Basic Chemistry of Biomolecules
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Questions and Answers

What is the general chemical formula for carbohydrates?

The general chemical formula for carbohydrates is Cn(H2O)n.

List three common sources of carbohydrates in the human diet.

Three common sources of carbohydrates are potatoes, bread, and milk.

What distinguishes monosaccharides from polysaccharides?

Monosaccharides consist of a single sugar unit, while polysaccharides contain more than six sugar units.

How are carbohydrates classified based on functional groups?

<p>Carbohydrates are classified into aldoses if they contain an aldehyde group and ketoses if they contain a ketone group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines a monosaccharide and provide an example?

<p>A monosaccharide is a simple carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler units. An example is glucose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define oligosaccharides and give an example.

<p>Oligosaccharides consist of three to six monosaccharide units; an example is raffinose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between a disaccharide and a polysaccharide?

<p>A disaccharide consists of two monosaccharide units linked together, while a polysaccharide contains more than two units, often thousands.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the optically active compounds that define carbohydrates?

<p>Carbohydrates are defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are oligosaccharides and how many monosaccharide units do they typically contain?

<p>Oligosaccharides consist of three to six monosaccharide units.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the role of structural polysaccharides and give an example.

<p>Structural polysaccharides provide mechanical stability to cells and organisms. An example is cellulose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Identify two types of simple carbohydrates and their structure.

<p>Monosaccharides are single sugars, while disaccharides are two monosaccharide units linked together.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of glycogen in animals?

<p>Glycogen serves as a crucial energy reserve stored in the liver and muscles of animals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are carbohydrates considered the most widespread organic substances?

<p>Carbohydrates are abundant in nature and are crucial for energy storage and supply in living organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of a chiral carbon in carbohydrates?

<p>A chiral carbon is significant as it allows carbohydrates to be optically active, meaning they can rotate polarized light due to the presence of different atoms or groups attached.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Differentiate between homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides.

<p>Homopolysaccharides are made up of the same type of sugar units, while heteropolysaccharides consist of different types.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Give an example of a hexose and its importance.

<p>An example of a hexose is fructose, which is an important sugar found in many fruits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes laevorotatory from dextrorotatory carbohydrates?

<p>Laevorotatory carbohydrates rotate polarized light to the left and are denoted by L or (–), while dextrorotatory carbohydrates rotate it to the right and are denoted by d (+).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of sucrose?

<p>Sucrose is composed of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are most monosaccharides optically active?

<p>Most monosaccharides are optically active because they have one or more chiral carbon atoms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a meso compound and provide an example?

<p>A meso compound is a non-optical mixture of two optically active isomers, such as tartaric acid.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the role of carbohydrates in maintaining normal blood glucose levels.

<p>Carbohydrates are an instant source of energy, providing 4 calories per gram, crucial for maintaining normal blood glucose levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of chitin in fungi?

<p>Chitin is primarily involved in the construction of the fungal cell wall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the consequences of excessive carbohydrate intake?

<p>Excessive carbohydrate intake can lead to health problems such as Diabetes mellitus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do storage polysaccharides like glycogen serve animals?

<p>Storage polysaccharides like glycogen serve as a food reserve that releases sugar monomers when needed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

List two uses of carbohydrates in pharmaceutical applications.

<p>Carbohydrates are used as diluents and binders in tablet manufacturing and as active ingredients in laxatives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes heteropolysaccharides from homopolysaccharides?

<p>Heteropolysaccharides contain two or more different types of sugar units, unlike homopolysaccharides which consist of only one type.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is liquid glucose used in medicine?

<p>Liquid glucose is used in sugar-coated tablets and is essential for intravenous solutions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of heparin in the human body?

<p>Heparin acts as an anticoagulant, preventing blood clotting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe what occurs during the reduction of carbohydrates.

<p>During reduction, the C=O group in carbohydrates is converted to alcohol by sodium borohydride, resulting in alditols.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is glycoside formation in carbohydrates?

<p>Glycoside formation occurs when the anomeric hydroxyl group of a carbohydrate condenses with the hydroxyl group of another, eliminating a water molecule.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do sugars undergo oxidation and what do they produce?

