Apuntes de Psicología: Vinculaciones Afectivas y Educación Afectiva Sexual

Bonding-notes-1.pdf anaromanip Vinculaciones afectivas y educación afectiva y sexual 4º Grado en Psicología Facultad de Psicología Universitat de València Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotació...

Bonding-notes-1.pdf anaromanip Vinculaciones afectivas y educación afectiva y sexual 4º Grado en Psicología Facultad de Psicología Universitat de València Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.  Emotional Bonds and Emotional and Sexual Education Ana Romaní 4th year ARA group a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.  Index 1. The attachment bond 1.1. Concept of attachment. 1.2. Phases in the development of attachment. Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. 2. Attachment theory. Core concepts and basic principles. 3. Other types of affectional bonds. 3.1. Child to parents. 3.2. Parents to child. 3.3. Sexual-pair bonding. 3.4. Friendship. 3.5. Other kin relationships. 4. Internal working models. Features and functions. 5. Behavioural systems in affectional bonds and its relationships. 6. Separation and loss. 6.1. Attachment disruptions throughout the life cycle. 6.2. Divorce in adult relationships. 7. Measurement of attachment in children. 7.1. Ainsworth. The Strange Situation Experiments. 7.2. Bretherton. Projective test. 8. Measurement of attachment, caregiving and sexuality in adult relationships. 8.1. The relationship between attachment, caregiving and sexuality. 8.2. Questionnaires/Scales to assess attachment, caregiving and sexuality. 8.3. The Adult Attachment Projective Pictures System. 9. Forming romantic relationships. 9.1. A process model of couple relationships. 9.2. A systemic model of couple relationships. 9.3. Adult attachment, stress and romantic relationships. 10. Sexuality in couple relationships. 10.1. Attachment and sexuality in close relationships. 10.2. Close relationships and sexuality in gays and lesbians. 10.3. Sexuality dysfunction from a relational point of view. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger Vinculaciones afectivas y ed... Banco de apuntes de la  11. Programs to increase security in children, adolescents and adults. 11.1. Repairing disrupted attachments in children, adolescents and adults 11.2. Domestic violence: risk factors and prevention Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Unit 10: Sexuality in children and in couple relationships Flexibly sequential play therapy (FSPT) FSTP is used with sexually victimized children. This model for play-based trauma treatment has different steps: Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. 1. Enhancing safety and security: it is the first thing we need to work on, no matter their age 2. Assessment and augmentation of coping: of coping mechanisms, making them useful 3. Soothing the physiology: I the child is feeling anxiety, because we create our emotions based on our physiological sensations. This is based on relaxation and stress managements, and using parents as soothing partners (based on the quality of the attachment between the parents and the child, it sometimes needs to be worked on) 4. Increasing emotional literacy: telling stories adapted to different psychological issues 5. Play-based gradual exposure: by using toys, you help the child being exposed to this situation. 6. Addressing the thought life 7. Making positive meaning of the post-trauma self CopeCake handouts (Goodyear-Brown, 2010b) state that coping strategies should: - Be good for you - Be good for others - Be easy to do - Make you feel better Using the Coping Umbrella (Goodyear-Brown, 2002, 2010): the client generated a list of age-appropriate coping strategies that included ‘‘shooting hoops’’ and ‘‘playing with my dog’’ among other adaptive coping strategies a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Unit X: Theoretical Perspectives on Human Sexuality What Drives Us to Have Sex? There are 3 kinds of influences that lead us to have sex: - Psychological Influences: personality, mood states, level of cognitive alertness, our attitudes toward sex and relationships, others' expectations for our behavior, as well as associations learned through reinforcement - Cultural and Societal Influences: society, religion, culture - Biological and Evolutionary Influences Cross-cultural variations in human sexual behaviour are quite important, for example: - Sexual behavior with a member of the same sex is controversial in many parts of the world, but is punishable by death in several countries, including Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan (ILGA, 2013). - Among certain tribes in New Guinea, adolescent boys ingest the semen of older men because it is believed to promote strength and virility (Herdt, 1982). - In parts of South Asia, a third gender, hijra, is observed. Hijra consist of biological men who have had their genitalia removed in ritual castration. They are believed to possess special powers (Nanda, 2001). - Although kissing is considered a normal sexual behavior in most Western societies, it is viewed as disgusting among the Thonga of South Africa (Gregersen, 1996). - In some Asian and African countries, the practice of arranged marriage is relatively common. In such marriages, parents are responsible for selecting their child's future spouse (Malhotra, 1991). The major psychological theories in the study of human sexuality Psychoanalytic theory: Personality structure consisting of the id, ego, and superego drives behavior. Sexual “abnormalities” arise when individuals become fixated during one of the psychosexual stages of development. Classical conditioning: Repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus with one that produces a specific behavior will eventually lead the neutral stimulus to elicit the same behavior. Operant conditioning: Reinforced behaviors increase in frequency; punished behaviors decrease. Reinforcement is more effective than punishment. Social/Observational learning: Behavior can be learned through observation of others (e.g., peers, parents) or through media exposure, including pornography. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.  Exchange perspectives: Exchange of resources is fundamental to social relationships. Behavior is driven by perceived costs and benefits derived from trades occurring between partners. Personality theories: Relatively stable individual traits generate consistent patterns of behavior across situations. Big Five, erotophobia-erotophilia, sensation seeking, and Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. sociosexuality are major personality traits associated with sexual behavior Evolutionary theory: Human beings are motivated to produce as many of their own offspring as possible. We have evolved preferences for physical and psychological traits and characteristics in sexual partners that promote reproductive success. Biopsychosocial model: Biological, psychological, and social factors interact to produce variations in sexual orientations and behaviors. The mind and body are fundamentally intertwined. Sexual health is not just the absence of biological dysfunction; it runs on a continuum with varying degrees of sexual illness and wellness Clinical Evaluation of Sexual Dysfunctions Diagnostic classifications used in medicine, psychology, sexology The ICD, by the World Health Organization, is an international standard for reporting diseases and health conditions, for clinical and research purposes. DSM-5, by the American Psychiatric Association, is an expansive manual of mental illness. For each illness, including sexual dysfunctions, it provides diagnostic criteria and discusses the disorder from perspectives that include development, genetics, and temperament. How can I diagnose according to the DSM-5? For diagnosing with the DSM-5, it is necessary that the symptoms that characterize the disorder occur for at least 6 months, appear in all or almost all sexual episodes (more than 75% of the time), and cause personal distress. The SD should not be a direct consequence of a non-sexual mental disorder, severe relationship distress, or other significant stress factors and should not be attributable to the effects of a substance/drug or other medical conditions; otherwise the diagnosis cannot be made. There also are three basic principles for clinical evaluation and management of sexual problems in men and women 1. Adoption of a patientcentered framework, with emphasis on cultural competence in clinical practice 2. Application of evidencebased principles in diagnostic and treatment planning 3. Use of a similar management framework for men and women a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  The DSM-5 suggests to consider the influence of the following that, when present and consistent, should exclude the diagnosis of SD: - Partner-related factors (e.g., partner’s sexual problems/health status) - Relationship factors (e.g., poor communication, sexual desire) - Individual vulnerability factors (e.g., negative body image, history of sexual or Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. emotional abuse), psychiatric comorbidity (e.g., depression or anxiety) or stress factors (e.g., job loss, mourning) - Cultural/religious factors (e.g., inhibitions related to prohibitions against sexual activity, negative attitudes toward sexuality) - Medical factors relevant to prognosis, course or treatment How can I diagnose SD according to ICD-11? The ICD-11 expands inclusion criteria for the diagnosis of SD: - ICD-11 defines the sexual response as “a complex interaction of psychological, interpersonal, social, cultural, physiological and gender-influenced processes.” - Categories in the proposed classification of SD apply to both men and women, emphasizing commonalities in sexual response. - “Satisfactory”sexual functioning is defined as being satisfying to the individual As a consequence, the diagnosis is not valid also in case of: unrealistic expectations on the part of a partner, discrepancy in sexual desire between partners and inadequate sexual stimulation. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Unit 1: The attachment bond Concept of attachment Reference for the Concept of Attachment The first chapter of Feeney and Noller’s book entitled Attachment in Infancy and Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. Beyond, offers a description of the attachment concept according to Bowlby. In the early 20th century, children in institutions were separated from their primary caregivers, and Harlow made experiments with them. He concluded that when feeling fear, children choosed the cloth mother. We also have Bowlby’s contributions to child development and practice: - Minimising separation - Physical contact with parents - Fathers present at birth - More time with their children Phases in the development of attachment Attachment behaviour Attachment behaviour according to Bowlby is any form of behaviour that results in a person attaining or retaining proximity to some other differentiated and preferred individual, usually conceived as stronger and/or wiser. For example, in babies we can see sucking, clinging, following, smiling, and crying, which elicit protective responses thereby bring survival advantage. It is important to differentiate attachment behaviour from simply attachement. An attachment to someone means that he is strongly disposed to seek proximity to and contact with that individual and to do so especially in certain specified conditions. It is the disposition to behave in this way is an attribute of the attached person: a persisting attribute that changes only slowly over time and that is unaffected by the situation of the moment. On the other hand, attachment behaviour refers to any of the various forms of behaviour that the person engages in from time to time to obtain or maintain a desired proximity. Behavioural systems The human has different behavioural systems whose purpose is survival and procreation: sexual, affiliative, attachment, exploratory and caregiving. All of them are homeostatic and maintain a balance between the individual and the encironment. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Concretely, the attachment system contains behaviour whose purpose is creating proximity. However, proximity behaviour needs to maintain a balance with exploratory behaviour. To do so, the attachment figure pops out; being a secure base from which the infant explores the environment. This permits maintaining a balance: - More threat: more proximity behaviour and less exploratory behavioour - More security: less proximity behavuour and more exploratory behaviour The attachment relationship As we have mentioned, the functions of the attachment relationships are: having a secure base from which to explore, having a safe haven to come back after being threatened and seeking proximity and protesting at separation. Because of this, the perceived caregiver’s availability affects the children: - When feeling secure and confident, they are more sociable, have more play and exploration and are less inhibited - When feeling insecure and lack of confidence: they can develop: - Fear and anxiety: crying and clinging - Defensiveness: avoidance of contact with attachment figure Differences in the attachment system Universally, because of natural selection, children who seek for proximity survive. They reproduce and the attachment systems passes to the next generation. However, individually, confidence in an attachment figure being available: can lead to being less prone to intense or chronic fear, is built up slowly during infancy, childhood and adolescence and tend to not change and leads to accurate reflections of the experiences the individuals had. Internal working models (IWM): 1. Include the expectations of attachment figures 2. Reflect memories and beliefs developed from early experiences of caregiving 3. They are carried forward into new relationships 4. Includes models of others and self According to Ainsworth’s studied in Uganda and Baltimore, all these differences lead to three major infant attachment styles: a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.  Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. These attachment styles are created based on a circular system between the mother and the infant that give constant feedback to each other. The proposition of this model lead to a series of experiments, and one was more highlighted than others: the strange situation experiment. In it, a series of incidents were used: 1. Mother and infant together in a strange room with toys 2. Mother and infant joined by female stranger 3. Mother leaves the infant with the stranger 4. Mother returns and stranger leaves 5. Mother leaves infant a1one 6. Stranger returns 7. Mother returns Main and Solomon, however, stablished a fourth group: Disorganised Disoriented Category. These kids show contradictory reunion behaviour, show confusion or apprehension when the AF approaches and can have a changeable or depressed affect. It can also happen that the child can have multiple attachment figures. Bowlby stablishes that the child is biased toward attaching himself or herself especially to one figure, mainly the mother. By 9 or 10 months of age, the principal caregiver becomes the primary attachment figure and other figures are secondary and supplementary to that primary figure, following a hierarchy. Quality of the attachment It depends on: how the mother responds to crying, timing of feeding, sensitivity, psychological accessibility, cooperation and acceptance. The Interactional Synchrony are the reciprocal and mutually rewarding exchanges of behaviour between infant and mother. An infant may be securely attached to one parent and insecurely attached to the other. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  The child’s temperament has a great effect on the quality of the attachment. The temperament can be emotional, fuzzy or difficult, irritable, active/passive, prone to distress, social… Irritability predicts insecure attachment at 12 months of age, but only when Mothers were relatively unresponsive to their infant's crying at 3 months and who received Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. little social support. Mangelsdorf et al. highlighted the importance of the interaction between maternal personality and the infant being proneness to distress. On the other hand, Bowlby said that attachment patterns reflect the interaction between the child's personality, the family, and the wider social environment. Cultural differences also have an impact on the quality of the attachment. In cultures that encourage early independence, children exhibit less stress in response to separation. For example, there is a high incidence of A (Avoidant) in Germany due to the parental push for early independence (Not rejection) Changeability of attachment and IWM Based on Bowlby, IWM are stable. IWM develop and operate in a stable family setting, they operate unconsciously which makes them harder to change, and they are self- fulfilling. However, he also states that changing the IWM to adapt to reality is needed in certain occasions, for example if: 1. The person is not satisfied with their attachment pattern. 2. The person experiences events that might change their behaviour. 3. The IWM is no longer effective to deal with social exchanges Evidence for this is: children change from secure to insecure when more severe life stresses, children change from insecure to secure when there was an additional caregiver and IWM are revised in the context of other relationships. Phases of attachment according to Bowlby Phase I: Orientation and Signals with Limited Discrimination of Figure (from birth to 8/12 weeks): Baby’s ability to discriminate is limited to olfactory and auditory stimuli. The behaviours the baby shows are: orientation towards a person, tracking movements of the eyes, grasping and reaching, smiling and babbling. There is a process that starts when the baby stops crying when they see a face or hear a voice, which influences the caregiver and increases proximity. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Phase II: Orientation and Signals Directed towards One (or More) Discriminated Figure(s) (from 12 weeks to 6 months): Baby’s behaviours more directed towards the main caregiver Phase III: Maintanance of proximity to a Discriminated Figure by meansof Locomotion as well as Signals (from 6/7 months to 2/3 years): the attachment is evident for Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. everyone. Baby’s behaviours more directed towards the main caregiver, the infant increasingly discriminates the way he treats people, responses of following a departing mother and greeting her on her return. The baby is using the Attachment Figure as a base from which to explore, the friendly and rather undiscriminating responses to everyone else wane, Strangers become treated with increasing caution, and sooner or later are likely to evoke alarm and withdrawal. Also, the child's behaviour to his mother become organised on a goal-corrected basis. Phase IV: Formation of a Goal-corrected Partnership (from 3.5 years on). Here, a hierarchy of attachment figures appears. Little by little, the child conceives the mother as an independent object, persistent in time and space and moving predictably in a space-time continuum. This leads to a more complex cognitive map. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Unit X: The sexual expression of the young child. The clinical norm and the beliefs of parents and teachers Circles of human sexuality When dealing with child sexuality, adults have different difficulties, such as: lack of knowledge, lack of parenting skills, lack of insight into own sexuality and a restrictive normative system. Adult reactions to manifestations of child sexual development are: increase in tension, anxiety, anger and helplessness. An inappropriate educational intervention can induce fear and guilt in the sexual sphere, deception and lack of support. All of this has effects on child sexual development, leading to lack of an adequate system of norms and values, lack of correct knowledge distorted boundaries of intimacy, lack of insight into and uncertainty about one's own sexuality and lack of proper realization of sexual needs. There are factors shaping attitudes towards sexuality (in general and of the child): te family (an upbringing system that shapes attitudes towards sexuality among other things tabu), kindergarten, institutions, schools and significant people (authorities, peers…). Elements of the educational relationship There is an asymmetrical relationship between the adult and the child. The adult has knowledge, personality traits and skills such as communication; and the child has it in a much lesser way. There are also other sources of (non)-teacher knowledge about human sexuality: commercial sex (advertising, pornography…), myths stereotypes and superstitions, individual experiences and objectified knowledge (for example from text books). Beliefs about human sexuality: In general: - Sexuality concerns only adults - Sexuality is sinful and wrong - Sex should only be practiced for the purpose of procreation a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.  - Sex for pleasure is wrong - Sex is a form of entertainment, it should be done whenever you feel the need to do - The woman is responsible for the consequences of sexual activity - The man is not in control of his sexual desire - If a woman had an orgasm during a rape, it means she enjoyed it Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. Beliefs about a child's sexuality: - The child is asexual - The child should be protected from information on sexuality - If a child asks about matters related to sexuality, it means that there is something wrong with him/her - Contact with information on sexuality causes disinhibition - The child does not understand sexual matters, therefore it is okay to talk about them in front of the child and to display sexual content (films, photos, books) without restrictions - The child should be brought up in a stress-free way and therefore should not be restricted in his/her access to anything Forms of child sexual behaviour: first nursery rhymes and nursery poems with sexual or forbidden content, interest in their own history, questions about where children come from, curiosity about what parents do in the bedroom behind closed doors… Later, there are other behaviours such as: growing interest in their own bodies- especially when children are reprimanded for playing with their genitals (touching, stroking, smelling, comparing, etc.), explicitly sexually tinged play with peers (e.g. playing doctor), sexually explicit role-playing games (e.g. playing house), friendship with a child of the opposite sex, questions directed at adults, calling each other husband and wife, child's sexual emotions related to the parent of the opposite sex, increased physical and spiritual independence (awareness of "I" is created, the child recognises himself in the mirror, his willpower increases), games related to learning about the body (e.g. study of anatomy) and peeing competitions organised by boys. Also; increased aggressiveness with a concomitant need for gentleness and contact with the body, increasing questions about physical processes in the body, reproduction and sexuality (e.g. " How do girls pee?", "Does it hurt when the baby comes out of the tummy?") Childhood masturbation Types of child sexual behaviour according to Maria Beisert: masturbatory, orienting, interactional behaviours and creativity of the child. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Masturbation It can be of different types: 1. Developmental: pleasure orientation, repetitive routine, fades over time, Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. implicit, hidden, does not damage the body, lack of persistence, and susceptible to influence 2. Experimental: orientation to satisfy the curiosity of the explorer, no fixed pattern, overt, undisguised, passes after intervention, may cause harm body, lack of persistence and susceptible to influence 3. Instrumental: orientation towards the satisfaction of another need, repetitive schema, passes once the frustrated need is satisfied, overt and demonstrative, rarely causes harm body and persists until the cause is removed Sexual education of the young child Because of all of this, several questions arise: what should a preschooler know about body structure? What should a preschooler know about procreation? What should a preschooler know about sexual play? What we know is that sexuality should not be made a secret. Remember that children do not want to know everything at once, use words that are accepted in the family and introduce specific professional terms as the child develops, teach the names of all body parts, without exception. Topics related to sexuality should be integrated into the normal everyday process of parenting. A special topic that requires specific preparation should not be taken out of the child awareness process, simple explanations are the most understandable for a child. The child must be free to set his or her own boundaries, this starts very early during family rituals. So, what should a preschooler know about body structure? Every body part has a name and serves something, boys and girls have certain body parts, shared and different. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  What should a preschooler know about procreation? It takes both a woman and a man to bring a baby into the world, babies grow in a woman's body in a special place called the uterus and only a woman can be pregnant and give birth to a child, but a man is also needed for the child to come into being. What should a preschooler know about procreation? Children are the "fruits of love" Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. of mum and dad, girls will be mums in the future and boys will be dads and mums feed their babies with breast or bottle milk. What should a preschooler know about sexual play? Touching one's own intimate body parts is pleasurable, children are interested in each other's bodies and often touch, hug and kiss each other, you should not touch, hug or kiss someone if you don't feel like it, your body is your property, you have the right to decide if another child can touch you during play or any other situation and when you play indoors or outdoors everyone should be dressed. Assessment of sexual play Criterion I sexual behaviour is within the norm when it does not impede the performance of the developmental tasks prescribed for that phase. The frequency of the behaviour is not high and it is not a dominant activity, the main motive for the activity is cognitive curiosity, it is not compulsive in nature and it doesn’t interfere with the gender identification process. Criterion II Sexual behaviour is part of the developmental norm if it is within the repertoire of age-specific sexual behaviour. The content of sexual behaviour doesn’t go beyond the cognitive level and the structure of the behaviour is not elaborate and doesn’t reproduce the level of complex adult activity. Criterion III Sexual behaviour is within the developmental norm if it occurs between persons of approximately the same age (less than 5 years). Similar developmental stage, no tendency to seek out those with victim characteristics (younger children; with intellectual disabilities, unaccompanied) and identification of age difference. Criterion IV Sexual behaviour is within the norm if it has the appearance of voluntariness. Sexual activity is free from coercion, aggression and destruction, the activity is free from manipulation and the person know what he is conseting to. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Criterion V Sexual behaviour is within the norm if it does not harm health and life. The activity doesn’t endanger health and doesn’t lead to injury body. Criterion VI Sexual behaviour is within the norm if it does not go beyond social norms. It can fall under several norms: individual, scientific, social, moral, etc. Attitudes of parents and teachers towards children’s sexual behaviour First there was a research with 415research participants (370 women, 42 men, 3 gender unknown), whose age ranged 33 years (M=33,21; SD=7,64; Me=32). Participation in the survey was voluntary, anonymous and free from any time pressure. Then, there was the questionnaire part: 1. Questionnaire of Attitudes towards Child Sexual Behaviour (QACSB) (Ratkowska-Pasikowska, Pasikowski, 2013); 2. Affective and Behavioural Questionnaire of Attitudes towards Child Sexual Behaviour (ABQCSB) (Ratkowska-Pasikowska, Pasikowski, 2013) The results were analysed and compares with different variables such as status, education levels (each separately), religious involvement (analyzed dichotomous). a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.  Unit 4: Internal working models Working models Bowlby designed Internal Working Models (IWM). He stated that in order to predict and manage the world, individuals need: Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. - Environmental model: a model of their environment - Organismic model: a model of their own skills and potentialities Inner Working Models are analogous to maps and plans, they are used to plan one's own behaviour to achieve relational goals and to simulate and predict the behaviour of others in social interaction. When parents are supportive and cooperative, the child creates useful IWM that are useful to create positive relationships with others and to explore the environment with a sense of confidence and mastery. IWM become more sophisticated with development, as they become solidified with a consistent pattern of caregiving. However, major changes in either the person or the environment may lead to more changed of working models. If the IWM works and there is no change in the person or environment, this model would be applied automatically, unconsciously. Bowlby stated that a psychopathology occurs when the IWM are inadequate or inaccurate, out-of-date, half revised, full of inconsistencies… So, IWM are self-fullfilling. Inconsistent Internal Working Models IWM of the same Attachment Figure Reality Idealised model Direct experiences What they are told