Visualizing The Lifespan - Textbook PDF

VISUALIZING The Lifespan Canadian Edition TANNER WARREN BELLACK MACQUARRIE Chapter 4: Socio-emotional Development in Infancy: The First Two Years  Chapter Outline 1. Personality Development Understanding the psychodynamic perspective and temperament in infancy...

VISUALIZING The Lifespan Canadian Edition TANNER WARREN BELLACK MACQUARRIE Chapter 4: Socio-emotional Development in Infancy: The First Two Years  Chapter Outline 1. Personality Development Understanding the psychodynamic perspective and temperament in infancy 2. Social Influences Exploring attachment styles and associated behaviour, challenges in development, and the concept of gender 3. Emotional Development Examining early emotions, social referencing, and self-awareness  Personality Development Learning Objectives Discuss early personality development from the psychodynamic perspective. Explain the concept of temperament and its role in the development of personality. Explain the temperamental differences between sociable and shy infants and toddlers. Describe the concept of goodness of fit.  The Psychodynamic Perspective Psychodynamic perspective of Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson on Infant Development Sigmund Freud’s Stages Oral and Anal Stage Fixation Erikson’s Stages Trust versus Mistrust Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt  Freud’s Psychodynamic Perspective Freudian Two stages of Assumptions: development in first 2 Individuals are years: passive agents 1. Oral stage Personalities are 2. Anal stage driven by Stages named for unconscious where libidinal energy conflict between is focused (the the biology of erogenous zone) survival and societal rules Freud’s Psychodynamic Perspective: Oral Stage Libido is centred in the mouth during the oral stage Desire for oral stimulation Baby satisfies desire by nursing or putting other objects, such as toys or a thumb, into the mouth Gives rise to id part of personality Figure 4.1a Freud’s oral and anal stages Freud’s Psychodynamic Perspective: Anal Stage Libido migrates to the anal area during the anal stage Focus on toilet training Infant masters the challenge of delaying immediate gratification of the desire for bowel movements Gives rise to ego part of personality Figure 4.1b Freud’s oral and anal stages Freud’s Psychodynamic Perspective: Fixations Challenges during the oral and anal stages can lead to later personality issues Overstimulation or understimulation can lead to a fixation Oral fixation: return to the oral stage in later life, shown through habits such as smoking or gum chewing, as a result of too much or too little gratification during the oral stage Anal fixation: return to the anal stage in later life, shown through obsessive personality issues, as a result of too much or too little gratification during the anal stage  Erikson’s Psychodynamic Perspective Erikson’s ideas First two stages of Focus on social development: contexts 1. Trust versus De-emphasis on sex mistrust Early development 2. Autonomy versus acutely influenced by shame and doubt infant’s social context Must resolve previous stage before progressing successfully  Erikson’s Psychodynamic Perspective Trust versus Mistrust Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt First stage of psychosocial Second stage of development psychosocial development Primary task: Develop a Infant begins to understand sense of trust in their self-control through key caregivers, in themselves, accomplishments and in the world around them Trusting infants: more Develop trust when comfortable attempting caregivers respond to toilet training babies’ needs consistently Mistrusting infants: and competently experience shame and doubt  Temperament Temperament: biologically based individual differences in how one responds to the environment that influence emotions, physical activity level, and attention Dynamic across the lifespan Allows for developmental changes Temperament  Temperament Three categories of temperament emerged from these dimensions: 1. Easy temperament: adapts readily to new experiences, is generally cheerful, and has regular patterns of eating and sleeping 2. Difficult temperament: does not respond well to new experiences or people, is fussy and irritable, and has irregular patterns of eating and sleeping 3. Slow-to-warm-up temperament: characterized by low activity level and initial withdrawal from new experiences and people, gradually adjusting over time  Temperament: Sociable versus Shy Some biological tendencies don’t change dramatically as we grow out of infancy Goodness of fit: The relationship between environmental forces and predisposed temperamental behaviour Figure 4.3 The approach– withdrawal dimension of temperament  Social Influences Learning Objectives Describe the stages of attachment during infancy and toddlerhood. Understand the origins and outcomes of individual differences in attachment security. Differentiate between sex and gender differences in early development.  