134 Questions
What did the CINDLE project find in 3-5 year olds who received an independent learner training programme?
They were significantly more likely to show independent learning by the end of the year.
According to Bernard (2015), pointing in 2-year-olds is associated with:
A higher likelihood of success on memory tasks despite limited memory resources.
What is a key limitation of the original working memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974)?
It underemphasizes the role of the central executive.
What type of memory is evaluated in tasks using operant conditioning with infants?
Implicit memory
What is a characteristic of 3-5 year olds demonstrated in the study by Birch and Bloom (2007)?
An ability to identify not only what they know, but how well they know things.
What is the primary function of the phonological loop in the working memory model?
Retaining auditory information through rehearsal and storage.
What is the term for the ability to identify not only what one knows, but how well one knows things?
Type 2 sensitivity
What was observed in Nagy's (2004) study on imitation involving tongue protrusions?
78% of infants imitated the researcher's movements and 38% initiated the movement themselves
What was the main finding in Nagy's (2005) study on imitation involving finger movements?
Infants refined the movement over the imitation period
What is the primary distinction between declarative and non-declarative memory, as demonstrated by patient HM?
Declarative memory is related to semantic knowledge, while non-declarative memory is related to skills.
What is the term for the task used to assess memory in infants, where they are habituated to a stimulus and then shown a new stimulus?
Visual recognition task
What was the reaction of infants in Tronick's (1978) study when their parents froze and wore a blank expression?
Infants attempted to re-engage the parent, reacting with confusion, wariness and then distress
What is a challenge in inhibiting irrelevant information, as demonstrated by the study by Birch and Bloom (2007)?
Physical similarity biasing judgments in false-belief tasks.
What was the result of Murray's (1985) study using a live video feed of the parent that switched to incongruent pre-recorded footage?
Infants produced the classic still face response
What was observed in Bertin and Striano's (2006) study on the Still-Face paradigm?
Infants exhibited a significant decrease in smiles and shared gaze during SF and a significant increase once normal interaction resumed
At what age did infants in Tronick's (1978) study attempt to re-engage the parent when they froze and wore a blank expression?
From two months old
What was the difference in the reaction of 1.5-month-olds and newborns in Bertin and Striano's (2006) study?
1.5-month-olds showed a significant decrease during SF but no significant recovery, while newborns showed no significant changes
What is the common theme among the studies mentioned?
The effects of parental interaction on infant behavior
What does the study by Nagy (2008) suggest about the SF response?
It is innate, but newborns require more time to process changes in their social environment.
What did the study by Liszkowski (2006) demonstrate about infant communication?
Infants can communicate through pointing, even when there is no apparent need.
What did the study by D'Entremont (1997) suggest about infant gaze?
Infants are more interested in following the gaze of an adult than the object itself.
What did the study by Sorce (1985) demonstrate about emotional contagion?
Emotional contagion can influence an infant's perception of danger.
What was the outcome of the training procedure by Whitebread?
Children with development coordination disorder became better at knowing where their performance needed improvement.
What did the study by Wolfe (2017) suggest about participants' memories of their opinions?
Participants misremembered their past opinions as closer to their current ones.
What did the study by Gollek (2016) suggest about the link between false-belief understanding and meta-representations?
Children who pass a false-belief test are better at recognizing that an object can have multiple labels.
What did the study by Delgado (2011) suggest about young children's memory?
Young children often use private pointing gestures when alone to aid their memory.
What is the term for the ability to manage and direct physical movement, as well as cognitive processes?
Metacognition
What is the term for the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others?
Theory of mind
What is the typical age range for infants to pass facial expression tasks in an imitation task?
6 weeks
What is the typical age range for infants to pass actions involving objects in an imitation task?
6 months
What is the method used to assess memory in infants that involves measuring the patterns of electrical activity in the brain?
Event-related potentials
According to Diamond (1998), what is indicated by A-not-B errors in infants?
The presence of working memory
What is the age range by which infants can retain memory for longer durations and require longer delays to provoke A-not-B errors?
8-12 months
What is the correlation between EEG results and working memory performance at 4.5 years?
High correlation
According to Alloway et al. (2004), what is the number of distinct factors found in young children aged 4-5 years?
5
What is the model of working memory suggested by Alloway (2006) in children aged 4-11?
Domain-general
What is the age range focused on in Conklin's (2007) study on the development of working memory?
9-17 years
What is the brain area involved in maintenance-only tasks and develops earlier in Conklin's (2007) study?
Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex
At what age do children typically pass the classic DCCS task?
4 or 5 years
What is a key difference between bilingual and monolingual children in the study by Morales (2013)?
Bilingual children have better working memory
What did Miyake (2000) use to assess the relationships between different executive function components?
Factor analysis
What did Carlson (2005) find in a large-scale review of executive function tasks in children?
Tasks that involved both working memory and inhibition were the hardest
What did Xu et al. (2013) find in their study on executive function components in children?
A one-factor model better explained performance data for 7 to 12-year-olds
What is a key difference between children and adults in the study by Schlottmann (1999)?
Children consistently attributed the sound to marble B, while adults recognized the uncertainty
What is the purpose of the blicket detector task?
To explore children's ability to conduct simple experiments and understand causality
What did Gopnik et al. (2001) find in their study on children's ability to understand causality?
Children were able to identify the causal relationship between the blocks and the music box
What is a characteristic of 3-year-olds in the DCCS task?
They continue to sort by the previous rule/dimension
What is a key finding in the study by Carlson (2005) on executive function tasks in children?
Tasks that involved both working memory and inhibition emerged at the same age
What is a key difference between recognition tasks and working memory tasks in terms of age?
Working memory tasks are more affected by age, while recognition tasks are not.
What is the main finding of Alloway's (2010) study on working memory and IQ in 5-year-olds?
Working memory is a better predictor of academic achievement at 11 years.
What is the primary purpose of the freeze-frame task in infant research?
To assess inhibition independently of working memory in infants.
What is the main difference between the classic and revised marshmallow tests?
The reliability of the researcher in the task.
What is the primary purpose of the stop-signal task in children?
To assess inhibition in children.
What is the main finding of Cragg and Nation's (2008) study on inhibition speed in children?
Inhibition speed improves significantly between 9-11 years old.
What is the primary purpose of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST)?
To assess cognitive flexibility in adults.
What was the main finding in the directing task experiment?
Errors were significantly higher in trials where only the listener could see all items on the grid
What is the relationship between working memory and maths skills according to Holmboe (2018)?
Working memory is positively related to maths skills.
What was observed in the eye movements of older participants in the directing task experiment?
They took longer to look at the correct target compared to distractors
What is the main difference between the A-not-B task and the freeze-frame task in infant research?
The type of inhibition being assessed in the task.
What was the main finding in Bradford's (2015) study on theory of mind?
Reaction times were slower when attributing beliefs to others compared to recognizing their own beliefs
What was the effect of higher self-control on perspective shifts in Bradford's (2015) study?
It led to faster perspective shifts
What was the main difference in self-concept between American and Japanese people in Cousins' (1989) study?
American people focused more on personal attributes, while Japanese people focused more on social/relational attributes
What was the best predictor of self-recognition in the mirror mark test in Keller's (2004) study?
Distal parenting strategies
What was the finding regarding the mirror mark test in Ross' (2016) study?
It was positively related to distal parenting strategies
What was the main finding in Kitayama's (2000) study on the social consequences of differing self-concept?
Japanese participants were three times more likely to feel happier when other-focused
What was the difference in the performance of children from individualistic and collectivist cultures in the mirror mark test?
Children from individualistic cultures performed better in the mirror mark test
What was the alternative test of self-awareness used in Ross' (2016) study?
The body-as-obstacle test
At what age do children begin to take into account the researcher's emotions in the Repacholi and Gopnik (1997) task?
18 months
What is the term for the ability to think non-egocentrically, as demonstrated in the Repacholi and Gopnik (1997) task?
Theory of mind
What is the purpose of the Sally-Anne task, as demonstrated in Wimmer and Perner (1983)?
To evaluate false-belief understanding in children
What is the age range at which children begin to understand that others can have false beliefs, as demonstrated in the Gopnik and Astington (1988) study?
3-4 years
What is the method used in the Onishi and Baillergeon (2005) study to test false-belief understanding in infants?
Eye tracking
What is the term for the task used in the Garnham and Ruffman (2001) study to measure children's predictions of Sally's actions?
Eye-tracking task
What is the age range at which children exhibit an internal understanding of false beliefs, as demonstrated in the Garnham and Ruffman (2001) study?
3-4 years
What is the purpose of the windows task, as demonstrated in the Hala and Russell (2001) study?
To evaluate children's ability to take another's perspective
What did children aged 3 and 4 use to determine if blocks A and B were blickets in the study by Sobel (2004)?
