Sociolinguistics PDF

! Introduction to Sociolinguistics Experiment by Steven Levinson (1997), described by Deutscher (2011), showcasing di:erences in spatia...

! Introduction to Sociolinguistics Experiment by Steven Levinson (1997), described by Deutscher (2011), showcasing di:erences in spatial orientation between English speakers and " What is Sociolinguistics? Guugu Yimithirr speakers. A blend of sociology and linguistics. " Core Concepts in Sociolinguistics Focuses on how social and demographic factors influence language use. $ Language Variation Quote: “How people use language and what they use it for” (Meyerho:, 2011, p. Factors: Phonetic variation, dialect/accent variation, gender, race/ethnicity, age. 2). Accommodation " Historical Context Definition: Adaptation of pronunciation and style towards the interlocutor. # Emergence in the 1960s Could be unconscious or intentional, sometimes misconstrued as imitation. Key Figures: William Labov and Basil Bernstein; studied the e:ects of context and background on language use (Wodak, Johnstone, & Kerswill, Accents and Dialects 2013). Accent: Phonetic and phonological variations, usually region-based. Factors AIecting Language Use: Identity, location, and intention. Dialect: Sub-variety of a language with distinctive morphology, syntax, and # Early Sociolinguistic Studies vocabulary (Meyerho:, 2011; Holmes & Wilson, 2022). Challenged structuralist theories (e.g., Chomsky). Shibboleth Proposed language as a complex system influenced by context and needs Term for a word or phrase signaling someone’s geographical origin. (Wodak et al., 2011). Derived from the biblical story where Gileadites identified fleeing Ephraimites by # Labov’s New York Department Store Study their pronunciation of "shibboleth" (Meyerho:, 2011). Studied rhotic r usage across lower, middle, and upper-class store employees. Idiolects Revealed linguistic variants, i.e., variations of an underlying form (Hazen, 2013). Definition: Unique usage of language or dialect by a speaker, influenced by various sources like growing up in a metropolitan city or participating in specific # Bernstein's Work on Language and Social Class communities. Introduced linguistic codes: elaborated codes (middle class) and restricted $ Code Switching/Mixing codes (working class). Changing language variety or style based on context or need, which may involve Restricted codes characterized by limited vocabulary and short responses. switching the language entirely within a dialogue (Meyerho:, 2011). Controversially claimed restricted codes could limit cognitive abilities, a view $ Language Change close to linguistic determinism or linguistic relativity (later retracted). Semantic Shift " Cardinal and Relative Direction Language adaptation over time. Example: "gay" used to mean "happy," now Cardinal Directions: Orientations using north, south, east, west. primarily refers to sexual orientation. Relative Directions: Orientations using left, right, back, front. Semantic Derogation Shift resulting in a more negative association, often noted in negative terms towards women and curse words. DiIusion ( Introduction Gradual changes in sound, where distinct sounds become similar or identical. Types of Variation and Change Example: New Zealand English vowels in "bear" and "beer" becoming the same o Diachronic Change (Holmes & Wilson, 2022). § Martha’s Vineyard (Labov) " Case Studies o Types of Change % Peter Trudgill: Language Change in Norwich, England § Koinenization Studied linguistic changes from 1968 to 1983. § Phonological Observed vowel merging and th-fronting (/θ/ → /f/). § Morphological % African American Language/English (AAL/AAE) § Syntactic Features: Dropped copula "be," double/multiple negation, consonant cluster § Lexical reduction. Theories of Language Change Exemplified systematic grammatical patterns and usage (Holmes & Wilson, 2022). How change can spread " Sociolinguistic Applications Forces for change & Language Policy: Revitalization of Welsh o Stigmatization E:orts in Wales include Welsh language in schools, television, parliament, and § Influence of negative attitudes on language usage signage. o Language Contact Current focus: Promoting bilingualism in the wider community. § Spread of changes through contact ' Forensic Linguistics ! Language Change Sociolinguists help identify or rule out suspects in investigations. Continuous Innovation Example: Stanley Ellis identified Sunderland area based on a hoax tape's dialect, o Languages are always changing, even within our lifetimes. aiding in criminal justice (Holmes & Wilson, 2022). o This leads to inconsistencies, particularly in spelling. Example from Holmes and Wilson (2022) English Spelling o Standardized since the 15th century. o Words like ‘knit’ and ‘knight’ were once pronounced closer to their spelling. o Pronunciations § 'k' was pronounced.  § 'gh' was a glottal fricative (like /x/ or /χ/). Examples of Variation ) Types of Change MLE: Usage of ‘a’ before a vowel initial noun (‘a orange’). Diachronic Change Milton Keynes: Common use of the tag phrase 'innit'. o Fueled by variation. , Types of Change o Always present with linguistic innovation and change. Phonological Change Words and Pronouns The Great Vowel Shift in Middle English. Standard Changes o Gradual raising and diphthongization of vowels (Perkins, 1977). o ‘Bus’ from ‘omnibus’ o Example: o ‘Taxi’ from ‘taximeter cab’ § /iː/ → /ai/ o ‘Awesome’ meaning ‘awe inspiring’ § /uː/ → /aʊ/ o Pronouns: ‘their/they/them’ Phonological Diagrams * Case Study: Martha’s Vineyard (1960s, Labov) Vowel shifts spread south to north, not fully complete in the north and Scotland until the 20th century (Kerswill, 2011; McMahon, 2006). Island Characteristics Morphological Change o Small island o: Massachusetts, USA. Morphology: Shape of words. o Population: 20,000 Case Markings and Gender: Common changes in European languages. o Traditional fishing community and tourist destination. o Example: Japanese uses nominative and accusative case markings. o Setting for the film Jaws (1975). Table of English Pronouns and Cases Vowel Variation Nominative Accusative Genitive Distinct pronunciations: ‘light’ -> /ləit/, ‘house’ -> /həus/. Resentful locals used traditional vowels as a response to tourism. I Me My This reinforced island identity, a case of covert prestige. We Us Our Types of Variation You You Your Interspeaker Variation: Between di:erent speakers. He Him His Intraspeaker Variation: Within a single speaker’s usage (Meyerho:, 2011). She Her Her + Koinenisation It It Its Koine: A new dialect variety from a combination of others. They Them Their o Example: Multicultural London English (MLE) in London. Syntactic Change o New variety in Milton Keynes from east London migration.  Change or borrow in grammar. Influence of Media Example: Ditransitives in English. Media introduces variants but doesn’t guarantee their adoption unless population-wide. o “I sent a WhatsApp to my friend” (object + preposition and indirect object) o Example: Eastenders' influence on Glaswegians (Stuart-Smith, Timmins, o “I sent my friend a WhatsApp” (double object construction) and Tweedie, 2007). Lexical Change Loan Words: Borrowed from other languages. o Examples: ‘karaoke’, ‘shampoo’, ‘khaki’, and 電話 (telephone). - Theories of Language Change Wave Theory Innovation spreads in a wave-like manner across age and social groups. Change follows an s-shaped curve (Meyerho:, 2011; Holmes and Wilson, 2022). Graph Interpretation Changes are adopted slowly, accelerate, then stabilize. Lexical DiIusion Variants spread word by word. Example: If a variant of /u/ is adopted in one word, it might take time to be adopted in others. (Holmes and Wilson, 2022). Exercise: French Nasalization Change from nasal consonants to nasalized vowels, adopting a wave and s- shape pattern.. Stigmatization Negative perceptions lead to the abandonment of certain forms. Sometimes entire languages/dialects are at risk (Example: The Linguists). ( Language Contact Geographical Influence o Norwich/Milton Keynes influences London (UK). Quotatives Example: Adoption of 'be-like' due to media/globalization (Meyerho:, 2011). ! Social Dialects o Pavement or sidewalk? / Example from Holmes and Wilson (2022) o Elevator or lift? A person answering the phone deduces information about the o Eraser or rubber? caller's education, age, and geographical origin just from hearing her voice. o He has got or he has gotten? 0 Accents and Dialects 5 Switching Accents Pronunciations vary infinitely between speakers. Example of Gillian Anderson: Vowel Pronunciation Variations: o Switches between British and American accents based on context and o A sound spectrograph shows even a single vowel may be pronounced audience. in hundreds of ways. o Reflects the concept of accommodation in speech. o Persistent pronunciation features contribute to a speaker's identity. 6 Received Pronunciation (RP) 1 Vowel Shift Examples Considered the highest status variety of English but not regional; it is a social Vowel Shift in British English: accent. o Southern Varieties: Signifier of socioeconomic status. § 'bath'/'math' uses di:erent vowels: /æ/ vs. /ɑː/ RP disguises regional background and promotes education/status. § 'put'/'putt': /ʊ/ vs. /ʌ/ Accent Triangle (Trudgill, 1983): o Northern Varieties: o Regional variation greatest among lower classes, reducing with higher status. § Same vowel in 'bath'/'math' and 'put'/'putt': /æ/ and /ʊ/ Even the Queen's RP changed over time toward standard southern British Vowel Shift in Belfast, Northern Ireland: English, reflecting changing attitudes. o 'bag' is closer