Attachment Attachment: An enduring, emotional bond that connects two people across time and space Evolved for the sake of infant survival and development Caregivers enable infants to learn how to be a member of their social group Physical proximity keeps infants safe Offers security needed for confident exploration Contributes to infant self-regulation Video: Love and the Brain Self-regulation: the ability to deliberately modulate Video: Love and one’s behaviour and emotion the Brain  Attachment Social-cognitive advances enable attachment between infant and caregiver Develop recognition of their parents’ characteristics Able to form expectations about parents’ behaviour Increase awareness of self as separate from parents Bowlby’s attachment theory The perspective that the process of social, emotional, and cognitive development occurs in the context of caregiver–infant attachment  Attachment: Bowlby’s Attachment Theory Figure 4.4 Bowlby’s attachment theory process diagram Separation anxiety: A set of seeking and distress behaviours that occur when the primary caregiver is removed from the immediate environment of the infant/child Stranger anxiety: Distressed avoidance of a novel individual  Attachment: Other Perspectives Behaviourist theorists focus on feeding Feeding is reinforcing Attachment results from the positive reinforcement associated with feeding Ethological perspective Harlow’s studies with infant monkeys – demonstrated that the terrycloth mothers were a significantly greater source of comfort than the food-providing mothers – suggest that attachment is a basic need and necessary for survival Figure 4.5 Harlow’s research on attachment  Attachment Styles Mary Ainsworth’s studies Created the Strange Situation procedure to elicit and observe attachment behaviour Strange Situation: a means of categorizing attachment styles, consisting of a series of episodes in which a mother and her child are observed together, separated, and reunited in the presence of a stranger Attachment behaviour: a behaviour that promotes proximity or contact, such as approaching, following, and clinging in the older infant and toddler  Attachment Styles Secure Attachment Characterized by flexible proximity between parent and infant and positive reunion behaviour Insecure-Avoidant A type of insecure attachment in which infants show little or Attachment no distress upon separation and avoidant behaviour such as running from parent upon reunion Insecure-Resistant A type of insecure attachment in which infants show very high Attachment distress when separated and mixed reactions when reunited Disorganized/ A type of insecure attachment characterized by inconsistent Disoriented Attachment behaviour upon separation and reunion that shows no clear pattern  Attachment Security Over two-thirds of typically developing middle- class infants and toddlers are classified as securely attached (Thompson, 2006) Consistently smaller in lower SES samples Characteristics of mothers with securely attached children Higher sociability and extraversion Lower depression, neuroticism, and anxiety More insight into infant’s internal states and motives Marital satisfaction  Attachment Security Sensitive caregivers consistently attend to the infant’s cues accurately interpret the meaning of cues promptly and appropriately respond in a way that enhances the infant’s trust Synchrony: the reciprocal and mutually rewarding qualities of an infant–caregiver attachment relationship  Attachment Security: Fathers Research suggests that fathers have slightly different patterns of attachment than do mothers Child gender is associated with this difference Ainsworth Strange Situation studies in 1970s Observed different gender compositions: – Father/son, father/daughter, mother/son, and mother/daughter Fathers and mothers showed the same level of sensitivity to sons Fathers were less sensitive than mothers to daughters  Attachment Patterns Distribution of secure versus insecure attachment is the same across diverse cultures Figure 4.8 Distribution of secure versus insecure infants across diverse cultures  Attachment and Socioemotional Outcomes Positive Outcomes: Negative Outcomes: More harmonious Insecurity in infancy is parent–child a risk factor for relationship later on behavioural problems More sociable with Linked to anxiety unfamiliar adults disorders in More likely to adolescence exhibit good Less sociable than emotional health, secure infants self-confidence, Less likely to exhibit and social self-confidence and competence later social competence on later on  Gender Influences on gender begin early in life Gender is related to both biological and social factors Gender: social constructions and expectations regarding what it means to be a male or a female Factors interact in predictable and unpredictable ways to affect development  Gender Gender “Gender differences” refer to differences cognitive and behavioural differences in males and females versus sex Result from biological differences predispositions and social influences “Sex differences” refer to clear biological differences between males and females Anatomical and biochemical, hormonal differences Influenced by genetics Interact with social forces  Gender Differences in Infancy Do these Fetal period: Boys weigh more differences and are more active than girls Activity-level differences continue into continue throughout childhood childhood and Boys adulthood? More likely to die in childbirth More vulnerable to early illnesses Girls More emotionally expressive May be more attentive to social cues and exhibit more eye contact  Emotional Development Learning Objectives Distinguish between primary and secondary emotions. Explain what social referencing is and how it develops. Describe the development of self-awareness and how researchers have investigated this topic.  