Causal information
What was the difference between the results of 4-year-olds and 3-year-olds in the study by Sobel (2004) when blickets were common or rare?
4-year-olds were more likely to say block B was a blicket when blickets were common
At what age do children begin to demonstrate an understanding of false beliefs in the unexpected contents task, as demonstrated in the Gopnik and Astington (1988) study?
3-4 years
What is the term for the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others, as demonstrated in the studies mentioned?
Theory of mind
What was the result of the experiment by Dewar and Xu (2010) on 9-month-olds using looking times to determine expectations?
Infants looked longer at the unexpected outcome
What is the tendency exhibited by children under 4 years in the study by Derks (1976)?
Positive recency bias
What was the result of the study by Roberts (2017) on 4-to-6-year-olds and 7-to-9-year-olds regarding conforming and non-conforming behavior?
Younger children were more likely to say non-conforming behavior was not okay
What was the result of the study by Bradford+Ferguson (2019) on mirror neuron activation and mental representations from 10 to 86 years?
Mirror neuron activation increased with age
What was the conclusion of the study by Bradford et al. (2022) on age-related declines in theory of mind and executive functions?
Theory of mind and executive functions decline with age
What is the characteristic of children demonstrated in the study by Sobel (2004) regarding the use of prior knowledge to constrain prior probabilities?
4-year-olds can use prior knowledge to constrain prior probabilities
What is the implication of the study by Dewar and Xu (2010) on 9-month-olds regarding over-hypotheses?
Infants form expectations consistent with over-hypotheses
What is the conclusion of the study by Bradford+Ferguson (2019) regarding the relationship between mirror neurons and mental representations?
Mirror neurons and mental representations are dissociated
Which cultural group's participants were more likely to feel happier when ego-focused, according to Heine (2008)?
US
What was the result of the mirror mark test in Gallup's (1970) study on infant self-awareness?
Infants who reached for the mark on themselves demonstrated self-awareness
What did Lewis (1990) find in infants aged 2-8 months in terms of self-awareness and reactions to causal impact?
Infants who directly influenced the stimulus appeared to enjoy it more
What was the result of Papousek's (1974) study on infant self-awareness and face recognition?
Infants showed preference for their own face by 5 months
What did Ross et al. (2011) find in terms of memory bias for material processed in reference to the self?
A bias for material processed in reference to the self from at least 3 years
What was the result of Ross's (2011) study on self-evaluation and cheating behavior in 3-4 year olds?
Children in the de-individuated condition showed the most cheating behavior
What is the typical age at which children pass the mirror mark test?
18 months
What did Harley (1999) find in terms of self-awareness and memory formation in infants?
Self-awareness was a strong predictor of memory formation
What was the result of Martin's (1982) study on self-other discrimination and emotional contagion?
Infants showed emotional contagion to others' cries but not their own
What is the typical age range at which children show correct use of first and second-person pronouns?
18-20 months
According to Stipek (1992), what is the stage at which children show internalized self-evaluation and the full range of markers of pride and shame?
Stage 3
What was the result of Heine's (2008) study on cheating behavior in US and Japanese students?
The mirror effect was only present in US students
What is the primary finding of Stipek's (1990) study on self-concept development?
There is a clear developmental progression from self-recognition to evaluation
What is the effect of self-awareness on children's altruistic behavior, according to Ross et al. (2011)?
Children are more altruistic in high self-awareness conditions
What is the effect of self-evaluation on cheating behavior, according to Diener and Wallbom's (1976) study?
Self-evaluation decreases cheating behavior
What is the effect of self-awareness on children's behavior in a trick-or-treat scenario, according to Beaman et al. (1979)?
Children are less likely to take multiple sweets in the presence of a mirror
What is the relationship between guilt indicators and transgressions, according to Kochanska et al. (2002)?
There is a negative correlation between guilt indicators and transgressions
At what age do children typically begin to show emotional responses to wrongdoing, according to Stipek (1990)?
30-40 months
What is the primary finding of Ross et al.'s (2011) study on self-awareness and altruistic behavior?
Children's altruistic behavior is positively influenced by self-awareness
What is the primary drive, according to Harlow, that is essential for the mental and physical wellbeing of infants?
Love and attachment
In the strange situation paradigm, what is the typical observation about American and Japanese children's attachment?
Both American and Japanese children have similar rates of secure attachment, but differ in types of insecure attachment
What is the term defined by Bowlby as a lasting psychological connectedness between human beings?