to /ɛ/ ('beg') 7 Decline in RP's Status o 'map' uses a long and rhotic /aː/ ('marp') RP now seen as ‘posh’ or out of touch. o 'bad' becomes back and rounded /o/ ('bod') Emergence of Estuary English, characterized by mixing features of London or 2 New Zealand Accent Cockney English. Discussion on the unique features and jokes based on New Zealand vowel - Estuary English pronunciation. Named after the Thames estuary. Utilizes positively associated features while 3 4 American and British English avoiding negatively associated ones. Comparison of vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar diIerences between + H-Dropping the two varieties. Status Indicator: Common Lexical Polls: o Dropping 'h' can signify poor education for some words but higher status o Boot or trunk? for others.Varied importance in di:erent contexts (e.g., 'hotel' vs. 'house'). 8 Stratification Common in both general use and media portrayals (e.g., Benedict Cumberbatch's pronunciation of 'penguins'). Sharp Stratification: Clear change or di:erence (e.g., h-dropping). Fine Stratification: Gradual change in progress (e.g., vocalization of /l/ in 'milk'). % Variation and Style Styles vary depending on context, influenced by who, what, where. Labov's New York Dialect Study employed: o Sociolinguistic interviews. o Rapid anonymous surveys. o Showed more post-vocalic ‘r’ in careful speech. 9 Observer’s Paradox Issue of observing natural, uncontaminated e:ects while presence influences behavior. Overcome by rapid anonymous surveys and casual interviews. : Participant Observation Sociolinguists blend into communities for natural data collection. Example: Daniel Everett's study of the Pirahã people, noting the absence of recursion and specific linguistic relativity aspects. ; Attention to Speech: Challenges to Labov Howard Giles emphasized interlocutor influence. Variation driven by who the speaker is addressing (audience design by Allan Bell). , Audience Design Levels of Interlocutors: 1. Addressee: Most attention 2. Auditor: Next level 3. Overhearer: Little attunement 4. Eavesdropper: Least impact 1 Linguistic Insecurity Hypercorrection phenomenon: attempting standard forms but overcorrecting. < Language Contact o Government and Education: Critical factors for a language attaining global status (Crystal, 2003). + Definition and Overview o Historical global languages include Latin and French, shaping global Language contact: A complex interplay of creativity and destruction in linguistic linguistic dynamics. evolution. Factors Influencing Language Spread: o Creative Process: o Power and influence of native speakers play a significant role (Crystal, § New languages are created or discovered through ongoing 2003). linguistic variation. ( Case Study: Lithuanian o Destructive Process: Historical Context: § Some languages fall out of favor or undergo changes, resulting in new linguistic codes. o Lithuanian, related to Sanskrit, was banned under Russian control but preserved through clandestine e:orts. Mass Migration and Language: ( Colonialism and Language Spread o Linguistic patterns reveal historical patterns of migration and cultural exchange. + Impact of Colonialism o Language Interactions: Global Impact: Colonialism significantly influenced the spread of English worldwide. § When languages meet, elements like words, sounds, and structures are exchanged. o North America: § Often, one language variety may displace another. § Varieties of English impacted by settlers from di:erent regions in England (Crystal, 2003). = Language Patterns and Lingua Francas o The Caribbean: ( Lingua Francas § The slave trade facilitated the spread of English Definition: A language used for communication between groups who do not through pidgin and creole varieties. share a native language (MeyerhoI, 2011). o Australia and New Zealand: Examples and Context: § Colonization led to English variations influenced by aboriginal o Global Influence: English serves as a lingua franca, adapted across languages and British prisoners (Crystal, 2003). various regions. o South Africa: o Local Contexts: § Dutch and English colonists influenced the development of South § Amazon: Tukano along the Vaupes river, amidst linguistic diversity. African English, impacted by apartheid dynamics. § Papua New Guinea: Tok Pisin, a pidgin language used among over o India and South Asia: 800 language groups. § English spread widely due to the East India Company and + Global English cemented in education and governance. Spread and Significance: + Loanwords from Colonial Languages  Aboriginal Loan Words: Examples include kangaroo. Definition and Features (Holmes & Wilson, 2022): Hindi Loan Words: Examples o Two varieties with distinct functions: high for formal contexts, low for include veranda, dinghy, jungle, pyjama, thug, cushy. everyday use. ( Pidgins and Creoles Examples: Characteristics and Distinctions: o Arabic: Classic vs. colloquial varieties. o Pidgin: o Japanese: Casual, formal, and honorific (keigo) speech. § A simplified, adapted language used in specific contexts, not as a + Language DiIusion and the Gravity Model first language. The Gravity Model (Trudgill, 1974): o Creole: o Linguistic influence spreads from larger urban centers to smaller ones, § A more complex language used as a primary means of similar to gravitational pull. communication and acquired as a first language. Influence Factors: Examples of Pidgins and Creoles o Size and population density. Pidgins: o Distance between settlements. o Russenorsk: Norwegian and Russian hybrid for sailors. o Connections via infrastructure and social/economic factors. o français tiraillou: Used in French-speaking military contexts in Africa. o Fanagalo: Zulu-based language in South African mines. o BBC Pidgin: West African pidgin service by the BBC. Creoles: o Bislama: O:icial language of Vanuatu. o Jamaican Patois: English-based variety spoken in Jamaica. o Haitian Creole: French-based o:icial language of Haiti. Lexifiers and Substrates in Language Formation Lexifier: The primary language foundation of a pidgin or creole. Substrates: Surrounding languages impacting syntax and semantics. + Vernacular vs. Standard Language Vernacular Language: Non-standard varieties used daily, not in o:icial capacities. Standard Language: Varieties used o:icially, often considered 'high' or 'low'. ( Diglossia 0 Sociolinguistics - Week 5: Multilingualism and Language Choice Vocabulary Issues: Loss or mix-ups in vocabulary < Introduction Slower Lexical Retrieval: Delays in word recall (Quinteros Baumgart & Billick, 2018) Previous Topics: Language contact and its impacts Joint-Activation Theory: Simultaneous activation of multiple languages, Current Focus: Multilingual contexts, coexistence of languages, and language impacting cognitive tasks (Bialystok, 2017) choice Identity and Creativity: Importance in sociolinguistics and creative language o Definitions: use § Multilingualism: Proficiency in multiple languages ( Multilingual Nations § Issues in Multilingual Nations: Social, educational, and political General Characteristics: challenges Linguistic Diversity: Multiple languages spoken, often with several o:icial Key Questions: languages o Is English as a lingua franca positive or negative? Language in OIicial Domains: Government, media, law, education o Are there alternatives? Inclusivity vs. Historical Sensitivities: Sign of inclusivity but also historical o Determinants of code-switching and code-mixing connotations (Meyerho:, 2011) 0 Types of Multilingualism Case Study: South Africa Balanced Multilingualism: Equal proficiency in two or more languages from OIicial Languages: 11, with the majority being indigenous (isiZulu and isiXhosa) birth (Alexander, 2018) Unbalanced Multilingualism: Di:erent proficiency levels Colonial Languages: English and Afrikaans used in urban areas and o:icial contexts Bilingualism: Use of two languages Apartheid's Impact: Racial segregation and forced education in colonial Preference: Multilingualism over bilingualism (Cenoz, 2013) languages (Meyerho:, 2011) Commonality: Learning multiple languages from birth or through formal Post-Apartheid Language Policy: Inclusion of nine indigenous languages, education promoting linguistic equality (Meyerho:, 2011) > Why Be Multilingual? Is English a Threat to Multilingualism? Advantages: Colonial Impact: Negative e:ects on indigenous languages Higher Task Focus: Enhanced attention and reduced distractions (Achaa- EIiciency Argument: English as a desired, e:icient, and evolutionarily Amankwaa et al., 2023) successful language (Crystal, 2003) Cognitive Health: Reduced cognitive decline (Quinteros Baumgart & Billick, Counterarguments: Civil wars among same-language speakers and thriving 2018) multilingual societies Cultural and Recreational Benefits: Enhanced travel experiences and learning Universal Lingua Franca: Esperanto new skills Creation: By Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof in the 19th century as a neutral, artificial Disadvantages: language (Li, 2003)  Characteristics: Simple phonology, orthography, and syntax (Blanke, 1989) ! Issues in Education Adoption Issues: Lack of natural impetus and practical function constraining + Language and Prestige in Education widespread adoption Language's Role in Education: ? Multilingual Nations: Vanuatu o Language plays a critical role in education and educational success can Languages: 83 islands, over 114 languages (Meyerho:, 2011) influence language usage. Distinction: National vs. o:icial languages; Bislama as the national language o Children often encouraged to use a 'standard' variety, di:erent from