Field Methods in Psychology (FLDMET1) - University of Baguio - PDF

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION AND LIBERAL ARTS FLDMET1 FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY Prepared by: Rhoda Marie A. Carbonel, MPA, MA Psych Psychology Department A Self-regulated Learning Module A Self-regulated Learning Modu...

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION AND LIBERAL ARTS FLDMET1 FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY Prepared by: Rhoda Marie A. Carbonel, MPA, MA Psych Psychology Department A Self-regulated Learning Module A Self-regulated Learning Module 1  TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 4 Unit 1 The Nature and Relevance of Research 10 Topic 1. Overview of Research 10 Topic 2. Ethics in Research 17 Topic 3. The UB Research Process and the IMRAD Format 37 Topic 4. Psychology as a Science 49 Topic 5. The Selection of a Research Design 53 Topic 6. The Language of Research 64 Topic 7. Choosing and Narrowing Down Your Topic 74 Unit 2 Quantitative Research 79 Topic 8. Nature, Theoretical Approaches, Research Objectives and Hypothesis, The Research Paradigm, Basic Methods 79 Topic 9. Data Collection Tools, Sampling Methods, Quantitative Data Analysis 86 a. Behavioral Observations, Recording and Report Writing 86 b. The Survey Research Design 92 c. Selecting the Units of Analysis 103 d. Quantitative Data Analysis and Report Writing 109 Unit 3 Qualitative Research 116 Topic 10. Nature, Theoretical Approaches, Research Objectives, The Research Paradigm 117 Topic 11a. Data Collection Tools, Sampling Methods 127 Topic 11b. Data Management in Qualitative Research 136 A Self-regulated Learning Module 2  Topic 12. Qualitative Data Analysis Methods: 142 a. Thematic Analysis 142 b. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis 148 c. Narrative Analysis 150 Course Evaluation 155 References 156 A Self-regulated Learning Module 3  INTRODUCTION Course Code and Course Title FLDMET1, Field Methods in Psychology Course Description This course is designed to immerse the students in quantitative and qualitative research in the Social Sciences and Psychology. It trains the students to gain knowledge and understanding of the importance of research, the corresponding ethical responsibilities of students in research, and work in collaboration with research groupmates. The course is also designed to equip the students with skill in the research processes such as recognizing research designs, conducting a literature review, identifying research gaps, administering surveys, conducting interviews and focus group discussions. At the end of the semester, the students are expected to present their tentative topics for development during their Research in Psychology 1 Course. Requirements of the Course Regular class attendance Meaningful participation in classroom discussion and group discussions Individual and group assignments Seatworks and groupwork (i.e. survey, interview, content analysis etc). 3 major exams (first grading, midterms, finals) Final Activity: Thesis Topic Presentation Learning Competencies The learning competencies in this course are aligned with the Policies, Standards, and Guidelines of the Bachelor of Science in Psychology as mandated by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). Upon successful completion of the course and in general, the students have the ability to A. Comprehend and evaluate new information related to psychology (e.g. theory, concepts, data) that may be presented in various forms and from various sources. B. Demonstrate methods of inquiry in psychology specifically those related to quantitative and qualitative research C. Develop arguments about and critically evaluate the established principles in psychology and its application to research D. Be able to tell the difference between qualitative and quantitative research and apply these to how behavior can be measured or quantified E. Undertake, produce and defend a quality psychological research using the knowledge and skills learned in class F. Observe ethical rules concerning conduct of research and projects. A Self-regulated Learning Module 4  G. Display appropriate interpersonal sensitivity to cross cultural differences toward their teachers, school administrators, classmates and their research respondents Study Schedule Week Topic Overview of the Course 1 Unit 1 : The Nature and Relevance of Research Topic 1. Overview of Research 2 Topic 2. Ethics in Research 3-4 Topic 3. The UB Research Process and the IMRAD Format 4-5 Topic 4. Psychology as a Science Topic 5. The Selection of a Research Design 6 Topic 6. The Language of Research Topic 7: Choosing and Narrowing Down Your Topic 7 First Grading Exam 8 Unit 2. Quantitative Research Topic 8. Nature, Theoretical Approaches, Research Objectives and Hypothesis, The Research Paradigm, Basic Methods (Correlational, Experimental, Observational, Survey) 9-10 Topic 9. Data Collection Tools, Sampling Methods, Quantitative Data Analysis a. Behavioral Observations, Recording and Report Writing b. The Survey Research Design c. Selecting the Units of Analysis d. Quantitative Data Analysis and Report Writing 11 Unit 3. Qualitative Research: Topic 10. Nature, Theoretical Approaches, Research Objectives, The Research Paradigm 11 Topic 11a. Data Collection Tools (KII, FGD, Triangulation, Diary Studies), Sampling Methods 12 Topic 11b. Data Management in Qualitative Research 13 MidTerm Exam 14-16 Topic 13. Qualitative Data Analysis Methods a. Thematic Analysis b. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis c. Narrative Analysis 17 Topic Presentation 18 Final Exam A Self-regulated Learning Module 5 1. Flexible Learning Approach The University of Baguio (UB) adopts the Flexible Learning Approach for Academic Year 2020- 2021. This approach involves a combination of online learning and modular approach. Coursework is delivered through the web, email, and message boards that are posted on online fora and available learning packets (UB, 2020). The course FLDMET1 shall be delivered through the various online platforms like GSuite, Canvas, Zoom, and Facebook (as needed). Online lectures will be conducted for those who have strong connectivity whereas learning packets shall be sent to those who opt to have their classes offline. Students are required to join the Google Classroom Account or the Canvas Classroom Account for the FLDMET1 Course. The corresponding password shall be given during the 1st week of virtual classes. 2. General Course Policies Active and Meaningful Participation You will most benefit from this course if you show participate in the virtual classroom discussions during class lectures and group activities. Asking questions is encouraged as this facilitates exchange of ideas among the members of the virtual classroom. You are encouraged to collaborate with your classmates virtually. Self-paced and Independent Learning You are required to work and study independently given the nature of this semester’s approach. The readings are given ahead of schedule thus it is imperative that you find time to read. Set a reading schedule so that you can participate in discussion boards and recitation. You are responsible for your own learning. Read, read, read! Announcements are regularly posted in social media thus you are all required to regularly check the official social media accounts created by the University of Baguio, the School of Teacher Education, the Psychology Department, and the respective Course accounts. Integrity Given the Flexible Learning Approach, it is imperative that students align their personal values with the institutional values as well. Thus, you are mandated to demonstrate academic integrity in all your dealings with your teachers and classmates. This also means that you are to demonstrate honesty in accomplishing all online tasks. A Self-regulated Learning Module 6 Plagiarism Policy In accordance with the UB Student Handbook, plagiarism is considered a punishable act (i.e. Exlusion/Withdrawal of degree) thus students must observe correct citation of references for all of their course requirements as well. Similarly, cheating is not tolerated thus each student is required to practice correct judgement in all their academic requirements. Academic integrity should be observed at all times. Competence The core value of competence is synonymous to ability. We believe that students are all capable of demonstrating academic excellence, thus you are expected to demonstrate diligence in accomplishing all course requirements. Be mindful that when you accomplish your work, you turn in assignments during the due dates and your outputs are insightful and substantial. 3. Internet Etiquette During Online Classes Given the online mode of course delivery, the following rules apply during the semester a. automatically set your audio to mute when entering the virtual classroom b. all are required to turn on their video during class lectures c. you must be logged on to the virtual classroom within 5 minutes, tardiness is not encouraged. It is expected that you stay throughout the duration of the class. d. maintain professionalism at all times – in manner of speaking and in manner of dressing e. you are not allowed to communicate with the instructor through messenger, all inquiries should be done through Google Classroom and Canvas. f. The FLDMET1 Manual is exclusively for UB use only. Students are not allowed to distribute the modules to those who are not officially enrolled in the class. When communicating with Teaching and Non-Teaching Personnel of the University of Baguio A Self-regulated Learning Module 7 4. Data Privacy Teacher’s Privacy In accordance with the Data Privacy Provisions, the students are not allowed to take screenshots of the lecture. Recording of the lecture shall only be done by the teacher and NOT by the student. You are required to take down notes rather than make screen recording of the teacher’s synchronous classes. You are not allowed to share the lectures with students who are not enrolled in the course. Remember, synchronous and asynchronous lectures are private properties of the instructor. Screenshots of activities, exams, presentations are discouraged Student’s Privacy You are not allowed to take screenshots of your classmates during synchronous classes without their consent. Official school data are requested solely for recording purposes only. Your private data will not be shared with other people who are not connected with the University. Moreover, your private data will not be submitted for recruitment, campaigns, online selling activities and the other similar activities. 