Attachment
In which phase of attachment, according to Schaffer and Emerson, does the infant begin to protest when separated from one specific person?
Specific phase
What is the result of removing the inhibitory demands in Hala and Russell's study, as observed in children's behavior?
Most children were able to identify the empty box
What is the primary function of the cloth mother in Harlow's study?
Offering comfort and emotional support
According to Bowlby, what is the outcome for children who experience prolonged separation from their caregivers?
They exhibit permanent withdrawal and become uninterested in human contact
What is the term for the process by which children protest and resist comfort from others when initially separated from their caregivers?
Protest
What is the purpose of the strange situation paradigm, developed by Mary Ainsworth?
To evaluate children's emotional regulation and attachment styles
What is a key difference between the attachment styles of American and Japanese children, as observed in Van Izendorn's study?
American children are more avoidant, while Japanese children are more resistant
What is the age range of infants that demonstrated an understanding of object permanence in the study by Baillargeon?
3-5 months
What type of scales did 5- and 9-year-olds perform better with in the proportional reasoning task?
Continuous scales
What did the object visibility task by Moll and Tomasello (2006) suggest about children's understanding of others' perspectives?
Children develop a true understanding of others' perspectives later in life
What did the eye-gaze copying task by Caron et al. (2002) suggest about infants' understanding of communicative signals?
Infants as young as 14 months understand communicative signals
What did the rebuttal study by Behne et al. (2005) suggest about infants' understanding of communicative gestures?
Infants as young as 12 months understand communicative gestures
What did the study by Tomasello and Haberl (2003) suggest about infants' understanding of others' experiences?
Infants as young as 12 months understand others' experiences
What is the purpose of the social referencing task used in the study by Repacholi (1998)?
To assess infants' understanding of others' emotions and intentions
What is the limitation of the eye-gaze copying task by Caron et al. (2002)?
It lacks ecological validity
What is the characteristic of infants demonstrated in the study by Moll and Tomasello (2006)?
They do not have a developed understanding of others' perspectives
What did the study by Behne et al. (2005) suggest about infants' understanding of intention?
Infants as young as 12 months understand intention
What percentage of infants develop an insecure attachment style when their mothers have postnatal depression?
80%
What is the primary function of the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)?
To determine an adult's attachment style
What is the outcome of securely attached infants in the puppet show experiment by Belsky et al. (1996)?
They recall the positive events more accurately
What is the long-term prediction of secure attachment in infancy, as found by Simpson et al. (2001)?
Secure relationships with peers
What is the percentage of non-depressed mothers whose infants develop an insecure attachment style, as found by Teti et al. (1995)?
30%
What is the primary focus of the 'strange situation' paradigm?
Determining infant attachment style
What is the relationship between secure attachment in infancy and social competency in primary school, as found by Simpson et al. (2001)?
Secure attachment predicts higher social competency
What is the characteristic of securely attached infants in terms of social memory, as found by Belsky et al. (1996)?
They have better memory for positive events
Study Notes
Imitation and Social Understanding
- Nagy (2004) observed newborns to study imitation involving tongue protrusions, finding that 78% of infants imitated the researcher's movements, and 38% initiated the movement themselves.
- Imitation within 2 minutes was marked by increased heart rate and arousal, interpreted as communication attempts.
- Modelling after more than 2 minutes, marked by decreased heart rate and arousal, was interpreted as provocation.
Development of Social Understanding
- Tronick (1978) found that infants from 2 months old would attempt to re-engage the parent after a brief period of "still face", reacting with confusion, wariness, and then distress.
- Murray (1985) used a live video feed to test the still face response, suggesting that the reaction is indeed a response to a lapse in communication.
- Bertin and Striano (2006) found that infants exhibited a significant decrease in smiles and shared gaze during the still face paradigm, and a significant increase once normal interaction resumed.
Metacognition and Theory of Mind
- Liszkowski (2006) found that infants pointed to an object that an adult was searching for, demonstrating a level of pure communication.
- D'Entremont (1997) found that infants from 3 to 6 months old followed the gaze of a puppet the adult was interacting with, even when it was uninteresting.
- Sorce (1985) found that infants looked to their parents before deciding to cross a "cliff", demonstrating emotional contagion influencing their perception of danger.
Metacognition and Executive Function
- Sangster-Jokic (2014) found that metacognition helps manage and direct physical movement and cognitive processes, and that training metacognitive awareness can improve performance.