Unconscious Conscious Experiences of rejection, Parents say they are good coldness, unsupportive The child sees them as good parents The child feels resentful The child feels guilty and parents reject them because the child is bad He suppress feelings because they Their parents are good think their parents are good a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Hierarchy of IWM: Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. We must remember that when we learn, we learn models of self and models of others. For example, we learn both sides of a relationship; mother and child. When adults, we can behave based on both models. Parents’ internal models of childhood attachment (i.e., the ones they internalized as children) govern the ways in which they behave as attachment figures to their own children. Four components of IWMs Memories Memories of attachment-related experiences (particularly those involving the primary attachment figure) Secure: parensta are warm and affectionate Avoidant: mother is cold and rejecting Anxious-ambivalent: father is unfair Beliefs, attitudes and expectations (Of self and others in relation to attachment) Secure: Few self doubts; high in self-worth, generally liked by others, others generally well-intentioned and good-hearted, others generally trustworthy, dependable, and altruistic, interpersonally oriented. Avoidant: suspicious of human motives, Lack confidence in social situations, others not trustworthy or dependable, doubt honesty and integrity of parents and others and not interpersonally oriented Anxious-Ambivalent: others complex and difficult to understand, people have little control over own lives a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Goals and needs Attachment-related goals and needs Secure: Desire intimate of relationships and seek balance of closeness and autonomy Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. in relationships Avoidant: need to maintain distance, limit intimacy to satisfy needs for autonomy and independence and place greater weight on goals such as achievement Anxious-ambivalence: desire extreme intimacy, fear rejection and seek lower levels of autonomy Strategies and plans Strategies and plans for achieving attachment-related goals Secure: Acknowledge distress and modulate negative affect in constructive way Avoidant: manage distress by cutting off anger and minimize distress related emotional displays; withhold intimate disclosure Anxious-ambivalent: Heightened displays of distress and anger to get response and solicitous and compliant to gain acceptance Functions of Working Models Cognitive Response Patterns IWM affect selective attention; for example: - Anxious-ambivalent: seek approval and avoid rejection and are sensitive to any suggestions of criticism or rejection and to overreact to these - Avoidant: sensitive to signs of intrusion and control because they are concerned about others getting too close and they don’t trust other people It also creates biases in memory encoding and retrieval, because we recreate our own memories; we recreate past situations (incidents that didn’t really happen) that are partly remembered (or recalling an occasional incident as occurring more frequently than it actually did) by recalling. Recalled memories generally confirm existing models of self and other, whether these are positive or negative. Also, IWMs have an effect on inference and explanation processes, they affect the ways individuals make sense of their relationships. In Sarason’s Study, a group of children received the exact same note, purported to be from their mothers. Those who perceived their mothers as generally unavailable to them saw the notes as much less supportive. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Emotional Response Patterns The Primary Appraisal Response involves a direct path from the IWM to the emotional response, evoking the immediate emotional reaction to a particular situation. We must remember that strong affect influences selective attention. Strong negative affect such as anger or depression may lead to a negatively biased search process, for example, depressed people tend to focus on data that support their negative mood. An individual with a negative model of self may focus on experiences of failure and ignore experiences of success. This also has to do with memory, as depressed individuals will recall negative experiences from the past and ignore any positive events that might have occurred. A person sensitive to attempts at control will tend, when feeling low, to recall instances consistent with that concern. With a negative IWM, people react in less constructive ways. The Secondary Appraisal Response involves the path from cognitive processing to emotional responses, how does the individual feel once he or she has taken into account his or her cognitive reaction, for example, via self-talk. The Primary Appraisal Response can be maintained, amplified, or lessened depending on how the individual interprets the experience. For example, someone who was initially elated at being asked out on a date: might maintain that elation by focusing on the potential fun of the date, might amplify that elation by imagining a rosy future with the dating partner, or might lessen that elation by assuming that the partner will never ask for another date Behavioural Response Patterns Secure, anxious-ambivalent and avoidant people behave, think and feel differently, as they differ in: 1. Stored strategies in IWM from childhood/adolescence/adulthood. For example, decisions such as whether to discuss the problem openly with the partner or whether to avoid the issue 2. New plans made in the current situation. For example, running home to mother every time he or she has an argument with the spouse. - Secure: integrate cognitive and emotional considerations - Anxious-Ambivalent: Focus on emotional factors - Avoidant: Over rely on cognitive factors and ignore or deny emotional reactions a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.  