5. Feedback Mechanism and Consultation Hours Everyone is encouraged to communicate, collaborate, and ask questions. For online students, feedback about coursework will be done through Google Classroom and Canvas. Faculty Consultation Hours shall be set during the first week of virtual classes. For offline students, feedback about coursework shall be made during scheduled online consultations which are set in advance. As much as possible, offline students are also required to communicate with the instructor through the official email addresses and not through messenger. 6. DISCLAIMER for the Contents of this Module The author of this module does not claim ownership of the information found in this module. This module is a compilation of personal notes made by the Teacher with no intention of plagiarizing the work of the original authors. All information and images found in this manual are from various books, journals, websites, readings, open-source electronic documents which are all properly acknowledged through footnotes and in the summary of References Section of this learning module. A Self-regulated Learning Module 8 7. Psychology Department Faculty, 2nd Semester AY 2021-2022 Christian D. Bistayan, MS Psych, RPM Janet T. Calado, RPsy Rhoda Marie A. Carbonel, MPA, MA Psych Junix Jerald I. Delos Santos, RPm, LPT Mary Catherine D. Rivera, MS Psych Contact Person for this course Rhoda Marie A. Carbonel [email protected] A Self-regulated Learning Module 9  Unit 1: NATURE AND RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH Topic 1. The Overview of Research Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students are able to A. Discuss the importance of research in relation to their course B. Differentiate the dichotomies of scientific and non-scientific knowledge, quantitative and qualitative research C. Brainstorm with groupmates on the scientific method and enumerate key things to be done at every stage D. Construct a comparative table of the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative research vis- à-vis qualitative research I. Research1 “re” (a prefix which means again, anew, once more) + “search” (to seek, find, discover, unravel) 1. It is looking for an answer to a query using the most logical and valid methods 2. A process of using relevant data with the best methods of analysis that can help the user develop new knowledge or new insight into the problem 3. Something was done before and the function of the present researcher is to agree, improve or negate the findings of the previous work Characteristics of knowledge: non-scientific (everyday) and scientific2 Non-scientific Scientific General approach Intuitive (“it feels right, Empirical seems reasonable”); influenced by cognitive biases Attitude Uncritical, accepting Critical, skeptical Observation Casual, uncontrolled Systematic, controlled (read the case of Clever Hans) Reporting Biased, subjective Unbiased, objective Concepts Ambiguous, with surplus Clear definitions, meanings operational specificity Instruments Inaccurate, imprecise Accurate, precise; measurements can be made at varying levels of precision Ex. Galvanic Skin Response; Aggression scales 1 Flores, B.R. Class Handouts: What is Research 2 Shaughnessy, J.J., Zechmeister, E.B., & Zechmeister, J.S. (2012). Research methods in psychology. (9th ed.). Singapore: McGraw-Hill Education (Asia). A Self-regulated Learning Module 10  compartilization Measurement (i.e there are Not valid or reliable Valid (truthfulness of a agreed upon standards) measure) and reliable (consistency) Hypothesis Testable Untestable The Nature of Research a) Systematic – plan, identify, design, collect data, evaluate b) Logical – examine procedures to evaluate conclusions c) Empirical – decisions are based on data (observation) d) Reductive – general relationships are established from data e) Replicable – actions are recorded, others can conduct a similar study Objectives of Research It is the application of the scientific approach to study a problem It is a way to acquire dependable and useful information A systematic and objective search for reliable knowledge “to improve the quality of life” Research is NOT something that leads to destruction of life intended to destroy somebody else’s reputation, the environment, family relationships II. The Four Goals of Psychological Research (Shaughnessy et al, 2012) 1. Description – Researchers define, classify, catalogue or categorize events and relationships to describe mental processes and behavior; to develop descriptions Psychologists use the nomothetic approach (i.e. establishing broad generalizations or laws that apply to large groups or populations) or the idiographic approach (i.e. individuals are studied and their uniqueness are also taken into account) 2. Prediction – When researchers identify correlations among variables they are able to predict mental processes and behavior; ex. does the early loss of a parent make a child vulnerable to depression? Do stressful events lead to increased physical illness? A correlation exists when one variable can be used to predict a second variable. 3. Explanation – Researchers understand a phenomenon when they can identify the causes; the three conditions for causal inference are met a. Covariation – when one event is the cause of another, the two events must vary together b. Time order relationship (aka contingency) – the presumed cause must occur before the presumed effect c. when plausible alternative causes have been eliminated 4. Application – Psychologists apply their knowledge and research methods to change people’s lives for the better (i.e. school setting, workplace, community work etc). A Self-regulated Learning Module 11  Examples: self-help techniques, positive reinforcement, psychological testing, therapies III. Scientific Method in Psychology The scientific method is an approach that practitioners of psychology are interested in for assessing, measuring, and predicting behavior It is the process of appropriately framing and properly answering questions. It is used by psychologists and those engage in other scientific disciplines to come up with a better understanding of the world Scientific Nature of Psychology a) Science: An approach using the scientific method for the observation, description, understanding, and prediction of any phenomenon. b) Scientific method: The procedure employing a systematic, pre-defined, series of steps for attaining optimal efficiency, accuracy, and objectivity in investigating the problem of interest c) Systematic: it follows a specified system, an organized way of collecting and tabulating information. d) Pre defined series of steps: certain steps following a specific sequence that is not to be altered; disruption of the sequence will ruin the essence of the approach e) Objectivity: It is unbiased; the researcher's likes and dislikes do not interfere with the study or its findings Steps of the Scientific Method a) Identifying the research problem What is something that you would like to explore, something that is of interest and would be beneficial to the field of study What is something that needs further research because there is a gap in knowledge b) Review of related literature What has been done before? Do background research on the topic so that you find better ways of doing things, you avoid the mistakes that have been done before c) Formulation of a hypothesis Come up with an educated guess about how things work; it is an attempt to answer the question with something that can be tested so that you can make a prediction What are the variables that you would like to study, what are the operational definitions of the variables What theoretical framework will you use to help describe, explain, predict the phenomenon you are researching about A Self-regulated Learning Module 12  d) Designing and conducting the research This is your plan or outline of how you will gather data for your research, what method will you use, who will benefit, who will you study, how will you recruit the respondents, what are the tools that you will use to gather the data e) Data interpretation and analysis how are you going to evaluate and analyze the data (categorize, sort, describe), how are you going to present the results f) Drawing conclusions and recommendations What generalizations can you arrive at? 31 At a glance…the broad types of research designs January Quantitative Qualitative Purpose Study relationships, cause and effect Examine phenomenon as it is in rich detail Design Developed prior to study Flexible, evolves during the study Approach Deductive, tests theory Inductive, may generate theory Tools Uses preselected instruments The research is the primary data collection tool Sample Uses large samples Uses small samples Analysis Statistical analysis of numeric data Narrative description and interpretation IV. Defining the Research Method Defn: “a particular approach to answering a research question’ ( Wilson & MacLean, 2011) It is a way of doing something – if that “something” is research, then it is your way of doing research A. Quantitative Research Designs Uses objective measurement to gather numeric data that are used to answer questions or test predetermined hypothesis Categories are generated before the study and statistical techniques are used to analyze the data collected 1. Experimental Research Design involves the study of systematic manipulation of a variable on another variable, random process involved; there is an independent variable and dependent variable Quasi experimental: groups are already preexisting A Self-regulated Learning Module 13  2. Nonexperimental Research Design Ex post facto: the researcher does not manipulate the IV which has already occurred naturally Correlational: data is gathered from at least two variables and see if they are related Ex. A study investigated the English grammar performance between high school freshmen taught by two different methods A study investigated EQ and IQ of nurses and its impact on performance Quantitative Methods 1. Descriptive Method describes the phenomena being studied addresses the “what” question data is gathered and descriptive statistics are used to analyze data using: a) Measures of Central Tendency (mean, median, mode) or b) Measures of spread (range, quartiles, absolute deviation, variance and standard deviation) 2. Correlational Method determines the relationships among two variables or more; identify variables then investigate the variables correlational statistical techniques are applied to the data correlation does not imply causation this method can be bivariate (IV, DV) or multi-variate ( 2IVs, 1DV, 2IVs, 2 DVs) Examples: Income levels and job satisfaction; work environments and job satisfaction; Parenting styles and Academic Achievement A Self-regulated Learning Module 14  Data is analyzed using Pearson-Product Moment Correlation and Spearman Rank Orders Correlation (ordinal variables) Pearson’s r interpretation, determines strength and significant relationships between variables Chi-square is used for ordinal and nominal data, tests hypothesis 3. Experimental Method Def ’n: a well-controlled form of research that looks for cause-effect relationships it is often laboratory based: mostly for physiological, cognitive or sensory phenomena researcher manipulates one or more independent or grouping variables In True experiments: random assignment of participants In Quasi experiments: participants are already grouped and cannot be re-assigned For Example: Nonequivalent groups design3 You hypothesize that a new after-school program will lead to higher grades. You choose two similar groups of children who attend different schools, one of which implements the new program while the other does not. By comparing the children who attend the program with those who do not, you can find out whether it has an impact on grades. 3 Thomas, L. (2020). An introduction to quasi-experimental designs. Retrieved from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quasi-experimental- design/#:~:text=This%20is%20the%20most%20common,while%20the%20other%20does%20not.[paragraph 7]. A Self-regulated Learning Module 15 d. Market Research* an organized effort to gather information about target markets provides important information to identify and analyze: customer satisfaction, market need, market size and competition includes social and opinion research B. Qualitative Research Designs focuses on the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the situational constraints that shape inquiry Qualitative methods Type Major Question Basic interpretive studies How are events, processes and activities perceived by the participant? Case study What are the characteristics of this individual, organization or group? Document analysis What can be learned about this phenomenon by studying certain documents? Ethnography What are the culture and perspectives of this group of people in their natural setting? Grounded theory What theory can be derived inductively about a phenomenon from the data collected in a particular setting? Historical studies What insights and conclusions can be reached about this past event? Narrative inquiry What insights and undertakings about an issue emerge from examining life stories? Phenomenological study What does this experience mean for the participants in the experience Field Research (Researchers study groups of people for some length of time) Historical-comparative How have aspects of social life changed over a period? A Self-regulated Learning Module 16  7 February Topic 2. Ethics in Research4 Advocating Quality Research Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students are able to A. Discuss ethical procedures in conducting a research B. Relate their previous experiences in research and explain how these are examples of unethical research practices C. Review the Data Privacy Act of the Philippines and compare it with sections of the Ethics in Research D. Review a sample proposal and distinguish what the ethical violations are and come upi with suggestions on how to make the unethical, ethical I. Research (Def ’n) an inquiry into a particular subject with the aim of (1) developing/contributing to generalizable knowledge e.g. theories, principles, relationships (2) accumulation of information using scientific methods of observation, inference, and analysis Research is not medical treatment, surveillance, audit, mere program evaluation Research is not unsystematic, disorganized, and without focus Research with human beings… any social science, biomedical or epidemiologic activity that entails systematic collection or analysis of data with the intent to generate new knowledge in which human beings are exposed to manipulation, intervention, observation or other interaction with investigators either directly, or through alteration of their environment, or become individually identifiable through investigator’s collection, preparation, or use of biological material or medical or other records (WHO, 2009). II. Some operational definitions The Researcher. A qualified scientist who undertakes responsibility for the scientific & ethical integrity of research at a specific site. The Investigator. A person who is responsible for the conduct of the clinical trial at a trial site The Research Proposal. A document that provides the background, rationale, and objectives of a research & describes its design, methodology, including ethical & statistical considerations. The research proposal is known as a Protocol if it the research work is a clinical trial Ethics. “The discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligation” and “the principles of conduct governing an individual or a group.” Ethics in Research. It is the framework that applies broad ethical principles to the responsible conduct of research and to the use of any outcomes from research; focuses on the research participants; considers the community and environment in ethics 4 Corpuz, J. (2020). Basic research ethics [presentation]. Research and Development Center: University of Baguio. Philippine Health Research and Ethics Board (2019). Basic research ethics training [handouts]. Baguio City. A Self-regulated Learning Module 17 III. Importance of Ethics in Research Right thing to do. Protects research participants Promotes advocacy for research participants Preserve credibility / trust / accountability; reduce liability, wasted time & resources. Subjects/participants must be valued as persons -- their rights, safety and well-being should prevail over the interests of science and society. Turns useless, harmful, worthless to useful, helpful, worthy (ask yourself: do we really need this research? Or will it be because it brings accolades to the researchers? “rights, safety, and well-being of [research participants] are the most important consideration and should prevail over the interests of science and society.” (ICH-GCP, 2016) IV. The Philippine Situationer Surge in number of researches Attraction Problems Large ethnic gene pool Politics and commercialization Low research costs Increased researches without a proportionate Available pool of individuals who have not increase in trained researchers or research received any drug ethics committees Researchers open to collaboration More than 15, 000 Filipino research participants but no participant advocacy group A Self-regulated Learning Module 18  Unclear responsibilities, overlapping mandates Ethical Misconduct Promoted as a research hub Knowledge access Convenience subjects Free and informed consent Privacy and Confidentiality (Data Privacy Act of 2012, Philippines). The National Privacy Commission protects individual personal information and upholds the right to privacy by regulating the processing of personal information Note: the DPA of 2012 may be accessed from https://www.privacy.gov.ph/data-privacy-act-primer/ V. Considerations 1. Learn from the past Every scientific breakthrough puts people at risk of harm Good people can be bad ex. Edward Jenner (Cowpox, 1796); Richard Strong (Inoculation of cholera to Filipino prisoners, 1906); Dr Hwang and the Stem Cell Swindle (2009); Nazi Freezing experiment where Dr. Sigmund Rascher and Dr. Ernst Holzloehner observed the reactions of a Dachau prisoner who was immersed in a tank of ice to simulate the extreme hypothermia suffered by pilots drowned over frigid seas (1942) A turning point in ethics history is the 1974 Belmont Report (aka The Belmont Principles) because it put forth the idea that there are three basic Principles for the protection of human subjects: Respect for persons Beneficence Justice A Self-regulated Learning Module 19 2. Believe that there are correct ways of doing research Thus it is essential that individuals are trained to do research; institutions have accredited committees Anyone involved in research should be constantly updated about developments in the research field Creation and establishment of ethical standards as a result of unethical practices A Self-regulated Learning Module 20 3. Value the research participant Protection of subjects is a Universal Concern. The researcher’s foremost responsibility is the protection of the rights, safety & welfare of participants. The Respondent is Indispensable for the research (partner) The respondent Chooses to join (consent) The Respondent cannot be Worse Off by joining The Respondent Must be appreciated. a PERSON has inherent dignity and should be… an end and not a means (Principle of Beneficence) protected against harm and wrong (Principle of Non-maleficence) respected as a person (Principle of Autonomy) equal to other persons (Principle of Justice) Respect for dignity recognizes the inherent worth of all human beings, regardless of perceived or real differences in social status, ethnic origin, gender, capacities, or other such characteristics. This inherent worth means that all human beings are worthy of equal moral consideration (Code of Ethics for Philippine Psychologists, page 4, 2009). 