapid growth of brain due to increasing number of connectivity across neurons Meanwhile, pruning (weeding out existing connections) (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) SENSATIONS IN INFANCY Senses of taste and smell are well developed. Sweet preference is present at birth. After a few months, also salty preference. Do not prefer bitter and sour. Hearing is fairly developed. Vision is the least developed. Rods are already fairly developed, yet it will take a few months for cones to develop. Consequences? Poor color vision, blurry vision Lens also takes a few months to develop. Hence, they can only focus on nearby stimuli. They have preferences such as: complex stimuli rather than simple, human faces (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget’s Theory Vygotsky’s theory Psychosocial Development Temperament Attachment Self-concept Erikson’s Theory (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT The goal of this theory is to understand and predict how thinking and reasoning develops through the childhood. Discontinuous approach: According to Piaget, there are four distinct stages of develop. Stages qualitatively differ from each other. “Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. Schemata are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for almost everything. When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata through two processes: assimilation and accommodation. First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata: assimilation is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. Accommodation describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 287) (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 288) PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT: SENSORIMOTOR STAGE Mode of learning: Sensations and acting on objects Grasping objects, making sounds, putting things into their mouth Object permanence: If an object disappears from the sight, the objects still exists even though you cannot see it. Before 5 or 8 months, infants do not have the concept of object permanence. Stranger anxiety develops at around development of object permeance. Why? “This new person does not fit my existing schemata!!1!!!” (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT: PREOPERATIONAL STAGE “In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 289) “Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term operational refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be pre-operational). Children’s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 289) “Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of conservation, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 289) “During this stage, we also expect children to display egocentrism, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 289) PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT: CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE “In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 289) “Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of reversibility, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 289) PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT: FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE “Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.” (Spielman et al., 2020, pp. 289-290) VYGOTSKY’S THEORY Piaget focuses on interaction with objects, while Vygotsky focuses on interaction with humans. Importance of social interactions in cognitive and social development How do others contribute to children’s development? Scaffolding (the mentor step by by step helps the child and the help is reduced as the child learns.) (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) TEMPERAMENT “Temperament refers to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment. Children with easy temperaments demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions. Conversely, children with difficult temperaments demonstrate negative emotions and have difficulty adapting to change and regulating their emotions. Difficult children are much more likely to challenge parents, teachers, and other caregivers (Thomas, 1984). Therefore, it’s possible that easy children (i.e., social, adaptable, and easy to soothe) tend to elicit warm and responsive parenting, while demanding, irritable, withdrawn children evoke irritation in their parents or cause their parents to withdraw (Sanson & Rothbart, 1995).” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 306) ATTACHMENT “Attachment is a long-standing connection or bond with others.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 301) How to test attachment? Strange Situation Experiments Strange Situation Experiments: The child is in an unfamiliar room with the caregiver. Then, the caregiver leaves the room. After that, the caregiver comes back. How does the child respond? There are four types of attachment Secure Avoidant Resistant Disorganized ATTACHMENT: FOUR ATTACHMENT TYPES Secure: The most healthy attachment type. The child prefers the caregiver over strangers. The caregiver represents a secure, under their protection, the child explores. Child becomes unhappy when the parent leaves and becomes happy when the parent comes in the Strange Situation experiment. Avoidant (ambivelant): The caregiver is not a secure base, hence the child does not care about the presence of absence of the caregiver. Ignores the caregiver. Resistant: Clingy, yet rejects the caregiver. The child does not feel secure, hence does not explore around. When the caregiver leaves, the child becomes very upset. When the caregiver comes back, the child still feels upset. Disorganized: Actively avoiding the caregiver. (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) SELF-CONCEPT “Who are you?” How to test if a human or animal has a sense of self ? The mirror and nose painting test Approx. 18 months: The concept of self develops (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY “Erikson’s psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 285) “Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 285) ADOLESCENCE THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT The puberty initiates the adolescence. Secondary sex characteristics develop during the adolescence. Growth spurt. Starts and ends in earlier ages in females Feeling pride or embarrassment because of physical characteristics Feeling self conscious (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) THE BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Brain is not fully developed yet. The frontal lobe is not fully developed yet!! Consequences? (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Abstract thinking is developed. Debate, abstract thoughts, imagine hypothetical situations, can understand other people’s perspective “Cognitive empathy, also known as theory-of-mind (which we discussed earlier with regard to egocentrism), relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others (Shamay-Tsoory, Tomer, & Aharon-Peretz, 2005). Cognitive empathy begins to increase in adolescence and is an important component of social problem solving and conflict avoidance. According to one longitudinal study, levels of cognitive empathy begin rising in girls around 13 years old, and around 15 years old in boys (Van der Graaff et al., 2013). Teens who reported having supportive fathers with whom they could discuss their worries were found to be better able to take the perspective of others (Miklikowska, Duriez, & Soenens, 2011).” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 308) KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL REASONING (Spielman et al., 2020, p 292) ADULTHOOD ADULTHOOD Middle adulthood (40s to the 60s): “Physical decline is gradual. The skin loses some elasticity, and wrinkles are among the first signs of aging. Visual acuity decreases during this time. Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach the onset of menopause, the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50 years old. Both men and women tend to gain weight: in the abdominal area for men and in the hips and thighs for women. Hair begins to thin and turn gray.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 310) Late adulthood (60+): “This is the last stage of physical change. The skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. Smell, taste, hearing, and vision, so sharp in our twenties, decline significantly. The brain may also no longer function at optimal levels, leading to problems like memory loss, dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease in later years.” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 310) PARENTING STYLES “authoritarian parenting style parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 315) “authoritative parenting style parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child’s point of view” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 315) “permissive parenting style parents make few demands and rarely use punishment” (Spielman et al., 2020, p. 316) Permissive neglectful: No structure, ignoring the child (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) Permissive unindulged: No structure and too much involvement with the child (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) PARENTING STYLES: CONSEQUENCES authoritarian parenting style: withdrawn, rebellious, timid, and resentful children authoritative parenting style: self reliant and independent children permissive parenting style: selfish, immature, and dependent children (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) THEORIES OF PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL AGING Cellular-clock theory: Limited number of times to reproduce to repair cell damage Evidence? Telomers (structures at the ends of the chromosomes) shorten after each cell division Wear-and-tear theory: External factors causes wear and tear. Those accumulate. Evidence? Collagen production decreases Free-radical theory: Free radicals, which damage the cells, accumulate over time Activity theory: “Actively used iron does not rust” (Ciccarelli & White, 2021) ABOUT MORTALITY: FIVE STAGES OF GRIEF 1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance (Ciccarelli & White, 2021)  REFERENCES Ciccarelli, S. K. & White, J. N. (2021). Psychology, Global Edition, 6th Edition. Pearson. Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J. , & Lovett, M. D. (2020). Psychology 2e. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/details/psychology-2e Note: The Designer function powered by Office Intelligence services were used to design the slides.