their home or social language. Protection of Indigenous Languages: Constitutional support for linguistic heritage (Meyerho:, 2011) o Use of vernacular is frequently stigmatized. + Ethnolinguistic Vitality o Prestige of certain languages historically influences their prominence in education. Vitality: Likelihood of a language’s continued widespread use ( Suppression of Less Prestigious Languages Ethnolinguistic Impact: Cultural significance in identity Language Suppression: Vitality Model: Assessing language health based on status, institutional support, and demography (Meyerho:, 2011) o Less prestigious languages often suppressed in favor of dominant, more prestigious varieties. @ Multilingual Nations: Canada o Lack of educational support for these languages impedes their survival. OIicial Languages: English and French o Language representation in education is crucial for both the success of Indigenous Languages: Cree and Haida; e:orts towards revitalization despite languages and students. challenges (Meyerho:, 2011) B Attitudes in Education A Welsh Revitalisation Negative Biases and Educational Achievement Strategies: Education, government, media, and focus on improving linguistic vitality Impact of Negative Attitudes: Census Data: 903,800 speakers, 29.7% of population (2023 census) o Negative attitudes towards language varieties can significantly impact educational outcomes. ) Code Switching and Code Mixing o Example: 1970s Ann Arbor case where African American children's poor Types: performance was wrongly attributed to learning disabilities, rather than o Addressee-Based: Changes depending on the speaker dialectal di:erences. o Domain/Situation-Based: Changes depending on context or situation Influence of Basil Bernstein Example: Portuguese variety in London (Holmes & Wilson, 2022) Bernstein’s Concepts: Diglossic Communities: Regular and predictable domain switching (Meyerho:, o Basil Bernstein (UK, 1960s-70s) introduced restricted and elaborated 2011) codes. o Restricted code (public) linked to working class; characterized by short, simple usage.  o Elaborated code (formal) linked to middle class; more complex and D Language Choice in the Classroom grammatically complete. UNESCO’s Report (1953) 0 Classroom Interaction Models Key Points: IRE Model o Emphasis on starting education in mother tongue. IRE Model Description: o Importance of having su:icient educational texts in the language. o Initiation: Teacher requests information. Practical Challenges o Response: Student answers. Criticisms and Realities: o Evaluation: Teacher evaluates and decides next steps. o Criticisms on feasibility of using multiple languages for education. o Prominent model for classroom interactions. o Challenges in providing adequate resources for less common languages. Examples and Interpretation + Case Studies: Bridging Home and Classroom Model Application: Ute Language o Example 1 and 2 analyzed to illustrate the model. Bilingual Programs: o Importance of understanding cultural backgrounds for accurate o E:orts to use Ute in educational settings faced traditional cultural interpretation of student responses. resistance to written forms. C Cultural Advantages and Disadvantages o Students' innovative creation of a written form allowed cultural DiIerent Cultural Expectations adaptation. Contextual DiIerences: Ebonics Debate o Cultural misunderstandings can lead to biased educational assessments. AAE in Education: o Silence or engagement in classroom may be misinterpreted based on o Controversial attempt in the 1990s to incorporate African American cultural norms. English (AAE) into formal education. Shirley Brice Heath’s Research o Mixed reactions from students, teachers, politicians, and the wider public. Reading and Class: The Ebonics Educational Program o Middle-class families engage children more interactively during reading. Implementation Challenges: o Working-class families often read to children without interaction. o Misinterpretations and media sensationalism led to widespread Bernstein’s Additional Concepts controversy. Elaborated vs. Restricted Codes: o Linguists like Labov advocated for a balanced approach using contrastive o Misinterpretations of restricted code as a deficit. analysis between AAE and standard English. o Argument that di:erent styles of language reflect socio-cultural contexts Illustration: rather than intelligence. Concept Definition/Example IRE Model Initiation, Response, Evaluation of classroom interaction. Simpler, context-dependent speech, often linked to working- Restricted Code class. Detailed, context-independent speech, typically used by middle- Elaborated Code class. UNESCO's Key Emphasize mother tongue for early education; su:icient texts Points needed. Cultural Examples of interpretative errors based on cultural norms. DiIerences