4. Value self as honorable and trustworthy (i.e. you value the respondents’ participation and the you believe they will be cooperative; you-as the researcher-also believe that you are capable to do the research 5. Value community and Environment what would the impact of the research be on the community which the participants represent (both during and after research) VI. Components of an Ethical Research Adherence to Researcher Community Review by an Scientific Ethical Independent Social Value Competence Involvement Soundness Principles Committee A. Social Value “how will society benefit?” Responsive to the needs of the community scientifically valid detailed verifiable protocol, research dissemination plan Of social value for the primary beneficiaries. The University of Baguio has an approved Research Agenda and you may access it from the Research and Development Center, https://www.ubaguio.edu/rdc/reseach-agenda/ A Self-regulated Learning Module 21 The UB Psychology Program Research Agenda as of SY 2019-2020 Social Psychology Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism) Social cognition Person perception Attitudes Social control and cults Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing Attraction, romance, and love Nonverbal communication Prosocial behavior Leadership Digital Nomads (online-self presentation, technology and its impact on identity etc) Clinical Psychology Stress and Coping Mechanisms The Self and Authenticity Intergenerational Studies (ex. parenting styles, birth orders) Industrial/Organizational Leadership in the Workplace Psychology Employee Characteristics Well-being and Job Satisfaction (finding meaning in one’s work and career) Organizational Change and Change Management Community Psychology Concept of mental health among communities (Health and well-being of vulnerable groups, Indigenous People’s Health) Understanding diversity Citizen Empowerment Curriculum Tracer Studies of Alumni Development Performance of graduates in the Board Licensure Exams of Psychometricians/Psychologists Fun-learning Environments Practicum Partnership Evaluation (impact studies) Note: With the onset of the Covid Pandemic on March 2020, Psychology Students favored researches that were aligned with the current situation being experienced by the global community. A Self-regulated Learning Module 22 B. Scientific soundness Is the protocol described clearly and in detail? Will the data be valid and credible? Objectives and methods appropriate? “Bad science is bad ethics!” “Published research is not always true!” Is the research design reproducible For additional information on the replication crisis in Psychology log on to http://noba.to/q4cvydeh and read the article of Diener & Biswas-Diener (2020). According to Science Exchange (August 2012) on the Reproducibility Initiative, the key findings are: “scientific literature is riddled with false findings and erroneous conclusions,” “published research is not always true” “of 53 cancer studies, only six are confirmed” “in 1.5 million published researches 75,000 are erroneous” Scientific Soundness of the Research Design Reproducible Achieves scientific objectives while guaranteeing participants’ healthcare Feasible within social, political, and cultural context (i.e. researcher, site, and resources) Clear attainable objectives Achievable without necessary harm to the participants (consider the risks) Moral certitude of success unattainable by safer means Rigorous reproducible method and conditions of study Precise inclusion and exclusion criteria Specific withdrawal criteria Appropriate sampling design and number including control Justified duration of human involvement Valid, reliable, objective evaluation – binding of at least the outcome indicator Adequate provisions for monitoring and auditing Appropriate terms of reference (ex. MOA with NCIP, permissions from the local government; data sharing plan is specified in the ethical considerations section) For clinical researches, appropriate handling of specimen or drug Meticulous data gathering, accurate recording, and summary Appropriate statistical and non-statistical analysis In the Results section, objective interpretation, well-founded conclusion, independent peer reviewed, publication with correct authorship, available records (3-years holding time) A Self-regulated Learning Module 23 C. Adherence to Ethical Principles (BNAJ) BENEFICENCE NON-MALEFICENCE AUTONOMY JUSTICE Beneficence and non-maleficence a) Beneficence refers to action that is done for the benefit/good of others; beneficent actions can be taken to help prevent or remove harm or to simply improve the situation of others; researchers should have the welfare of the participants as a goal of any research; beneficence is applied to the parties, community, society b) Non-maleficence means “to do no harm” (primum non nocere). The pertinent ethical issue is whether the benefits outweigh the risks/burdens c) Benefit refers to a desired outcome or an advantage. In doing research, consider participant’s value system (i.e. the researcher should not pass value judgement on subject’s values) d) Risk refers to the probability of harm or injury occurring as a result of participation in the study. Researcher must provide the participants (during consent) with an accurate and fair description of the risks and discomforts and the anticipated benefits. To avoid confusion, speak of risks & benefits in terms of probabilities. e) Types of Risks Physical Minor discomfort or pain, potentially serious or disabling, transient or permanent Ex. blood extraction, needle pricking, exposure to noise or sound, fear or enclosed spaces (MRI), administering a drug such as alcohol or caffeine, depriving people of sleep for an extended period of time Psychological Stress, feeling of guilt or embarrassment, depression, loss of self- esteem, trauma, confusion; sleeplessness, anxiety May be minimal or transient to serious Invasion of privacy (access to a person’s body or behavior without consent) Breach of confidentiality (inability to safeguard information that has been given voluntarily by one person to another) Examples: telling participants that they will receive intense electric shocks (resulting in anxiety); giving unfavorable feedback about their personalities in tests designed to produce psychological stress; asking participants about traumatic or unpleasant events in their lives Social Labelled or stigmatized, may cause embarrassment or criminal prosecution Ex. HIV crisis in a certain barangay A Self-regulated Learning Module 24 Economic Actual costs would be expensive for the respondent if you request them harm to keep coming back, loss of employment Research Ethics Committees (REC) often base their approval of research on the following criteria: (1) Risks to participants are minimized Minimal risk: where the probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated in the proposed research is not greater, in and of themselves than those which are not ordinarily encountered in their daily lives (2) Risks to participants are reasonable Reasonable risks: The risk is reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits, the importance of the knowledge that may be reasonably expected to result; benefits outweigh at least as favorable as available alternative approaches ex. in the clinical setting – herbal medicines that are not yet Food and Drug Administration approved, claims made by non-FDA approved nutritional supplements f. Quantification of Risks Minimal Probability is no greater than those experienced in daily life More Than Minimal Probability is greater than those experienced in daily life but will not result in any serious or prolonged harm Moderate Harm is highly probable, consequences may be prolonged, sometimes unavoidable or uncontrollable; requires close monitoring and installation of safeguards More Than Moderate Probability of serious harm is so apparent that a serious revire of benefits to determine if the study should be done at all *Risks and benefits are discussed in the paper in terms of probabilities **Accountability rests on the Adviser if the research is more than minimal risk A Self-regulated Learning Module 25 g. Mitigating the risks Provide complete information in the research proposal regarding the experimental design and the scientific rational underlying the proposed research Minimize risk by using procedures consistent with sound research design Do not unnecessarily expose participants to risk Risks must be reasonable in relationship to anticipated benefits, the importance of the knowledge that may be reasonably be expected to result (minimal risk) Provide complete information in the research proposal in the background and rationale, literature review Assemble a qualified research team with the sufficient expertise and experience Ensure that projected sample size is sufficient to yield useful results Collect data from standard-of-care-procedures (ex. spinal tap, medical tests, experiments, psychological tests) Presence of appropriate data safety monitoring plan (ex. passwords, aliases, codes, encryptions; identifiers are removed) Incorporate adequate standards into the research design (ex. appropriate data safey monitoring plan, presence of trained personnel, procedures to protect confidentiality of data such as passwords, encryption, and codes) Risks and Benefits Assessment To avoid confusion, speak of risks and benefits in terms of probabilities Researchers should provide detailed information about potential risks and benefits associated with the research, as well as probability, magnitude, potential harm associated with risk When reviewing proposal Ethics Review Committees should evaluate i. Potential risks