Early Emotions Emotion = language of the infant Only way that infants can communicate Affects attachment Involved in most social interactions Physical and cognitive associations with emotions Emotion is present at birth Social smile: In infancy, the first facial expression of pleasure, enabled by neurophysiological maturation and an increasing readiness for social interactions with caregivers Primary emotion: an emotion that is present early in life and is most likely innate  Early Emotions: Milestones Emotions are a form of early communication, motivation, and adaptation From birth: Infants Express instinctive, general positive or negative emotions in express basic response to environmental situations or states of need, such as emotions hunger At 2–3 months: Increasing readiness for social interactions with caregivers Awakening promotes the emergence of the social smile, the infant’s first facial sociability leads to expression of pleasure emotion complexity Make more eye contact and sounds of satisfaction Expressions foster closeness with caregivers About 6 months: Infants’ developing memories let them enjoy new games such as Memory aids peek-a-boo emotions Memory contributes to separation anxiety at about this time  Early Emotions: Milestones Emotions are a form of early communication, motivation, and adaptation From 9–20 months: As infants develop the ability to stand and then walk, they begin to Emergence of display pride, an early secondary emotion secondary emotions End of second year: Toddlers are aware of rules and morality Emotional Awareness of the past, present, and future lets them experience awareness explodes abstract emotions, such as disappointment if anticipations are not met, or guilt and shame as they anticipate punishment for breaking rules Emotions such as empathy and sympathy also become more evident  Emotional Milestones Key emotional milestones: 1. Appearance of separation anxiety by 6 months 2. Emergence of secondary emotions (an emotion that emerges with the help of certain cognitive and social developments) Guilt: a painful feeling of regret that arises when one causes, anticipates causing, or is associated with a negative act that violates one’s moral standards Empathy: an emotional response to another’s emotional state that is similar to what the other person is feeling or might be expected to feel  Social Referencing and Self-Awareness Infants develop an understanding of the communicative power of emotions Social Referencing – Reading the emotional cues of others Self-Awareness – Developing an understanding of oneself  Social Referencing Infants become increasingly social and interactive with their caregivers and others between 6 and 12 months In distress, infants look to primary caregiver’s facial/vocal cues, a behaviour called social referencing Social referencing: using a caregiver’s emotional cues to help understand an uncertain or ambiguous event or stimulus Shows infant’s ability to read emotional cues of others Important part of social development  Social Referencing Attachment Social referencing perspective suggests hypothesis suggests that infants look to that infants look in an their primary effort to understand the caregivers for social situation and to emotional support reduce ambiguity and anxiety reduction  Social Referencing Parents are aware of their infants’ and toddlers’ social referencing behaviour Parents use their emotional cues to send various messages – Example: Furrowed brow and stern voice to instill caution – Example: Broad smile to provide reassurance Important way for infants and toddlers to learn about their world  Self-Awareness Infants are undifferentiated from their surrounding environment during the first months of life Piaget believed that infants have no early awareness of themselves as separate beings Researchers suggest that “self-awareness” does not exist until 14–18 months, when language and cognitive complexity have developed  Self-Awareness Increasing awareness of oneself as separate from their parents is essential in the development of one’s attachment relationships These relationships continue to play a critical role in early-childhood development and beyond  Chapter Summary 1. Personality Development The Psychodynamic Perspective Temperament 2. Social Influences Attachment Challenges in Development: Failure to Thrive Gender 3. Emotional Development Early Emotions Social Referencing and Self-Awareness Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.