Study Notes Chapter 1: What Is a Sociolinguist? (PDF)

**Study Notes for Chapter 1: What Is a Sociolinguist?** **Introduction to Sociolinguistics** - **Sociolinguistics** is the study of the relationship between language and society. - It examines why people speak differently in various social contexts and how language use communicates so...

**Study Notes for Chapter 1: What Is a Sociolinguist?** **Introduction to Sociolinguistics** - **Sociolinguistics** is the study of the relationship between language and society. - It examines why people speak differently in various social contexts and how language use communicates social meanings. - Language variation provides insights into societal structures and individual identities. **Key Concepts** **1. Language Variation and Social Context** - Language use varies depending on **social factors**: - **Participants**: Who is speaking and to whom. - **Setting**: Where the conversation takes place. - **Topic**: What is being discussed. - **Function**: The purpose of the interaction. - People adjust their language (choice of words, style, dialect) based on these factors. **2. Styles, Dialects, and Varieties** - **Style**: Variations in language use depending on context and audience (formal vs. informal). - **Dialect**: A regional or social variety of a language with distinct features in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. - **Variety/Code**: A neutral term for any form of language or dialect used by speakers in a particular social context. **3. Linguistic Repertoire** - An individual\'s **linguistic repertoire** includes all the language varieties they can use. - Choice from the repertoire depends on the social context and purpose of communication. **4. Speech Functions** - Language serves multiple **functions**: - **Referential Function**: Conveying information or content. - **Affective Function**: Expressing feelings or emotions. - Utterances often serve both functions simultaneously. **Social Dimensions of Communication** To analyze language use, consider the following social dimensions: **1. Solidarity--Social Distance Scale** - Measures the level of familiarity or intimacy between speakers. - High solidarity (intimate) vs. low solidarity (distant). **2. Status Scale** - Indicates the relative social status of speakers. - Superior (high status) vs. subordinate (low status). **3. Formality Scale** - Assesses the influence of the setting or type of interaction. - Formal (high formality) vs. informal (low formality). **4. Referential and Affective Function Scales** - **Referential Scale**: High information content vs. low information content. - **Affective Scale**: Low affective content vs. high affective content. **Examples Illustrating Key Concepts** **Example 1: Ray\'s Language Choices** - Ray speaks differently to his mother, principal, and in the presence of his grandmother. - Shows how participants and setting influence language style and choice of words (informal vs. formal). **Example 2: Margaret\'s Greetings** - Margaret is addressed differently by various people: - Business partner: \"Goodbye Margaret\" - Secretary: \"See you tomorrow\" - Caretaker: \"Bye Mrs. Walker\" - Daughter: \"Hi Mum\" - Mother: \"Hello dear\" - Friend: \"Hello Meg\" - Demonstrates how social relationships affect forms of address. **Example 3: Hemnesberget, Norway** - Villagers use two dialects: - **Ranamål**: Local dialect used among villagers and in informal contexts. - **Bokmål**: Standard Norwegian used in formal settings like school and official domains. - Represents code-switching based on setting and topic. **Example 4: Sauris, Italy** - Multilingual community speaking German dialect, Friulian, and Italian. - Choice of language depends on the audience and context: - German dialect at home. - Friulian with regional neighbors. - Italian for official matters. **Analyzing Language Use** To understand why people choose certain language forms, consider: 1. **Identify the Linguistic Variation**: - Differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, styles, dialects, or languages. 2. **Identify Social Factors**: - Participant relationships. - Social setting. - Purpose of the interaction. 3. **Look for Patterns**: - How do social factors correlate with linguistic choices? - Are certain forms consistently used in specific contexts? **Sociolinguistic Competence** - People often acquire sociolinguistic norms naturally through exposure. - Understanding appropriate language use in different contexts is part of communicative competence. **Applications** - Recognizing language variation aids in: - Effective communication across different social contexts. - Appreciating linguistic diversity. - Avoiding misunderstandings due to inappropriate language use. **Reflection Questions** - How does your language change when you speak to different people (e.g., family, friends, teachers, employers)? - Can you think of situations where the topic influences