ii. Weigh the probability of risk occurring iii. Weigh the magnitude of harm that may result iv. Identify the risks associated with the research, as distinguished from the risks of therapies the participants would receive even if not participating in research v. Determine that the risks will be minimized to the possible extent vi. Determine that the risks are reasonable vii. Identify the probable benefits derived from research viii. Judge whether the anticipated benefit (either new knowledge or improved health for the research participant) justifies inviting any person to undertake the risks ix. Ensure that the benefit-risk ratio is greater than the alternative approaches x. Assure that potential participants will be provided with accurate and fair description (during consent) or the risks or discomforts and the anticipated benefits “To do no harm is impossible but to minimize harm and maximize benefit is attainable” A Self-regulated Learning Module 26  h. Debriefing May occur at different stages of the research such as immediately after the interview, after a focus group discussion or when a participant has completed a task Debriefing may also be done all participants at the end of the research. This should be done with caution (i.e. appropriate to the context of the research situation) Can be done verbally or it can also be one by handing out information and debriefing sheets outlining the research and any issues that the participants ought to know The researcher must be sure that the participant has calmed down and returned to pre-study levels and is comfortable about having participated Opportunities: It is an opportunity for the researcher to deal with issues of withholding information, deception and any potential harmful effects of participation It is an opportunity for the researcher to explain the purpose of the study and tell Participants about what kinds of results are expected and practical implications It is both an ethical and educational purpose because it provides opportunities for participants to learn about research in general It helps the researchers learn how participants viewed the procedures of the study, how to plan new and future researches Autonomy a) Respect for person is manifested by courtesy, cultural sensitivity, gender sensitivity, free and informed consent b) Respect for autonomy requires that those who are capable of deliberation about their personal choices should be treated with respect for their capacity for self determination c) Protection of person with impaired or diminished autonomy which requires that those who are dependent or vulnerable be afforded security against harm or abuse (Belmont Report, 1979) Special populations: young children and individuals with impairment, patients in psychiatric hospitals; detained individuals such as those in prison or in juvenile care d) Free and informed consent the right of competent persons to decide on what is their best interests, a process by which one gives permission to another to invade one’s privacy, because it is a process, it should be unhurried (i.e. give the respondent sufficient time to go over the document, to think about it, to ask clarifications) A Self-regulated Learning Module 27  obtained with respect, honesty and concern (i.e. respect for the person regardless of stature) it is given by one who knows what they are giving freely and they choose to do so voluntary agreement to participate in research (not merely a form that is signed; not merely now or never) *Must be obtained for all types of research: diagnostic, therapeutic, interventional, social, behavioral e) Elements of an informed consent e.1. Information about a participant’s rights, purpose of the study, procedures to be undergone, potential risks and benefits of participation, procedure to mitigate the risks, alternatives to participation, duration of participation, right to privacy and confidentiality (de- identification / anonymity), data retention limits, withdrawal to participate, person to contact for questions and clarifications Confidentiality Anonymity Refers to a condition in which the Refers the idea that the participant is simply researcher knows the identity of a one among many and not be able to be research subject, but takes steps to protect distinguished from the “mass,” identifying that identity from being discovered by details associated with descriptions of others. Most human subjects research individuals will need to remain undisclosed, requires the collection of a signed consent or be altered to inhibit recognition by the agreement from participants, and the likely and possible audiences for the report collection of other personally identifiable (Bazeley, data, and thus researchers are aware of the identity of their subjects. In such cases, maintaining confidentiality is a key measure to ensure the protection of private information (Evergreen State College, 2020, par. 2) How: password protected records, encrypting data sent over the internet, locked cabinets and drawers; assigning codes instead of names of participants Reference: Evergreen State College (2020). Confidentiality and Anonymity. Retrieved January 11, 2021 from https://www.evergreen.edu/humansubjectsreview/confidentiality e.2. Translated into the language understood by the participant; avoid using jargons that only the researcher knows about, the standard is language should be understood by a Grade 6 level student; translated into technology that the participant is familiar with e.3. Voluntariness – participants choose freely and willingly; minimize undue coercion or influence e.4. Sufficient time for the participant to think and consider participation A Self-regulated Learning Module 28  e.5. Documentation – signature or thumbmark (or attested by a witness), an online document that shows agreement e.6. Vulnerable populations must receive extra protection (vulnerable: children, pregnant women, prisoners, people with special needs, elderly, mentally ill) e.7. Withdrawal may happen anytime during the research process; discuss specific conditions for withdrawal e.8. Conditional information Payment for participation Additional costs from participation Risks to vulnerable participants (e.g. embryo, fetus, mentally ill etc) Early withdrawal consequences Statement regarding how significant new findings will be communicated f. Types of an informed consent Consent An adult participant (at least 18 years old) capable of giving permission to participate in a research can provide consent. Parental When children/persons with diminished autonomy are Consent/LAR included in research, the parent or legally authorized representative (LAR) must sign the informed consent document. Some require permission from at least one parent, while other situations require permission from both parents Assent A child’s (7-17 years old) affirmative agreement to participate in a research; any sign of dissent is respected at any age Verbal Contains all elements of a written consent, however the consent participant has verbally read the elements and verbally agrees to join. Verbal consent may require corroborating documentation Short form: generally used when there is a language barrier and the English Research Ethics Committee-approved consent is orally translated in the native language of the research participant Justice Definition: “rightness” of person’s interactions and relationships; golden rule: what one would have others do to oneself (Natural Law); “Fair if I were to need; Fair if I were to give.” Not depriving others of what is due (what is deserved) regardless of age, sex, race Equal share of benefits and burdens (egalitarian) A Self-regulated Learning Module 29 a. When unequal is just… “From each according to ability, to each according to need” (Karl Marx), with preference for the poor and vulnerable (Christian teachings) “to each person or equal share” “to each person according to individual need” “to each person according to individual effort” “to each person according to societal contribution” “to each person according to mark” b. Justice applied for all stakeholders – justice must reduce inequalities; presence of equal standards for developing and developed countries, rich or poor in health care, control, follow-up care, review; truth telling Reimbursement, compensation, incentive b.1 if no direct benefit, additional compensation for discomfort, inconvenience, time b.2 if difficult to invite and recruit: provide incentive b.3. if harm, wrong or injury – give additional compensation for the correction c. justice applied for participants – fair recruitment, sampling, assignments, just compensation, benefit sharing Inclusion criteria: “For whom will the findings be generalized?” Exclusion criteria: “Why should they not be included?” d. just compensation is not exploitative, not undue (excessive or inappropriate) e. justice for the community – relevant topic, useful topic, conservation of time, energy, environment, and resources, consultation before, during and after implementation, respect for values, leaders, consent of leaders, capacity building, fair share of results, availability and affordability of the product f. Justice for the society – compliance with the law (ex. NCIP clearance, patenting and registration etc); timely truthful publication after peer review, compensation and autonomy of research, compensation and protection of an institution’s reputation, no conflicts of interest between the researcher and the sponsor g. Truthful publication – no data fabrication (making up), falsification (changing, omitting, “cooking,” “trimming,”), statistical misuse, plagiarism (appropriation of another’s ideas, words, processes without giving appropriate credit), unfounded claims, redundancy, “salami slicing,” trivial studies and findings; cite literature, reference original source, previous publication, correct authorship, peer review, ethical clearances, A Self-regulated Learning Module 30 E. Conflict of Interest Who is involved: a person or a group, investigator, reviewer, sponsor Some definitions: 1. Set of conditions in which professional judgment concerning