Unit 5: Behavioural Systems in Affectional bonds and its relationships Dyadic model Both the partner’s romantic attachment and the care they provide to each other are Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. related with sexual satisfaction. Attachment system in adult love relationships The attachment system used in adult love relationships develops in infancy and childhood and it is characterized by proximity- seeking behaviours toward attachment figures (typically parents). Parents provide comfort and security in times of adversity The caregiving system is complementary to the attachment system and evolved to increase the safety and viability of dependent others, such as children or an adult who is temporarily in need of protection, comfort, or support. Caregiving In adult love relationships, a threat to well-being or perceived security activates a individual’s attachment system, which triggers the partner’s caregiving system to: 1. To satisfy the partner’s needs 2. Alleviate distress, 3. Restore his or her sense of safety, 4. Promote exploration and selfactualizing behaviours So, both partners need to provide care to the other and create security and comfort. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Esta cuenta de ING es como la opinión de tu ex: NoCuenta.  There are four dimensions of caregiving behaviours: (Kunce and Shaver, 1994) 1. Proximity vs Distance: Tendency to offer physical proximity and emotional closeness as means to soothe a distressed partner 2. Sensitivity vs Insensitivity: Ability to accurately perceive distress cues and needs in one’s partner Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. 3. Control vs Cooperation: Tendency to take too much responsibility for the partner’s problem, minimises opportunities for the partner to find his or her own solutions 4. Compulsive caregiving: Intrusively overinvolved in the partner’s life with minimal regard for his or her actual need for help An adequate sense of security leads to optimal caregiving. However, sometimes we face chronic attachment insecurities; and these interfere with an individual’s ability to recognize distress signals in others or to appropriately respond to them. Sexual Satisfaction in Adult Love Relationships The sexual system includes motives for engaging in sexual interactions, and it is expressed in sexual behaviour and sexuality-related emotions and desires. Optimal sexuality includes security, caring and sexual gratification; and involves a healthy concern for both oneself and other’s partner. Avoidant people are more likely to engage in one-night stands and to endorse the idea that sex without love is pleasurable. On the other hand, female avoidant and male anxious-ambivalent are the least likely to report engaging in sexual inter course during the course of the study. Several studies have demonstrated that: a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Several researches did the following study: “Sexuality Examined Through the Lens of Attachment Theory: Attachment, Caregiving, and Sexual Satisfaction”. It supported the theorized association between the attachment, caregiving and sexual systems in couple members. It defined caregiving proximity as a core component of romantic relationships. It lies at Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. the juncture of the attachment, caregiving, and sexual behavioural systems. It is an important aspect of caregiving and helps satisfy a partner’s attachment need for closeness. Also, physical proximity: fosters emotional closeness, sexual interest, contact and intimacy in partners. Caregiving Sensitivity and Caregiving control were related to sexual satisfaction. In distressed couples there was an intense negative affect, communication problems and conflicts that influence the association between the insecure attachment and low sexual satisfaction. So, caregiving behaviours play a less central role. Conclusions In happy couples, sexual satisfaction is related to less-avoidant partners’ ability to foster physical proximity to be attuned to each other’s needs and distress cues, and to cooperate with, rather than control, their partners to help solve the partners’ problems. Effective caregiving is characterized by proximity and sensitivity and low control and requires an individual to have his or her partner’s well-being at heart and to let go of worries. Avoidant individuals are not likely to focus on their partner’s needs and their partners are sexually dissatisfied. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Unit 3: Other type of affectional bonds Child to parents The child needs feeling secure with parents and trusting them, thus finding s safe heaven in them. These are the main differences between a child-parent relationship and a friendship, that doesn’t necessarily involve all these components. Goal corrected partnership is a term used to explain how parents correct their child’s goals while they are growing up. This occurs between 3 and 4 years old, while children are developing: - Language skills: both the child and parents better communicate their plans and wishes to each other - Qualitative Advance in Locomotion: which allows the parents to communicate by gestures if language is not attended - Secure Working Model: more exploration During adulthood, the child-parent attachment changes. The adult child achieves autonomy; and even though the attachment to parents continues, they may have a new principal attachment figure towards their partner. Because of this, the goal corrected partnership no longer exists, and the relationship has more synchrony, they are two people in the same level. Ainsworth states that when a parent is impaired, however, there is a role reversal, and the child is the one taking care of them. Difference between affectional bonds and relationships Affectional bonds are long lasting, while relationships may or may not endure. For example, you can break up with your partner and remain in love. Relationships are dyadic, while affectional bonds are characteristic of the individual, not the dyad, and entail representation in the internal organization of the individual person. For example, you can be in love with one person that doesn’t even know you exist. A relationship is likely to have a number of components, some of which may be irrelevant to what makes for an attachment or indeed any kind of affectional bond. So, an Affectional Bond is a relatively long enduring tie in which the partner is important as a unique individual and is interchangeable with none other. There is a desire to maintain closeness to the partner and an intermittent desire to re-establish proximity and interaction, and pleasure upon reunion. Attachment, on the other hand, is the experience of security and comfort; the ability to move off from the secure base provided by the partner, with confidence to engage in other activities. Not all attachments are secure. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.  Friends, companions and intimates Infancy: Sociable systems may conflict with fear/wariness system. Bretherton and Ainsworth’s findings found that most infants showed a mixture of wary and sociable behaviour on first encountering an adult stranger when the mother was present, and very few showed only wariness or only sociability. Infants and young children are much Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. more likely to be sociable than wary when encountering unfamiliar age peers Wariness aroused by friendly adult strangers may disappear rapidly as they become more familiar. For teenagers, the group as a whole is most important, but the teenager is incapable of creating attachment towards to the group, and they haven’t got an affectional bond to it. Affectional bonds, including attachments, pertain to the individual in a dyadic relationship with another specific person. Friendships include several dyadic relationships: - Relationships with acquaintances with whom one has occasional pleasant interaction - Relationships with congenial companions with whom one spends quite a great deal of time in activities of mutual concern or interest - Close, intimate relationships with one or a few particularly valued persons whose company one seeks intermittently. Weiss found attachment bonds between Army Buddies - Attachment and caregiving components - The partners seek proximity to each other - They give care and protection to each other - Each feels more secure when with the other - Separation or threat of separation occasions anxiety - Loss would certainly cause grief. - The relationship is fostered under hazardous conditions Friendship in Childhood Youniss (1980) stated different stages in the development of friendships: 6-7-year-olds: playmayte and sharing 9-11-year-olds: reciprocity, friends give help to each other and depend on that help, including companionship when lonely 12-14-year-olds: thought of close friendship as a SYMMETRICAL relationship, stressing cooperation, reciprocity, and trust, in which one could reveal one's feelings, negotiate differences, and feel understood. Emphasised congeniality of interests. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Also, we must keep in mind that some friendships have an attachment component and some constitute enduring affectional bonds. Many are short lived and entirely context specific and others endure despite circumstances that make proximity keeping difficult. Representational models of one self and of others enable people to sustain a bond Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. across time and distance Bounds with siblings and other kinds of relationships Older siblings may play a parental, caregiving role with younger siblings. They may become supplementary attachment figures for them. When a child's parent dies, the child's feelings of grief and abandonment may be alleviated by an older sibling who plays a protective, caregiving role. Stewart did an experiment in which mothers left their children in a waiting room setting. Half of his sample of three- and four-year-old children acted to provide reassurance, comfort, and care to their younger siblings. Siblings beyond infancy and close in age may also be playmates. Some of these may become friends, perhaps best friends With the same sort of symmetrical, cooperative, reciprocal, mutually trusting relationship, and this implies a secure attachment component. What makes ambivalent feelings enduring affectional bonds? Sexual pair bonds There are three behavioural systems: reproductive, attachment and caregiving. Caregiving is based on the two ways-giving care to the partner and sharing with the partner caregiving for the young. Attachment is built up throughout the relationship interacts with caregiving to make for a reciprocal give-and-take relationship. a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-6789232 Santa Julieta de Todas las Burgers, patrona del Estudiante Hambriento @circoburger  Added to this, we need three things: Reciprocity: each partner at some times and in some ways looks to the other as stronger and wiser. The other reciprocates by providing care, comfort, and reassurance, thus promoting feelings of security Sexual Attraction: specially important at the beginning of the relationship Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad. Attachment and caregiving: to sustain the bond even in cases in which sexual interest has waned Divorce What usually happens is that the attachment component is long lasting, and it can endure after breaking up. This leads to miss the partner and feeling lonely. However, in other cases, attachment might be finished before the divorce, leading to it. Divorces can happen due to different reasons, for example the relationship being asymmetrical, non-reciprocal… Some may resemble the relationship between parent and child, in which the child seeks protection and care from the other an the parent is viewed as stronger and wiser. The parent’s satisfaction comes through giving care and feeling needed. Other components in marriages are professional or business partners (liking the partner as X figure but not as a romantic one) and sharing the same leisure time interests and activities. They