the language or dialect you use? - In what ways does formality affect your choice of words and expressions? **Key Terms Summary** - **Style**: Context-dependent language variation. - **Dialect**: Regional or social language variety. - **Variety/Code**: Any form of language used in specific contexts. - **Linguistic Repertoire**: The range of language varieties a person can use. - **Speech Function**: The purpose behind an utterance (informative or emotional). **Conclusion** - Sociolinguistics provides valuable insights into how language functions within society. - By analyzing language use through social dimensions, we can better understand the intricate relationship between language and social identity. **Study Notes for Chapter 2: Language Choice in Multilingual Communities** **Key Concepts** **Linguistic Repertoire** - **Definition**: The set of language varieties or codes that an individual can use. - **Importance**: Reflects the range of languages or dialects a person can draw upon in different contexts. **Language Choice in Multilingual Communities** - Individuals in multilingual settings choose among different languages or codes based on various social factors. - **Kalala\'s Example**: A young man in Bukavu who uses multiple varieties of Swahili and his tribal language Shi, depending on the context and interlocutors. **Factors Influencing Language Choice** 1. **Participants**: Who is being spoken to (family, friends, strangers). 2. **Setting**: The physical location or social context (home, market, official settings). 3. **Topic**: The subject matter being discussed (family matters, work, education). 4. **Function**: The purpose of the interaction (informative, directive, expressive). 5. **Social Distance**: The relationship between speakers (intimate, casual, formal). 6. **Status**: Relative social standing or roles (peer, superior, subordinate). 7. **Formality**: The degree of formality required by the context. **Domains of Language Use** - **Definition**: Social situations characterized by typical interactions between typical participants in typical settings. - **Examples of Domains**: - **Family**: Home interactions, typically using the heritage or native language. - **Friendship**: Casual interactions, possibly mixing codes or using slang. - **Religion**: Services and rituals, may use a liturgical language. - **Education**: School settings, often using a standard or official language. - **Employment**: Workplace communication, which may require a formal or official language. **Modelling Code Choice** - **Purpose**: To represent the norms of language use in a community. - **Simplification**: Models can be helpful but may not capture every nuance of language use. - **Kalala\'s Model**: Illustrates his code choices across different domains (home, market, official transactions). **Diglossia** **Definition** - A situation where two varieties of the same language are used in a community, each with distinct functions: - **High (H) Variety**: Used in formal settings, education, literature. - **Low (L) Variety**: Used in everyday conversation among family and friends. **Characteristics** 1. **Functional Separation**: H and L varieties are used in different domains. 2. **Prestige**: H variety often holds more prestige. 3. **Acquisition**: L variety learned at home; H variety learned through formal education. 4. **Literature**: Typically written in the H variety. 5. **Standardization**: H variety is often codified with grammar books and dictionaries. **Examples** - **Arabic-speaking Countries**: Classical Arabic (H) and regional colloquial varieties (L). - **Switzerland**: Standard German (H) and Swiss German dialects (L). **Extension of Diglossia** - **Polyglossia**: Extends the concept to communities using multiple languages or varieties. - **Diglossia with Bilingualism**: Situations where the community uses two languages for different functions, and individuals may be bilingual. **Code-Switching** **Definition** - Switching between languages or language varieties within a single conversation or utterance. **Types** 1. **Situational Switching**: Occurs due to changes in the situation, such as a new participant or a change in setting. 2. **Metaphorical Switching**: Used to achieve a rhetorical effect or convey a particular social meaning, often within the same situation. **Inter-sentential Code-switching:** - **Definition:** Switching languages between sentences or clauses. - **Characteristics:** - The entire sentence is in one language before switching. - Easier for speakers with varying proficiency. **Intra-sentential Code-switching:** - **Definition:** Switching languages within a single sentence. - **Characteristics:** - Language switches occur within the same sentence or clause. - Requires high proficiency in both languages. **Key Differences:** - **Complexity:** - *Inter-sentential:* Less complex; switches at sentence boundaries. - *Intra-sentential:* More complex; switches