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Questions and Answers
What is the general formula for many of the simpler carbohydrates?
What is the general formula for many of the simpler carbohydrates?
Which type of carbohydrate is characterized by having 1 sugar unit?
Which type of carbohydrate is characterized by having 1 sugar unit?
What are carbohydrates classified as if they consist of 3-9 sugar units?
What are carbohydrates classified as if they consist of 3-9 sugar units?
Which compound is classified as a hexose monosaccharide?
Which compound is classified as a hexose monosaccharide?
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What differentiates aldoses from ketoses in carbohydrates?
What differentiates aldoses from ketoses in carbohydrates?
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Which of the following is a common example of a pentose monosaccharide?
Which of the following is a common example of a pentose monosaccharide?
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What term describes compounds that have the same chemical formula but different structures?
What term describes compounds that have the same chemical formula but different structures?
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Which of the following sugars is an isomer of glucose?
Which of the following sugars is an isomer of glucose?
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What defines epimers among carbohydrate isomers?
What defines epimers among carbohydrate isomers?
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Which of the following sugars are C-4 epimers?
Which of the following sugars are C-4 epimers?
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What characterizes enantiomers of sugars?
What characterizes enantiomers of sugars?
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In the D isomeric form of a sugar, where is the OH group located on the asymmetric carbon?
In the D isomeric form of a sugar, where is the OH group located on the asymmetric carbon?
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What happens to monosaccharides in solution regarding their structural forms?
What happens to monosaccharides in solution regarding their structural forms?
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What is created during the formation of the anomeric carbon?
What is created during the formation of the anomeric carbon?
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What process do the a and ẞ forms of sugar undergo in solution?
What process do the a and ẞ forms of sugar undergo in solution?
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Which is true regarding the a and ẞ forms of sugars?
Which is true regarding the a and ẞ forms of sugars?
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Which of the following describes a reducing sugar?
Which of the following describes a reducing sugar?
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What is the primary structure of sucrose?
What is the primary structure of sucrose?
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Which of the following disaccharides is non-reducing?
Which of the following disaccharides is non-reducing?
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Which monosaccharides are present in lactose?
Which monosaccharides are present in lactose?
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What reaction takes place when two monosaccharides are linked?
What reaction takes place when two monosaccharides are linked?
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Which statement is true about maltose?
Which statement is true about maltose?
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Which of the following sugars is not a reducing sugar?
Which of the following sugars is not a reducing sugar?
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Which process can occur when glucose is oxidized?
Which process can occur when glucose is oxidized?
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Study Notes
Biomolecules
- Biomolecules are essential organic molecules, the building blocks of all living organisms
- They range from small molecules (primary/secondary metabolites, vitamins, hormones) to large macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids)
Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates (saccharides) are the most abundant organic molecules in nature
- They have various functions, including providing dietary calories for most organisms
- Carbohydrates act as energy storage in the body
- They serve as cell membrane components, mediating intercellular communication
- They are structural components (e.g. cell walls of bacteria, cellulose of plants)
Classification of Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are classified by the number of sugar units:
- Monosaccharides: 1 sugar unit
- Disaccharides: 2 sugar units
- Oligosaccharides: 3-9 sugar units
- Polysaccharides: 10 or more sugar units
- Monosaccharides are classified by the number of carbon atoms
Examples of Monosaccharides
- 3 carbons: Trioses (e.g., glyceraldehyde)
- 4 carbons: Tetroses (e.g., erythrose)
- 5 carbons: Pentoses (e.g., ribose)
- 6 carbons: Hexoses (e.g., glucose)
- 7 carbons: Heptoses (e.g., sedoheptulose)
- 9 carbons: Noses (e.g., neuraminic acid)
Isomers
- Isomers are compounds with the same chemical formula but different structures
- Examples of isomers include glucose, fructose, mannose, and galactose (all with the formula C6H12O6)
Epimers
- Epimers are isomers that differ in the configuration around only one specific carbon atom (excluding the carbonyl carbon)
Enantiomers
- Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
- Most sugars in humans are D-sugars
- In D-sugars, the hydroxyl group on the asymmetric carbon farthest from the carbonyl carbon is on the right
- L-sugars have the hydroxyl group on the left
Cyclization of Monosaccharides
- Most monosaccharides with 5 or more carbons exist predominantly in a cyclic (ring) form, not as open chains
- The carbonyl carbon becomes an anomeric carbon (a new asymmetric carbon) upon cyclization
Anomers
- Anomeric carbon forms a and b configurations (a-D-glucopyranose, b-D-glucopyranose)
- a and b forms are diastereomers (not mirror images), and exist in solution as an equilibrium mixture through mutarotation
Reducing Sugars
- Reducing sugars can open when not linked to anomeric carbon; act as reducing agents
- All monosaccharides are reducing sugars, although not all disaccharides are
- Glucose can be oxidized to form gluconic acid, glucuronic acid, or glucaric acid
Disaccharides
- Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are joined by a glycosidic linkage, releasing water
- Examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose
- Sucrose (table sugar): formed from glucose and fructose, a non-reducing sugar
- Maltose: formed from two glucose units, a reducing sugar
- Lactose: formed from glucose and galactose, a reducing sugar
Additional Disaccharides
- Trehalose: two glucose molecules linked differently
- Lactulose: from galactose and fructose (used for constipation/liver disease)
- Cellobiose: two glucose molecules linked differently (related to bacteriology)
- Chitobiose: two glucosamine linked molecules (found in insect exoskeletons, some bacteria)
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Description
Test your knowledge on biomolecules, specifically carbohydrates, their classifications, and functions. This quiz covers carbohydrates' roles as energy sources, structural components, and their types based on sugar units. Perfect for studying the foundational concepts of organic molecules in biology.