- Wolfe (2017) found that adults who read disagreeing texts became more moderate, and remembered their previous opinions as more moderate than they actually were.
- Gollek (2016) found that children who passed a false-belief test were better at recognizing that an object could have multiple labels, supporting the idea that meta-representation abilities support both metacognition and theory of mind.
Memory and Executive Function
- Delgado (2011) found that pointing may assist memory in young children when they have limited memory resources.
- Bernard (2015) found that preschoolers have an ability to identify not only what they know, but how well they know things, demonstrating a type 2 sensitivity.
- Cambridgeshire independent learning project (2005) found that independent learner training programmes significantly improved independent learning in 3-5 year olds.
Working Memory and Executive Function
- Birch and Bloom (2007) found that adults were biased in their judgments in a false-belief task, indicating challenges in inhibiting irrelevant information.
- Baddeley and Hitch (1974, 2001) developed the original working memory model, which was later critiqued and revised.
- Patient HM provides evidence for the distinction between declarative and non-declarative memory.
Infant Memory and Executive Function
- Tasks assessing memory in infants through operant conditioning, such as the mobile conjugate reinforcement task, evaluate implicit memory.
- The visual recognition task is used to assess memory in infants, focusing on novelty preferences as a measurement of memory.
- Imitation tasks are used to assess memory in infants, evaluating the quality of their reproduction of an action.
- ERPs are a method of assessing memory in infants, involving the measurement of electrical activity in the brain.
Development of Working Memory
- Diamond (1998) proposes that A-not-B errors in infants indicate the presence of working memory in the first year of life.
- EEG results and maternal reports of infants' temperaments are highly correlated with working memory performance at 4.5 years.
- Alloway et al. (2004, 2006, 2010) found that working memory is a distinct cognitive skill that develops separately from other cognitive abilities.
- Conklin (2007) found that the development of working memory is linked to the maturation of the frontal lobes, which develop until the mid-twenties.
Inhibition and Executive Function
- Holmboe (2018) found that infant performance on the Freeze-frame task at 6 months predicts their performance on both the Freeze-frame task and the A-not-B task at 9 months.
- Mischel et al. (1972) developed the delay of gratification task, which is used to assess inhibition in preschool children.
- Kidd et al. (2013) found that children's ability to delay gratification is influenced by the reliability of the experimenter.
- Cragg and Nation (2008) used the stop-signal task to assess inhibition in primary-aged children, finding that mature inhibition skills are found at around 9-11 years.
Cognitive Flexibility and Executive Function
- The Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) and the Dimensional Change Card Sort Task (DCCS) are used to assess cognitive flexibility.
- Zelazo (1998) found that children pass the classic DCCS by 4 or 5 years, but 3-year-olds lack the ability to look at an object in two ways, which involves reflection.
- Morales (2013) found that bilingual children outperform monolinguals on working memory tasks.
- Miyake (2000) found that the three main executive function components (inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) are separate, but related.
Development of Executive Function
- Carlson (2005) found that children's performance on executive function tasks is not significantly different between 2 and 6 years.
- Xu et al. (2013) found that the dissociation of executive functions after the age of 12 reflects maturational changes in the prefrontal cortex.