within sentences. - **Speaker Proficiency:** - *Inter-sentential:* Suitable for all proficiency levels. - *Intra-sentential:* Typically used by fluent bilinguals. - **Grammatical Integration:** - *Inter-sentential:* Each sentence follows its language\'s grammar. - *Intra-sentential:* Requires blending grammatical structures. **Reasons for Code-Switching** - **Participant-Related**: To accommodate the language preference of the listener or to signal group membership. - **Topic-Related**: Certain topics are associated with specific languages. - **Affective Functions**: To express emotions, establish intimacy or distance. - **Quotations and Proverbs**: To quote someone or use idiomatic expressions in their original language. **Examples** - **Ethnic Identity Marker**: Using phrases or tags from another language to signal identity. - **Expressing Solidarity**: Switching to a shared language to strengthen social bonds. - **Assert Authority**: Switching to a language associated with formality or power to assert authority or indicate disapproval. **Code-Mixing** - **Definition**: The blending of elements from two or more languages within a single utterance or sentence. - **Fused Lect**: A stable language variety that emerges from extensive code-mixing. **Lexical Borrowing** - **Definition**: The adoption of individual words or phrases from another language due to lexical need. - **Characteristics**: - Borrowed words are often integrated phonologically and grammatically into the borrowing language. - Different from code-switching, which involves larger language units and often preserves the original language\'s phonology. **Linguistic Constraints on Code-Switching** - **Equivalence Constraint**: Switching tends to occur at points where the grammatical structures of both languages align. - **Matrix Language Frame (MLF) Model**: - **Matrix Language**: Provides the grammatical structure. - **Embedded Language**: Supplies content words or phrases. - **Tag code-switching (emblematic switching):** occurs when using only short, fixed phrases or tags in one language at the beginning or end of sentences in the other language. The switch is simply an interjection or a linguistic tag in the other language which serves as an ethnic identity marker. **Attitudes to Code-Switching** - Vary widely across communities. - **Negative Attitudes**: - Seen as a lack of language proficiency or as a contaminant to language purity. - Terms like \"Tex Mex\" or \"joual\" can have derogatory connotations. - **Positive Attitudes**: - Viewed as a communicative resource enhancing expressive capacity. - In some multilingual communities, skillful code-switching is admired. **Applications and Implications** - Understanding language choice and code-switching is critical for: - **Language Planning and Policy**: Informing decisions on language education and preservation. - **Sociolinguistic Research**: Examining how language practices reflect and shape social structures. - **Intercultural Communication**: Enhancing communication in multilingual and multicultural contexts. **Study Notes for Chapter 3: Language Maintenance and Shift** **Key Terms** - **Language Choice Influences**: Social, economic, and political factors influence why communities might shift from using one language to another. - **Language Shift**: Occurs when a community gradually stops using their native language in favor of another, often due to external pressures. - **Language Death:** When a language loses all its speakers leading to its disappearance. - **Language loss:** The reduction in language proficiency among speakers, often leading to diminished use and eventual disappearance of the language. - **Language Maintenance**: Efforts made by communities to continue using and preserving their native language. - **Language Revival**: Actions taken to bring back a declining or extinct language into active use. **Key Concepts** 1. **Language Shift in Communities** - **Migrant Minorities**: Immigrant communities often experience language shift over generations due to the necessity of adopting the dominant language for economic and social integration. - *Example*: Maniben\'s shift from Gujerati to English in the UK. - **Non-Migrant Communities**: Language shift can also happen without migration, often due to internal factors like urbanization or national language policies. - *Example*: The displacement of Azeri by Farsi in Iran. 2. **Language Death and Language Loss** - **Language Death**: When a language is no longer spoken naturally anywhere, often after the last native speakers pass away. - *Example*: The extinction of Ubykh with the death of its last speaker. - **Language Loss**: The process individuals experience when they gradually lose proficiency in their native language due to reduced use. - *Example*: Annie\'s decreased fluency in Dyirbal, an Aboriginal language. 