a primary interest (such as the patient’s welfare or the validity of the research) tends to be influenced by a secondary interest such as financial gain (Thomspon, 1993) 2. Set of circumstances that creates a risk that professional judgment or actions regarding a primary interest will be unduly influenced by a secondary interest (Lo and Field, 2009) 3. Those of any kind that could undermine the objectivity, integrity or perceived value of a publication through their potential influence on behavior or content or form or perception of such potential influence (Nature, Competing Interest, 2017) Conflict of interest may be actual, apparent, potential, perceived, tangible or intangible, for or against Possible harms i. Reduced trust from research participants, colleagues, government, sponsoring/funding agency, public ii. Injury to participants: report and attribution of adverse effects, care given (including prescriptions) or investigator or clinician iii. Damage to Credibility (Bias): selection and retention of participants, collection and reporting of data, selective attendance or misperceived critical observations, peer review and publication Managing Conflict of Interest i. Vigilance: recognize likelihood and consequence ii. Deal with: Disclosure. Sources of financial or economic support for the research shall be disclosed to give those who would be affected, or who are otherwise in a good position to assess their risks, information they need to make their decisions Abstention. Conflicted parties shall withdraw from cases in which they have substantial secondary interests Divestiture. Selling/disposing/returning materials, equipment acquired during the course of the research. Mediation. Use of strategies such as blind trust that can insulate parties from secondary interests E. Researcher Competence5 Competency – is composed of skill, attitude and knowledge Capacity – is the ability to do a certain thing Skill – forms one component of a competence 5 Darankhar, M. (2014) Competencies of a good researcher [powerpoiont presentation]. A Self-regulated Learning Module 31 Personal qualities a. Humble and Collegial Seeks opinions and assistance of peers and authority when necessary Respects the opinions of co-investigators Admits mistakes committed during the conduct of research and offers or agrees to suggested corrections Apologizes for any harm done to participants and seeks to alleviate it b. Qualified Submits proof of qualifications (ex. signed and updated CV, updated evidence of training in research ethics Submits personal references when required Shows interest in the research topic c. Commands respect and is respectful himself Composes themselves in a dignified and respectful manner in attire, actions, words Shows respect to research participants through manner of speaking and action Keeps confidential matters about the research confidential d. Honest, trustworthy and fair Explains objectives and procedures in the research protocol truthfully to participants, co- researchers and staff Evokes trust by having thorough knowledge of their research and its procedures Assures participants of confidentiality and fair treatment during recruitment and in the administration of informed consent e. Follows rules and regulations Gets institutional clearance for research if they are institutionally affiliated Makes sure of completeness of documents that need to be attached to his protocol Submits protocol for technical and ethical review and complies with requirements for these f. Diligent and competent Has good work ethic Provides a thorough background and information on the research that can be verified anytime Submits required documents or amendments as soon as possible Respects deadlines Trains or makes sure their staff is competent on research ethics as well as in the conduct of the protocol even before implementation Familiarizes themselves with national and international ethics guidelines A Self-regulated Learning Module 32 g. Morally upright Discerns right from wrong Discloses any conflict of interest Declares if protocol has been reviewed or submitted for review by other RECs and provides results of review Must not have been accused of fraud or other immoral activities (in doing research) but if this happens, they are ready to defend themselves through their track record, colleagues’ statements etc Skills of the Researcher Stage 1: Before the topic is finalized Critical review of the literature Effective search strategies Identify, critique, and apply strategies for conceptualizing and or operationalizing research variables Identify appropriate research methods Framing research questions Writing the research paper Stage 2: During Data Collection Document-related competencies like data coding and data entry Data management Interpersonal Skills (culturally, intellectually and gender sensitive; knows the participants and the community i.e how to get consent, how to compensate) Project Management (ex. works according to the timeframe, adequate research staff and resources on site Stage 3: During Data Analysis Using appropriate data analysis techniques Interpret and synthesize findings Identify relevance for practice and future research Stage 4: Report Writing Maintaining internal consistency through all the chapters Writing for publication A Self-regulated Learning Module 33 Another way of looking at research competence6 E. Community Involvement The researcher assesses the readiness and preparedness of the community. They make sure that appropriate permissions are asked from the leaders in the local government units, the elders in the community among others. The researcher understands the local realities and the potential impact of the research on that community Community engagement in research is “a process of inclusive participation that supports mutual respect of values, strategies, and actions for authentic partnership” of people affiliated by geographic location, shared interest, or similar circumstances to address issues affecting community wellbeing (Ahmed & Palermo, 2010). In Community-based research in public health, it focuses on “social, structural, and physical environmental inequities through active involvement of community members, organizational representatives, and researchers in all aspects of the research process”. Throughout this process, partners contribute their expertise to enhance understanding of a given phenomenon and to translate knowledge into action. This is the paradigm of community- based research: a holistic approach to public health issues which has the potential to illuminate local barriers to care while simultaneously empowering the community through participation and advocacy (Unite for Sight, par. 3, 2015) 6 Image reference: Reference: http://sydney.edu.au/science A Self-regulated Learning Module 34  Some examples of community engagement (Holzer, Ellis & Merritt, 2014). a. Approach to Community Engagement reported b. Developed culturally appropriate health promotion and/or research materials with input from community c. Provided training and/or technical assistance to community members d. Inquired about factors affecting recruitment and retention e. Hired community members as research staff and/or community health workers f. Considered practical needs of community g. Established a community advisory board (CAB) involved in all stages of research h. Included community-based organizations on research advisory boards i. Partnered with local organizations including faith-based organizations and/or schools j. Collaborated with community leaders k. Conducted qualitative focus groups with community members to inform research approach l. Attended community events m. Shared research results with community n. Involved the community in efforts to secure funding o. Trained community members as volunteer health advocates p. Developed ethical guidelines for community engaged research with input from community q. Established a partnership with the community F. Review by an Independent Committee (i.e the Research Ethics Committee) Purpose Protect the safety, well-being and rights of participants Determine the worth of the research Improve the scientific and ethical aspects of the research study Types of Ethical Review a. Relative to the implementation of the study Preliminary review: for completeness, to determine exemption, to determine type of review Initial review: new protocol Post-approval review: amendments, serious adverse events, periodic reports Continuing review: requests for extensions Review of final report A Self-regulated Learning Module 35 b. Based on risks involved Full Review Required for protocols that entail more than minimal risk to participants or those that involve vulnerability issues: Clinical trials Research on children or minors Studies on certain groups like indigenous people Genetic studies Sensitive topics (birth, death, cancer, grief, sexual abuse, violence, drug use or homelessness) Lee (1993) proposes that sensitive research can be seen as threatening in three broad areas. The first of these areas is ‘intrusive threat’, which deals with areas that are ‘private, stressful or sacred’ (Lee, 1993:4). Examples might include sexual or religious practices. The second type of threat is ‘threat of sanction’, which relates to studies of deviance and involves the possibility that research may reveal information that is stigmatizing or incriminating in some way. The third type of threat that may be imposed by sensitive research is a ‘political threat’. This refers to the ‘vested interests’ of the powerful in society and in these situations researchers may trespass into areas that involve some sort of social conflict. Expedited Review low or minimal risk research, without a full committee deliberation usually assigned to two members of the REC with the necessary expertise conflict of opinions between the two REC members will be addressed by the REC Chair done for the following Researches with minimal risk Collection of data through non-invasive procedures Research involving data, documents or specimens that have been collected or will be collected for ongoing medical treatment or diagnosis Proposals involving interview of non-confidential nature, not likely to offend or harm Research subjects do not belong to vulnerable groups Exemption from Review Surveys, interviews or observations of public behavior provided that: No disclosure of participants’ responses that could place them at risk of criminal/civil liabilities, affect reputation; Recording of information such that the identity of the participant cannot be readily ascertained directly or through identifiers linked to the participant; Use of publicly available data or information A Self-regulated Learning Module 36 Topic 3. The UB Research Process and The IMRAD Format A Self-regulated Learning Module 37 A Self-regulated Learning Module 38 The IMRAD Format Note: For both online and offline students, the PDF copy of the IMRAD format will be uploaded in the Google Classroom or Canvas Classroom created. The IMRAD guideline shows the actual layout of the Thesis Manuscript. I. Writing the Introduction A. Background of the Study (BOS) including the Literature Review Presents the overview of the research and the situational analysis about the problem (global, national, regional, and local context); provide a balanced review of pertinent published literature Includes the following: a. Justification of what generated interest and motivation b. Logical continuity between previous and present work c. The theoretical importance of the study and what has been done and why, discuss relevant primary research literature d. Presents the most recent data/facts about the topic, summarizes current understanding of the problem e. Significance, objectives, benefits of the study (found in the last three paragraphs before the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework) The BOS should be presented in a deductive method (general to specific) Remember to discuss a. The objectives of your study b. Significance of your study to the society, to you as the researcher, to the psychology students, to the groups of people (similar to your population); emphasize gaps in knowlege Use future tense of verbs B. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework This includes: The different theories and models that provide the conceptual underpinnings of the study or the legitimate bases for defining its parameters; Include on to two major theories (global, classic) Include a local theory (one that supports your main theories) Discuss how are you going to use these in analyzing your data Relevant researchers and findings about the theory(minimum of three) Operational definitions of your concepts A Self-regulated Learning Module 39  General reviews or surveys about the topics that can be referred to, that are available; and Example: statistical data, studies that use the same variables that you are researching about An emphasis of pertinent findings, relevant methodological issues and major conclusions C. Research Paradigm  this is a diagrammatic presentation of your conceptual framework  Requires a clear discussion of the variables and their relationships, this is a UB institutional requirement  Remember: The narrative discussion always comes before the diagram; the paradigm is placed in a separate page and placed in a rectangular box Label is all caps and boldface (i.e. INPUT, PROCESS, OUTPUT) The work “Figure” is not boldfaced but it is italicized, place immediately below the figure and centered Types of Paradigms 1. Causal or Relational Study (IV-DV Model)  presence of an independent variable (IV), dependent variable (DV), moderator variable (MV)  IV - is the cause or influence, these exist as they are, these are not being, caused by another, may be considered as predictors of another variable  DV - is the actual focus of the study, these are caused, influenced and predicted by the IV  MV - variables that may not be controlled or manipulated but have a direct effect on the A Self-regulated Learning Module 40  outcomes of the study 2. Input-Process-Output Model (IPO)  Commonly used when there are no IVs and DVs, used for qualitative and mixed-methods designs  Input is the information fed into the study, these are the item statements derived rom the SOP  Process refers to how the data would be gathered and the statistical tools used to interpret the data gathered  Output presents the goals of the study or the expected results A Self-regulated Learning Module 41 D. The Statement of the Problem and The Hypothesis  The general statement presents the general objective of the study, the topic, the locale, the time of data gathering Ex. “The study aims to determine the bullying practices among high school students of University of Baguio for School Year 2017-2018.” Main Problem: The research problem is one or more questions to be answered empirically. The main problem is usually stated in a declarative form and covers the broad area. It states the intent of the investigation in a clear grammatical sequence, shows congruence with the title and the theoretical framework, and provides linkage with the methodology to be employed  Specific Problems: The specific questions present the specific objectives as seen in the Research Paradigm (IV- DV or IPO Models) The specific research problems are in the form of interrogative statements. These specific problems or sub-problems are interrelated parts of the main problem into smaller sub-parts. The specific problems/sub-problems must be typed after an Arabic numeral (i.e. 1, 2, 3, etc.) while their corresponding statistical problems must be numbered as per decimal (e.g. 1.1, 2.1, 3.1, etc.). Example 1: Quantitative-Descriptive 1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of a. Age b. Sex c. Highest educational Attainment d. Monthly Salary e. Length of Service f. Position/Designation 2. How may the job performance of the respondents be described by and their immediate supervisors? 3. What is the job satisfaction level of the respondents? 4. Is there a significant correlation between job satisfaction level and the profile of the respondents? a. Age b. Sex c. Highest educational Attainment d. Monthly Salary A Self-regulated Learning Module 42  e. Length of Service f. Position/Designation 5. Is there a significant correlation between job satisfaction and job performance Example 2: Qualitative-Descriptive Statement of the Problem (Flores and Carbonel, 2017) This study aims to present a community assessment and development profile of Barangay Lucnab, Baguio City. More specifically, answers to the following questions will be sought: 1. What is the development profile of Barangay Lucnab in terms of the following indicators? a. Health and Sanitation b. Education (formal and non-formal) c. Livelihood and Income Opportunities d. Safety and Security e. Participation 2. What are the priority development areas of Barangay Lucnab in terms of the above-stated indicators? Other Examples of Qualitative SOPs Do males and females cope differently with terrorism? What do men and women prefer in potential mates? What is your view of a fun-learning environment at UB? (Darines et.al, 2019) II. Writing the Methodology This section needs to be clear, specific, detailed, focused Apply valid and reliable methods Use the active voice, do not use first person point of view A. Study Design Qualitative? Quantitative? Specify what kind of qualitative design Specify what kind of quantitative design How do the variables in your study fit into the design? A Self-regulated Learning Module 43 B. Sample/Population of the Study or Population and Locale narrative description of the population (from universe to the sample) reasons for choosing the population (what are the inclusion and exclusion criteria that you set for your sample) cite the sample size, sampling formula, sampling technique insert a table presenting the distribution of the sample as against the population how did you recruit the participants? The setting of the problem should be stated in terms of geography, period covered, subjects and area limitations. Constraints in resources, data sources, and administrative permission should also be included. Describe the restraints imposed by the sampling method and the restrictions imposed by the study design on the interpretation of findings. C. Data Gathering Tools (DGT) describe the tools you will use (survey, FGD, KII) what steps will you do to ensure validity and reliability (mention tool validation process) how many sections/parts does the tool have, what is the nature of the questions (ex. cluster of questions, numerical ratings and qualitative descriptions) mention your sources if this is an adapted tool, mention if permission was asked from the owner of the tool, mention psychometric properties of the tool used, did you do conduct pre-testing for the tools How are you going to do data gathering (i.e. face to face, online) and how long will the data be for each respondent as well as the duration of the research Attach the RDC approved copy of the DGT in the appendices D. Data Gathering Procedures describe the steps undertaken, summarize each step in the execution of the research i.e. what are the instructions given to the participants? describe the randomization, counterbalancing and other features in the data gathering will you ask permission? how will you gather data? how will you distribute and collect the data? how will you quality check your data? how will you conduct the interview? How will you administer the survey? A Self-regulated Learning Module 44 E. Treatment of the Data This is the basis for the evaluation of the appropriateness of the procedure for the analysis of the data. For quantitative research, all statistical tools have to be presented inclusive of how these were used and their formula. Alongside the statistical tools will be a presentation of their corresponding null hypothesis, if these were the basis in the analysis of the findings. For qualitative research, discuss the basic steps of the coding process that you will use to analyze data (ex. Content Analysis, TA, NA, or IPA). F. Ethical Considerations Discuss what steps you made to make sure that your research is ethical. Be guided by the following questions: How will anonymity and de-identification be ensured? How will voluntary participation be obtained? How confidentiality of information will be ensured? What are your risk-management procedures? How did you observe non-discrimination? How will your research findings be disseminated? IV. Writing the Results and Discussion Present the results according to the sequence of your objectives, introduce the section by describing the flow of your discussion R and D may be presented in a textual, graphical, and/or tabular manner For each table or graph/figure, have an introduction of the specific topic being addressed by your table, present the table (Table 1 shows the summary of findings on…), show the table, discuss the significant or striking data to come up with valid information. Support your findings with corroborations (relate it with previous studies). Sometimes though, the findings may negate findings in previous researches. You may cite those as well but try to infer what information can be derived from these contrasting findings It follows the right-side up pyramid – from specific to general where you a. restate your hypothesis or major findings b. tie your results with previous research (i.e. corroboration, go back to the literature review) c. state broad implications of your results, methodological implications, directions for future research Maximum of 5 tables and 5 figures for the IMRAD format Follow the CAPE Model7 7 Rosnow, R. L. & Rosnow, M. (2009). Writing papers in psychology. (5th ed.). USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. A Self-regulated Learning Module 45 Reporting results CLEARLY Clarity of reporting means that the visual displays and technical terms do not overwhelm the reader The structure of the paper should be coherent and logical The APA Manual advises the use of figures when you want to “convey at a quick glance an overall pattern of results,” on the assumption that the figure actually communicates details in a more efficient way than you can express them in words. These are some additional guidelines: a) Use the figure to enhance what you say in the narrative text, that is, by supplementing or expanding on it. b) Don’t encumber a figure with superfluous data or distracting details; it should be easy to understand, communicating only essential facts. c) Use font, lines, labels, and symbols that are large enough, and easy enough to see, so the figure can be read easily. d) Use the same lettering in all figures, so the reader is not put off by different styles. e) The data should be precisely plotted. If you are drawing a figure by hand, use graph paper to keep the rows and columns evenly spaced, and then reduce the figure and paste it into your report. f) When displaying the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable (or between a predictor variable and a criterion or outcome variable) in a line graph or bar graph, it is customary to put the independent (or predictor) variable on the horizontal axis (the x-axis, or abscissa) and the dependent (or criterion) variable on the vertical axis (the y-axis, or ordinate). g) The units should progress from small to large. Reporting results ACCURATELY Precise and candid reporting of results; make a conscious effort to avoid mistakes in recording and calculating accuracy and honesty require that you inform readers which came first, inspecting the data or coming up with a prediction, because very little skill is required to come up with a “prediction” after you have inspected the data. Inaccurate data results in waste of resources – biased conclusions and misleading recommendations results may lead to false hopes Reporting results PRECISELY Make sure that the statistical tests that were used to analyze data adequately capture the objectives of the study, (need for technical assistance to validate results) Needless precision means reporting the results more exactly than the circumstances require. A Self-regulated Learning Module 46 Reporting ENOUGH information Effect size is actually a general term that may, for example, refer to the difference in outcomes in two groups, or to the magnitude of the relationship between membership in these groups and scores on the dependent variable, or to a ratio of the odds of obtaining a particular outcome depending on the treatment condition. Effect size is usually measured by Pearson’s r which measures the strength of association between two variables. Cohen’s d indicates the standardized difference between two groups Guidelines for determining what is «enough» based on the APA a. Report the values of your test statistics (e.g., t, F, χ2), their degrees of freedom (df ), and the probability (p) of obtaining values as extreme as or more extreme than the value of each test statistic. b. Particularly in the case of t tests (and z tests), it is also important to indicate whether the p value is directional (one-tailed) or nondirectional (two-tailed). c. Report the effect sizes of all focused tests (i.e., t tests, F tests with numerator df = 1, and 1 − df χ2 tests), and interpret the effect sizes in the context of your study and of the variables you are measuring. d. Report the confidence intervals of means, proportions, and effect sizes,3 and interpret the results accordingly. e. Report sample sizes and measures of variability. f. Pay heed to statistical power, particularly if you are reporting a significance test that was not statistically significant V. Writing the Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions The conclusion may be written with a separate subheading from the recommendations, but it is acceptable to have the conclusion and recommendations in one paragraph if the statements of the conclusion and recommendation warrant the need for continuity of thoughts. Guide questions: What answer(s) have you found to your research question? If you have a hypothesis, has it been strengthened, weakened or falsified? Conclusions are brief generalizations from the title of the study derived from the findings Avoid the following: biased conclusions; incorrect: generalizations, abstractions, comparisons; abuse of correlation data, limited information and misleading impressions Recommendations Are counsel or advices which are feasible and specific; meant to improve and solve the problems raised and to improve the field of study in general A Self-regulated Learning Module 47  Recommend only attainable, doable, feasible, economical, practical, efficient and effective ways of solving the problem You may also recommend extension studies on the subject which your study failed to tackle or include Specify what specific recommended researches will be done by next researchers Give research and policy recommendations A Self-regulated Learning Module 48  21 - ebruary Topic 4. Psychology As A Science8 “not everything can be observed and measured in the same way” Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students are able to A. Discuss the scientific nature of Psychology and the challenges in relation to research B. Define constructs, operational definitions, psychological phenomena and how to measure behavior in research C. Construct a table comparing dictionary definitions and operational definitions of constructs in Psychology I. Fuzzy Science Psychology is often unfairly viewed as a “fuzzy science” or “soft science” because of the way phenomenon is studied. Other hard scientists study physical properties such as matter and particles, develop laws to show relationships, uncover forces that act upon matter The scientific question in hard sciences relates to objective, measurable things thus the answer will always be the same Watch: https://www.facebook.com/yourmillennialpsychologist/videos/656672088161238/ II. Challenges for Psychology Psychology deals with people – complex people, and psychologists are interested in humans that are psychological complex for a number of reasons From a biopsychological standpoint – the brain is composed of billions of neurons and is responsible to mental processes. Not only is the brain physically complex but people’s behavior and thinking are largely influenced by many things This characteristic of complexity makes it difficult to study psychological phenomena Ex. memory can be influenced by so many things (i.e. repressed memories, forgotten memories, scents, arguments prior to an experiment etc) Isolating phenomena in psychology is not the same as isolating phenomena in the other sciences; increased potential for many factor to have an impact on a psychological variable Defining psychological concepts vary compared to “hard science” concepts “Things we study in psychology are far from having definitions that everyone agrees on.” Scientific principles and methods help make psychology measurable and quantifiable III. Addressing the challenges Applying scientific thinking and methods to phenomena of mind, behavior and cognition emerged during the 19th century; early work was related to psychophysics (mathematical relationships between a stimulus in the environment and a psychological perception within a person) Paul Broca (mid-19th c) discovered the relationship between the brain and a part of the left temporal lobe, named Broca’s Area (involved in the expressive aspects of spoken and written language (production of sentences constrained by the rules of grammar and syntax)9 8 Wilson, S. & McLean, R. (2011). Research methods and data analysis for psychology. London: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. 9 Johns, P. (2011). Functional neuroanatomy in clinical neuroscience. Retrieved form https://www.sciencedirect.com on January 22, 2020. A Self-regulated Learning Module 49  Wundt (1879) established the first research laboratory devoted to the scientific study of psychology – primarily on consciousness through the method of introspection (conscious examination thoughts while engaged in controlled, experimental situations). Flaw of the method: inherently subjective; no way of determining “who is correct.”