- Schlottmann (1999) found that children and adults use different mechanisms to solve a problem involving a box and marbles.### Children's Understanding of Causality
- In the blicket detector task, children aged 3 and 4 can use causal information to stop the detector, suggesting they can combine causal information in new ways (Gopnik et al., 2001)
- Sobel (2004) found that children aged 3 and 4 used backwards blocking reasoning, attributing causality correctly only when block A was identified as a blicket, influencing their judgments differently than predicted by the associationist model
- 4-year-olds can use prior knowledge to constrain their prior probabilities, while 3-year-olds cannot (Sobel, 2004)
Development of Theory of Mind
- 9-month-olds form expectations consistent with over-hypotheses, as shown by looking times in a demonstration of rules surrounding what comes out of a series of boxes (Dewar and Xu, 2010)
- Children under 4 years tend to choose the option that had yielded a sweet before, showing a positive recency bias (Derks, 1976)
- 4-to-6-year-olds and 7-to-9-year-olds make moral judgments of non-conforming behavior, suggesting they assume group members should have common properties (Roberts, 2017)
Self-Awareness and Self-Recognition
- Infants as young as 5 months show recognition and discrimination of their own face over their peers' (Papousek, 1974)
- Infants are aware of their own agency, as shown by their reactions to a pleasant stimulus contingent on their arm movements (Lewis, 1990)
- Self-awareness and reactions to causal impact develop between 2-8 months, as shown by infants' enjoyment of a stimulus contingent on their actions (Lewis, 1990)
Development of Self-Concept
- Distal parenting strategies used in individualistic cultures predict self-recognition in the mirror self-recognition task at 18-20 months (Keller, 2004)
- Mother-infant pairs from collectivist cultures perform differently in the mirror self-recognition task and body-as-obstacle test, suggesting cultural differences in self-concept (Ross, 2016)
- Japanese participants are more likely to feel happier when engaged in friendly encounters with others, while US participants are more likely to feel happier when feeling pride in their own achievements (Kitayama, 2000)
Emotional Development
- Stages of emotional reactions to success and failure:
- Stage 1: infants (1 year) take joy in mastery
- Stage 2: children (2 years) seek approval
- Stage 3: children (3 years) show internalized self-evaluation and the full range of markers of pride and shame (Stipek, 1992)
- Most self-conscious emotions onset between 18 months to 2 years, with increased expression of guilt, shame, and pride over time (Stipek, 1992)
Moral Development
- Children as young as 3-4 years old are more altruistic in self-focused conditions, divided stickers more equally, and earned more toys for their peer (Ross et al., 2011)
- Guilt and transgression are linked, with children who show more guilt being less likely to touch a toy when told not to or cheat in a difficult game (Kochanska et al., 2002)
Object Permanence and Reasoning
- Infants as young as 3-5 months show some sense of object permanence, as shown by looking time in a drawbridge task (Baillargeon et al., 1985)
- Children as young as 5 years old can understand relationships between continuous scales, but struggle with discrete quantities (Boyer et al., 2008)### Infants' Understanding of Others' Intentions
- Infants as young as 12 months understand that others have intentions and can identify what an adult is looking for, even if it's not in their line of sight (Tomasello and Haberl, 2003)
Social Referencing
- 14 and 18-month-old infants use social referencing to understand others' emotional experiences (Repacholi, 1998)
- Infants prefer to interact with a box that made an adult happy, suggesting an understanding of others' emotional experiences
Emotional Desire
- 14-month-olds tend to hand over their preferred food regardless of a researcher's expressed preference, while 18-month-olds take into account the researcher's emotions and hand over their expressed preference (Repacholi and Gopnik, 1997)
Theory of Mind
- The Sally-Anne task demonstrates that 4-year-olds understand that others can have false beliefs, while 3-year-olds do not (Wimmer and Perner, 1983)
- 15-month-old infants understand false beliefs, but struggle to communicate their understanding (Onishi and Baillergeon, 2005)
- Eye-tracking studies show that children as young as 3 years old have an internal understanding of false beliefs, even if they can't verbalize it (Garnham and Ruffman, 2001)
Communication and Intentions
- Children as young as 18 months can communicate their wishes and understand others' intentions, but may struggle to inhibit their own desires (Hala and Russell, 2001)
- Removing the inhibitory demands of communication allows children to successfully identify the empty box in the windows task (Hala and Russell, 2001 re-run)
Phases of Attachment
- Schaffer and Emerson (1964) identified four phases of attachment:
- Asocial (0-6 weeks): no separation distress
- Indiscriminate (6 weeks-7 months): smiles more at caregivers, no separation distress
- Specific (7-9 months): protests when separated from one specific person, wary of strangers
- Multiple (a few weeks after the first attachment): protests when separated from other familiar people
Attachment Styles
- Van Izendorn (1988) found that American and Japanese children's attachment styles differ, with more resistant attachments in Japan and more avoidant attachments in America
- Harlow's studies on baby monkeys showed that love is a primary drive and that attachments must be made in the first six months of life for mental and physical wellbeing
- Bowlby defined attachment as a lasting psychological connectedness between human beings, and identified phases of attachment, including protest, despair, detachment, and permanent withdrawal
Attachment and Future Relationships
- Secure attachment in infancy predicts social competency in primary school, which in turn predicts secure relationships with peers and positive emotional experiences in relationships at 20 years old (Simpson et al., 2001)
- Attachment style affects social memory, with securely attached infants more likely to recall positive events and insecurely attached infants more likely to remember negative events (Belsky et al., 1996)
This quiz is about a study by Nagy (2004) on imitation in newborns, involving tongue protrusions and heart rate responses. It explores the infant's ability to imitate and initiate movements.
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