WEEK 7.pdf

lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Boys more likely to be negaDvely reinforced for gender inappropriate behaviour than girls Fathers more sensiDve to inconsistencies than mothers Parents inbuence environment Clothes, toys, décor Same-sex peer reinforcement NegaDve reinforcement by peers of gender-inappropriate...

lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Boys more likely to be negaDvely reinforced for gender inappropriate behaviour than girls Fathers more sensiDve to inconsistencies than mothers Parents inbuence environment Clothes, toys, décor Same-sex peer reinforcement NegaDve reinforcement by peers of gender-inappropriate play can be more inbuenDal than that of adults. Modelling Adults, siblings, peers, society, media Fails to consider cogniDve and social maturaDon CogniDve theories of gender-role development - Kohlberg (1966) - Gender labelling - Gender stability - Gender constancy - MarDn and Halverson (1981, 1987) - Gender idenDty - Gender-role schema - CogniDve theories minimise social and cultural eTects What are gender roles? - Societal expectaDons of males and females - DiTerent from each other - Conform to stereotypes What is gender typing? - Process of acquiring gender-consistent behaviours - Social behaviours of girls and boys diTerent from early age. True or False. NegaGve reinforcement by peers of gender-inappropriate play can be more inMuenGal than that of adults. True. What is androgyny? - Androgyny is the combinaDon of masculine and feminine characterisDcs. Sexual ambiguity may be found in fashion, gender idenDty, sexual idenDty, or sexual lifestyle. - Gender roles are bexible - Males and females can integrate tradiDonal role typed behaviour What are the ebects and implicaGons of androgyny? - Androgynous people beeer adjusted - May be less adapDve in some situaDons and cultures - Reduces eTects of stereotypes - Promotes gender equity - Contributes to understanding of homosexual orientaDons - Post-androgyny – gender role transcendence WEEK 7: PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Outline physical development in middle childhood: - Growth slower than in earlier stages - Bodies larger and stronger Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Physical skills easier to learn Children in developed countries have generally good health Height & weight begin to accelerate in later stages as move into puberty Outline size variaGons in middle childhood: - More variaDon within cultures than across cultures - Girls typically experience growth spurt before boys - VariaDons geneDcally & environmentally determined o Regression toward the mean: extremely tall or short parents will likely have corresponding taller or shorter oTspring, but their oTspring will also likely be closer to average height than the parents themselves. - Small stature can be a social disadvantage (sport, bullying) - Excessive accumulaDon of body fat (overweight, obese) Discuss obesity in middle childhood: - May be due to: o GeneDc tendency o Early development of poor eaDng paeerns- habitual overeaDng o Lack of exercise - Linked to adult obesity as well as health problems in childhood & adulthood - Has negaDve social consequences: o Behaviour problems o Depression o Low self-esteem Does sport parGcipaGon increase or decrease in middle childhood? Why? - Sport parDcipaDon increases o Sex diTerences in strength & gross motor coordinaDon are minimal unDl puberty- joint sports are therefore encouraged. o MyelinisaDon  Beeer conducDvity of nerve impulses  Beeer coordinaDon o Improvements in Pne and gross motor skills  By age 11/12, manual dexterity equal to adult level What are the posiGve physical ebects of sport parGcipaGon? - Beeer physical Ptness - Improved Motor coordinaDon What are the posiGve Psychological ebects of sport parGcipaGon? - Improved achievement moDvaDon (e.g. beeering previous running Dmes) - Support for teamwork (e.g. basketball) What are the negaGve physical ebects of sport parGcipaGon? - Sports-related injuries (e.g. knee injuries from football, back problems from gymnasDcs, shoulder pain from cricket) What are the negaGve Psychological ebects of sport parGcipaGon? - CompeDDon can engender more concern with winning than with individual performance improvement. - Excessive pressure from adults to pracDce, perform well and win. What stage of Piaget’s cogniGve development do children move to in middle childhood? - In middle childhood, children move from preoperaDonal to concrete operaDonal stage (nonconserving, transiDonal, conserving) Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 o Piaget’s stages of cogniDve development: 1. Sensorimotor (birth-2 years), 2. PreoperaDonal (2-7 years), 3.Concrete OperaDonal (7-11 years), 4. Formal OperaDonal (11-adult) Concrete operaGonal thought: What is the ability to perform opera*ons? Mental acDons on concrete situaDons Concrete operaGonal thought: By about age 7 the dirculGes with conservaGon are being resolved using what three concepts? - IdenDty - Reversibility - DecentraDon Concrete operaGonal thought: What is classiScaGon? The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features. - Class inclusion e.g. there is a class of objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs. Concrete operaGonal thought: What is seriaGon? - Refers to the child's ability to order objects with respect to a common property. A simple example of this would be placing a number of sDcks in order of height. - TransiDvity: compare two objects via an intermediate object. So for instance, one sDck could be deemed to be longer than another by both being individually compared to another (third) sDck. Concrete operaGonal thought: What is spaGal reasoning? SpaDal reasoning is a category of reasoning skills that refers to the capacity to think about