<p>Sugars readily undergo oxidation to produce carboxylic acids, classifying them as reducing sugars.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of hydrolysis in carbohydrates?

<p>Hydrolysis in carbohydrates produces 𝜶 and 𝜷 isomers by breaking the -OR bond at the anomeric carbon.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Basic Chemistry of Biomolecules

  • Biomolecules are numerous substances produced by cells and living organisms.
  • They have diverse sizes and structures, serving various functions.
  • Small biomolecules include sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides.
  • Major types of biomolecules (macromolecules) are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins, vitamins, hormones, and enzymes.

Carbohydrates

  • Carbohydrates are naturally occurring compounds, or derivatives, with the general chemical formula Cn(H₂O)n.
  • They are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
  • Carbohydrates are the most widespread organic substances.
  • Chemically, they are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, their simple derivatives, or their polymers.
  • Also defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or compounds producing such units upon hydrolysis.
  • Common sources are potatoes, maize, milk, popcorn, and bread.
  • Classified by chemical structure or digestibility.
  • Divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
  • Monosaccharides have the formula C₆H₁₂O₆.
  • Disaccharides are two simple sugars.
  • Oligosaccharides have 3-6 monosaccharide units.
  • Polysaccharides have more than 6 monosaccharide units.

Classification Based on Functional Groups

  • Classified as aldoses (aldehyde group) or ketoses (ketone group).
  • Classified based on the number of carbon atoms: trioses (3C), tetroses (4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C), and heptoses (7C).
  • Examples of hexoses include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
  • Examples of pentoses include ribose.

Monosaccharides

  • These cannot be hydrolyzed further.
  • Glucose is also known as aldohexose and dextrose.

Reducing Sugars

  • These have a free aldehyde or ketone functional group.
  • Examples include D-glucose, D-mannose, and D-fructose.

Disaccharides

  • Composed of two sugar units joined by O-glycosidic bonds.
  • Sucrose (table sugar) is composed of glucose and fructose.
  • Other examples include lactose and maltose.

Polysaccharides

  • Consist of three or more monosaccharide units.
  • Examples include cellulose, starch, and glycogen.
  • Glycogen is an energy storage form in animals.
  • Starch is an energy storage form in plants.

Types of Polysaccharides

  • Homopolysaccharides: consist of a single type of sugar unit. Examples include chitin and cellulose
  • Heteropolysaccharides: consist of two or more different types of sugar units. Examples include heparin (anticoagulant), hyaluronic acid (shock absorber), and peptidoglycans/mureins (in bacterial cell walls).

Chemical Reactions of Carbohydrates

  • Alkylation: reacting with alkylating agents (diazomethane, alkyl iodides, benzyl halides) to form ethers.
  • Acylation: reacting with acylating substances (acid halides, anhydrides) to form esters.
  • Reduction: reducing the C=O group to an alcohol using sodium borohydride.
  • Oxidation: oxidizing the C=O group to form carboxylic acids, creating reducing sugars.
  • Hydrolysis: breaking the glycosidic bond to produce a and ẞ isomers.

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Alcohols

Glycoside Formation

  • Formed when the anomier hydroxyl group undergoes condensation with another carbohydrate molecule and removes a water molecule.

Optical Activity of Carbohydrates

  • Ability to rotate polarized light.
  • Carbohydrates are usually optically active due to chiral carbon atoms.
  • Molecules rotating light to the right are dextrorotatory (+).
  • Molecules rotating light to the left are levorotatory (-).

Biological and Pharmaceutical Importance of Carbohydrates

  • Instant energy source (4 calories/gram).
  • Maintaining normal blood glucose levels is crucial.
  • Deficiency of carbs = hypoglycemia.
  • Excessive intake = diabetes.
  • Used in various food preparations (syrups, tablets).
  • Used as diluents and binders in manufactured tablets.
  • Used as laxatives (e.g., mucilage, lactulose).

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Carbohydrates Lecture Notes PDF

Description

Explore the foundational aspects of biomolecules, including their structure and function. This quiz covers small biomolecules such as sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids, as well as macromolecules like carbohydrates and proteins. Dive into the classification and roles of these essential substances in living organisms.

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