3. **Factors Contributing to Language Shift** - **Economic Factors**: The need for jobs often compels communities to adopt the dominant language. - **Social and Political Factors**: Pressure to assimilate and the association of the dominant language with success. - **Demographic Factors**: Urbanization and intermarriage with majority language speakers can accelerate shift. - **Attitudes and Values**: If a community values their language as a key part of their identity, they are more likely to maintain it. 4. **Language Maintenance Strategies** - **Positive Attitudes**: Valuing the language as an identity symbol helps in its preservation. - **Community Cohesion**: Living close to each other and frequent interaction in the native language. - **Institutional Support**: Use of the language in education, religion, media, and legal domains. - *Example*: Bilingual education programs, minority language media. - **Regular Contact with Homeland**: New immigrants and visits back home reinforce language use. - **Family Practices:** - **Language at Home: **Parents speaking the language with their children promotes intergenerational transmission. - **Extended Family Influence: **Living with or near elders who use the language supports its maintenance. - **Discouraging Intermarriage: **Encouraging marriage within the language group helps preserve language use in families. 5. **Ethnolinguistic Vitality** - **Definition**: A measure of a language\'s chances of survival based on status, demographic strength, and institutional support. - **Components**: - **Status**: Prestige and acceptance of the language. - **Demography**: Size and concentration of the language community. - **Institutional Support**: Presence in schools, media, government, etc. 6. **Linguistic Landscapes** - **Definition**: The display of languages in public spaces (e.g., signs, advertisements). - **Significance**: Reflects the vitality and status of languages within a community. - **Insights**: Can indicate the strength of minority languages and societal attitudes. 7. **Language Revival Efforts** - **Successful Cases**: - **Hebrew**: Revived as a living language in Israel after being dormant. - **Welsh**: Efforts include bilingual education and media support. - **Methods**: - **Education**: Immersion programs using the language as the medium of instruction. - **Policy Support**: Government recognition and legal protection. - **Community Initiatives**: Cultural events, language classes, promoting use in homes. **Study Notes for Chapter 4: Linguistic Varieties and Multilingual Nations** **Key Concepts** **1. Vernacular Languages** - **Definition**: Native languages or dialects used for everyday, informal communication within a community. - **Characteristics**: - Learned at home as the first language. - Typically unstandardized and lack official status. - Used in informal domains and for specific cultural or social functions. - **Functions**: - Express solidarity and group identity. - Serve as markers of ethnic or social belonging. **2. Standard Languages** - **Definition**: Codified forms of a language recognized as the prestigious norm within a community. - **Characteristics**: - Undergo processes of standardization, including codification through grammars and dictionaries. - Used in formal settings such as education, government, media, and literature. - Serve as a common medium across dialectal diversity. - **Development**: - Often based on the dialect of influential social, economic, or political centers. - Example: Standard British English emerged from the London dialect due to its association with the Court and commerce. **3. World Englishes** - **Inner Circle**: - Countries where English is the native language (e.g., USA, UK, Canada, Australia). - **Outer Circle**: - Countries where English has an official or historical role (e.g., India, Singapore, Nigeria). - English serves as a second language, often influenced by local languages. - Development of localized varieties (e.g., Singlish in Singapore). - **Expanding Circle**: - Countries where English is learned as a foreign language for international communication (e.g., China, Russia). - **Significance**: - Reflects the global diversity and adaptation of English in different sociolinguistic contexts. **4. Lingua Franca** - **Definition**: A common language used for communication between speakers of different native languages. - **Examples**: - **Tukano** in the Vaupés region of the Amazon. - **Swahili** in East Africa. - **English** as a global lingua franca. - **Functions**: - Facilitates trade, diplomacy, and multicultural interactions. - May eventually influence or replace vernacular languages in multilingual communities. **5. Pidgins** - **Definition**: Simplified languages that develop for communication between groups without a common language, primarily for specific purposes like trade. - **Characteristics**: - No native speakers. - Simplified grammar and limited vocabulary. - Used in restricted domains. - **Development**: - Arise out of necessity in multilingual settings. - Typically have low prestige and may be viewed negatively. **6. Creoles** - **Definition**: Fully developed languages that originated from pidgins and have become the first language of a community. - **Characteristics**: - Acquired by children as their native language. - Expanded vocabulary and grammatical complexity. - Used across all domains of communication. - **Creolisation**: - The process by which a pidgin evolves into a creole as it gains native speakers and functional expansion. **Aspect** **Pidgins** **Creoles** ---------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Definition** Simplified languages that develop as a means of communication between speakers of different native languages; no native speakers. Fully developed languages that originated from pidgins and have become the first language of a community; have native speakers. **Native Speakers** No native speakers; used as a second language for specific purposes. Have native speakers; acquired by children as their first language. **Function and Usage** Used for limited and specific functions, such as trade, commerce, or other restricted domains; primarily transactional and referential. Used across all domains of life, including home, education, government, literature, and media; serve both referential and affective functions. **Structural Complexity** Simplified grammatical structures; reduced vocabulary; minimal or no inflection; focuses on essential communication needs. Expanded grammatical structures; increased complexity with development of inflections and affixes; elaborated to meet all linguistic needs of native speakers. **Vocabulary Size** Limited vocabulary, often drawing words from a dominant language (lexifier) with meanings extended; high degree of polysemy. Expanded vocabulary to express a wide range of concepts and ideas; may develop new words and borrow from multiple sources. **Stability and Lifespan** Often unstable and short-lived; may disappear when the specific need for communication diminishes. Stable and enduring; can develop into official or national languages; continue to evolve over time. **Attitudes** Generally low prestige; often viewed negatively or as \"broken\" language by outsiders; may face stigmatization. Attitudes vary; may still face negative perceptions, but speakers often have a strong sense of identity and pride; some creoles gain recognition and official status. **7. Linguistic Features in Pidgins and Creoles** - **Lexifier (Superstrate)**: - The language that provides most of the vocabulary (e.g., English in Tok Pisin). - **Substrate**: - The languages that influence the grammar and pronunciation. - **Common Linguistic Processes**: - Simplification of consonant clusters. - Reduction or elimination of inflectional morphology. - Use of particles or separate words to indicate tense, plurality, etc. - Development of systematic grammatical features in creoles. **8. Post-Creole Continuum** - **Acrolect**: - The variety closest to the standard language. - **Basilect**: - The variety most distinct from the standard; the \"deep\" creole. - **Mesolect**: - Intermediate varieties. - **Decreolisation**: - The process where a creole language gradually becomes more like the standard language. **Sociolinguistic Dynamics** **Attitudes Towards Language Varieties** - **Pidgins**: - Often stigmatized and considered \"broken\" or inferior. - Misunderstood by speakers of the lexifier language. - **Creoles**: - May have negative perceptions but can also be embraced as symbols of identity. - Some creoles gain prestige and official recognition (e.g., Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea). **Language Maintenance and Shift** - **Factors Influencing Language Survival**: - **Social Identity**: Strong ethnic or group identity can support vernacular maintenance. - **Functionality**: Usefulness of a language in various domains encourages its preservation. - **Policy**: Government recognition and promotion can enhance a language\'s status. **Language Selection for Official Use** - **Non-Linguistic Factors**: - Political, social, and economic considerations are primary. - Selection often reflects the language of the dominant or most influential group. - **Linguistic Factors**: - While important, they are secondary and can be addressed through language planning and education. **Study Notes: Chapter 5 -- National Languages and Language Planning** **Key Concepts** **National Language vs. Official Language** - **National Language**: A language chosen to symbolize a nation\'s identity and unity. It serves as a cultural emblem and is often used to foster national pride and cohesion. - **Official Language**: A language designated for use in government and administrative matters. It serves practical functions in legal, educational, and official communications. **De Facto and De Jure Language Status** - **De Facto Language**: A language widely used in practice within a country but not legally recognized. - **De Jure Language**: A language that has been officially established by law as an official language. **Language Planning** Language planning involves deliberate efforts to influence how a language is used within a society. It typically includes three main components: 1. **Selection**: Choosing a particular language or variety to develop as a national or official language. This decision often involves political, social, and practical considerations. 2. **Codification**: Standardizing the language\'s structure by developing grammar rules, spelling systems, and dictionaries. This process ensures consistency and facilitates education and communication. 3. **Elaboration**: Expanding the language\'s functionality to cover new domains, such as science, technology, education, and administration. This may involve creating new vocabulary and expressions. 4. **Acceptance**: Promoting positive attitudes towards the language to encourage its adoption and regular use by the population. This involves status or prestige planning to enhance the language\'s image. **Types of Language Planning** - **Status Planning**: Efforts to change the social standing of a language, enhancing its prestige and acceptance. This involves promoting the language in official domains and fostering pride among speakers. - **Corpus Planning**: Involves the development and standardization of the language\'s structural features, such as grammar, vocabulary, and orthography (writing system). - **Acquisition Planning**: Strategies aimed at increasing the number of speakers of a language, often through education policies and language learning programs. **Purposes of Language Planning:** - **National Unity and Political Stability:** Unify diverse linguistic groups to foster social cohesion, address linguistic inequalities, and promote social and political stability. - **National Identity and Cultural Preservation:** Establish a national identity and preserve cultural heritage by promoting and protecting indigenous and minority languages. - **Standardization and Functional Development:** Develop consistent language norms and expand the language\'s use into new domains like education, administration, law, science, and technology. - **Enhancing Acceptance and Communication**: Improve attitudes toward the language to encourage its use, increase its prestige, and facilitate effective communication among all citizens. - **Socioeconomic Development:** Advance education and economic opportunities through language policies that improve literacy, learning outcomes, and participation in global affairs. **Examples of Language Planning** **Tanzania and Swahili** - **Selection**: Swahili was chosen as the national language to unify the country, which had numerous ethnic groups and languages. - **Codification**: Standardizing Swahili involved developing grammar rules and dictionaries. - **Elaboration**: Extended the use of Swahili into education, administration, and media. - **Acceptance**: Efforts were made to promote Swahili as a symbol of national identity and unity. **Norway\'s Bokmål and Nynorsk** - **Challenge**: After independence, Norway needed a national language distinct from Danish, the language of their former rulers. - **Solutions**: - **Bokmål**: Developed from Danish with Norwegian modifications. - **Nynorsk**: Created by amalgamating features from various Norwegian rural dialects. - **Outcome**: Both languages are officially recognized, but Bokmål is more widely used due to attitudes associating it with urban sophistication. **Factors Influencing Language Planning** - **Political Power**: Dominant groups may influence the language selected for national use. - **Cultural Identity**: Languages associated with national heritage may be preferred. - **Practicality**: Widespread use and functionality in various domains make a language a practical choice. - **Attitudes and Perceptions**: Positive attitudes towards a language facilitate its acceptance; negative perceptions can hinder adoption. **Linguistic Landscapes** - Refers to the presence and visibility of languages in public spaces through signs, advertisements, and official notices. - Analyzing linguistic landscapes can reveal the gap between official language policies and actual language use in society. **Challenges in Language Planning** - **Minority Languages**: Balancing national language policies with the rights and identities of minority language speakers. - **Standardization vs. Diversity**: Standardizing a language may diminish regional dialects and linguistic diversity. - **Resistance to Change**: People may resist adopting a new language or standardized form due to strong attachment to their native dialects or languages. **The Role of Linguists** - Linguists contribute to codification by developing grammars and dictionaries. - They may advise on language policies, vocabulary development, and strategies for promoting language acceptance.