objects in three dimensions and to draw conclusions about those objects from limited informaDon. What does informaGon processing theory focus on? Focuses on cogniDve abiliDes: - AeenDon - Memory - Learning - Problem-solving - MetacogniDon CriDcism: Does not focus on development in all domains: - Physical - CogniDve - Psychosocial What is ajenGon? - Ability to focus - MaturaDon of prefrontal cortex What is selecGve ajenGon? - Screen out distracDon - Focus on task at hand o AeenDon becomes more sustained, ercient, and bexible with maturity What is AjenGon DeScit HyperacGvity Disorder? - Inability to focus Outline memory: - The faculty by which the mind stores and remembers informaDon. - Short-term & long term memory Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - - - ConstrucDve o Recall of prior learning o ApproximaDon, fuzzy trace, gist Mnemonic strategies o Rehearsal o OrganisaDon o ElaboraDon Metamemory o A person's knowledge about the contents and regulaDon of memory. RecogniDon memory o RecogniDon memory is a parDcular aspect of memory that provides the ability for an individual to idenDfy a previously encountered sDmulus. Outline the language development for middle childhood: - More precise phonology (speech sounds, their distribuDon and paeerning) - Expanded lexicon (40,000 words) - Improved syntax (the part of language used to create sentences puang words together) - Mastering complex grammar - Improved pragmaDcs (the rules which govern the use of language used to communicate in social situaDons) - AppreciaDon of context, intonaDon and turn-taking - Development of metalinguisDc awareness o MetalinguisDc awareness refers to the ability to objecDfy language as a process as well as an artefact. The concept of metalinguisDc awareness is helpful to explaining the execuDon and transfer of linguisDc knowledge across languages (e.g. code switching as well as translaDon among bilinguals). What is bilingualism? - Having some ability to use two or more languages. o Both languages acquired simultaneously o Second language learned later o Bilinguals have cogniDve advantages o Language learning is also about learning culture What is intelligence? - Environmental adaptability, ability to learn from experience, abstract reasoning, ability to integrate new and old knowledge, social skills, musicl ability. - Intelligence has been dePned in many diTerent ways such as in terms of one's capacity for logic, abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communicaDon, learning, emoDonal knowledge, memory, planning, creaDvity and problem solving. - It can also be more generally described as the ability to perceive informaDon and retain it as knowledgefor applying to itself or other instances of knowledge or informaDon, thereby creaDng referable understanding models of any size, density, or complexity, due to any conscious orsubconscious imposed will or instrucDon to do so. What are some ways people deSne intelligence? - Environmental adaptability - Ability to learn from experience - Abstract reasoning - Ability to integrate new and old knowledge - Social skills - Musical ability - Physical skills How can you measure intelligence? - Using standardised quanDtaDve tests - Group norms provide Intelligence QuoDent (IQ) Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Average is 100, standard deviaDon is 15 o Some tests include: Stanford Binet, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children What do intelligence tests measure? - General ability - SpeciPc abiliDes o Primary mental abiliDes o Group factors - Fluid and crystallised intelligence o Fluid intelligence is the general ability to think abstractly, reason, idenDfy paeerns, solve problems, and discern relaDonships. o Crystallized intelligence is dePned as the ability to use learned knowledge and experience. - Suggested culture- free tests What are the biases in (IQ) tesGng? - Rely on narrow set of behaviours - Require aeenDon and high moDvaDon - Timed tests trade-oT between speed and accuracy - Can be inbuenced by tester style - Rely on crystallised abiliDes - Focus on convergent rather than divergent thinking - Are culturally biased Gardner’s mulGple intelligences? - Gardner chose eight abiliDes that he held to meet these criteria: musical–rhythmic, visual– spaDal, verbal–linguisDc, logical–mathemaDcal, bodily–kinestheDc, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalisDc. - Examples of 6 types and examples for each: o Language skill. A child with this talent speaks comfortably and buently and learns new words and expressions easily. They also memorise verbal materials, such as poems, much more easily thatn other children do. o Musical skill. A child with this ability not oly plays one or two musical instruments but also sings and discerns subtle musDcal eTects. Usually musical talent also includes a good sense of Dming or rhythm. o Logical skill. A child with this skill organises objects and concepts well. For example, using a computer comes easily to them, as does mathemaDcs. o Spa*al skill. A child with this ability literally can Pnd their way around. They know the streets of the neighbourhood beeer than most children their age do and, if they live in the country, they can Pnd their way across large stretches of terrain without geang lost. o Kinaesthe*c, or body balance, skill. A child with this ability is sensiDve to the internal sensaDons created by body movement. As a result, they Pnd dancing, gymnasDcs and other acDviDes requiring balance easy to learn. o Interpersonal and intrapersonal skills. A child with strong interpersonal skills shows excellent understanding of others’ feelings, thoughts and moDves. A child with intrapersonal skills has a good understanding of their own feelings, thoughts and values. For children with either or both of these skills, handling social encounters is relaDvely easy. Interpersonal and intrapersonal skills may amount to two disDncDve forms of intelligence, but the evidence has lem Gardner unsure about whether or not they are disDncDve (hence the combinaDon of the two). Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 o Naturalis*c skills. A child with this type of intelligence easily relates to and deals with informaDon about the environment and the natural world. Such individuals might be drawn to occupaDons such as organic farming or being a forest ranger. o Gardner argues the intelligences in his theory are disDncDve, rather than overlapping. Outline the inMuence of formal educaGon on middle childhood: - School has its own discourse and structures - Social biases may be modelled - Assessment and evaluaDon o Students rates on personal performance o Absolute standard o Can have posiDve or negaDve impact - Can pursue compeDDve or cooperaDve goals What are the psychosocial challenges in middle childhood? - Knowing self - Achieving - Family relaDonships - Peers - School - Middle childhood is a period of transiDon and consolidaDon Outline the ‘development of self’ in middle childhood: - Self-knowledge increases o Moves beyond observable features and absolute descriptors o Becomes more complex and beeer organised - Incorporates aspects of social descripDon and comparison o How popular they are o How their skills compare with others Outline the ‘culture and self’ in middle childhood: - Western cultures o Individualist o Sense of self develops as personal enDty - Asian cultures o CollecDvist o AddiDonal “selves” o Familial self-related to family values o Spiritual self-related to religious beliefs What is intrinsic moGvaGon? - Comes from within (moDvated by internal factors), task-related - Fostered by opDmal challenge, choice, and feedback What is extrinsic moGvaGon? - MoDvated by external factors. - The drive to do things for tangible rewards or pressures, rather than for the fun of it. - Focuses on saDsfying others - Fostered by external rewards, deadlines, adult control Outline parental monitoring: - EssenDal for opDmal socio-emoDonal development - Becomes less frequent and less direct as the child gets older Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Depends on child’s temperament, proacDve parenDng, behaviour campaigns ETecDve monitoring involves creaDng trusDng relaDonship How are families changing? - Pre 1970s – nuclear family the norm - Now more complex structures o Single-parent families o Blended families o Extended families - Financial wellbeing - Changes in marriage o Decreases in marriage rate o Increase in cohabitaDon o Increase in divorce Outline peer relaGonships for middle childhood and their inMuences: - Peer interacDons o Provide alternaDve ways of interacDng o Teach emoDonal control and communicaDon on equal fooDng o Develop relaDonship skills - Peers help develop from egocentrism - Inbuenced by parental choices - Impact of peers increases with age How are childhood peer groups segregated? - Age - Gender o Boys – dominance hierarchy o Girls – less hierarchical, more exclusive o Border work – playful incursions into opposite territory - Race o In group/ Out-group Outline the characterisGcs of the diberent peer status categories: Popular - Pro-social, good at sport, academically bright, good sense of humour, fun to be with Rejected - An@-social type – aggressive, disrupDve, withdrawn type – isolated and uninvolved Neglected - Low levels of posiDve and negaDve behaviours, minimal peer impact Controversial - More aggressive than an@-social rejectees, but bright, sociable and show leadership qualiDes. Average - Normal levels of all behaviours What is popularity associated with? - Physical aeracDveness - Standard name - Higher academic achievement - Social competence What is rejecGon associated with? - NegaDve evaluaDons - Socially inappropriate behaviours - Academic problems Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 What can friendships do? - Provide social scaTolding for normaDve transiDons - Can compensate for lack of general peer popularity What are the funcGons of friendship? - Fosters social competence - Gives ego support - Provides emoDonal security - Is a source of: o InDmacy and aTecDon o Guidance and assistance o Companionship and sDmulaDon - Is a basis for reliable alliance WEEK 8: PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE What is adolescence? - Period from age 12 – 20 - Modern Western cultures o Period of gradual transiDon o Coming-of-age ceremonies o Quinceaňera, bar mitzvah, bat mitzvah - TradiDonal Indigenous Australians o IniDaDon at puberty o Abrupt social role change to adult What physical development do adolescents experience? - Growth spurt o Girls 28cm, boys 30cm height gain o More irregular growth than earlier stages - Boys gain more weight than girls o Weight gain less predictable than height gain o Depends on diet, exercise, lifestyle - Spurt starts and ends earlier for girls - Opposite to cephalocaudal paeern Outline puberty in adolescence: - Primary sex characterisDcs o Development of sex organs - Release of gonadotrophin sDmulates o female ovaries to increase oestrogen  Menarche o male testes to increase testosterone  Spermarche - Secondary sex characterisDcs o External changes not directly involved in sexual reproducDon  Males: Facial hair, broad shoulders, increased body hair, pubic hair grows up towards navel, mature genital organs, body more muscular  Females: Mature breasts, broader hips, pubic hair What are the variaGons in pubertal development? - Wide individual diTerences o 9 - 17 years for girls’ menarche o 10 - 14 years for boys’ spermarche - Secular trend o Age of puberty lower over many generaDons Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected])