PSYC A322F Life-Span Developmental Psychology Lecture 6 PDF

PSYC A322F Life-span Developmental Psychology LECTURE 6 – PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE TO LATE CHILDHOOD Learning goals of today 1. Identify the key developmental milestones in middle to late childhood (physical, cognitive, language, self, emotional and moral developm...

PSYC A322F Life-span Developmental Psychology LECTURE 6 – PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE TO LATE CHILDHOOD Learning goals of today 1. Identify the key developmental milestones in middle to late childhood (physical, cognitive, language, self, emotional and moral development) 2. What could be the factors influence the development ? Physical Development IN MIDDLE TO LATE CHILDHOOD (AROUND 7 – 11 YEARS OLD) Body Growth and Change Slow, consistent growth is seen in middle and late childhood. Growth averages 2 to 3 inches per year. Weight gain averages 5 to 7 pounds per year. Head circumference and waist circumference decrease in relation to body height. The Brain Brain volume stabilizes Significant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the prefrontal cortex (central executive) Cortical thickness increases Activation of some brain areas increases while others decrease Brain pathways and circuitry involving the prefrontal cortex, the highest level in the brain, continue to increase (e.g., executive functioning, planning, cognitive control, impulse inhibition, cognitive flexibility, memory…) (Scheider & Ornstein, 2019) 5 Motor Development Motor skills become smoother and more coordinated Girls outperform boys in their use of fine motor skills Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood results from increased myelination of central nervous system (Hockenberry & Wilson, 2019) 6 Cognitive development IN MIDDLE TO LATE CHILDHOOD (AROUND 7 – 11 YEARS OLD) Piaget’s (1954)Cognitive Developmental Theory Concrete operational stage Concrete operational stage-Ages 7 to 11 ◦ This involves mastering the use of logic in concrete ways ◦ Children can perform concrete operations and reason logically and are able to classify things into different sets ◦ Hierarchical classification: As children's experiences and vocabularies grow, they build schemata and are able to organize objects in many different ways Access the text alternative for slide images. 8 Piaget’s (1954) Cognitive Developmental Theory Concrete operational stage Identity: One feature of concrete operational thought is the understanding that objects have qualities that do not change even if the object is altered in some way Conservation: changing one quality (in this example, height or water level) can be compensated for by changes in another quality (width) Reversibility: The child learns that some things that have been changed can be returned to their original state SAME https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gA04ew6Oi9M 9 Piaget’s (1954) Cognitive Developmental Theory Concrete operational stage Seriation: Arranging items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight, in a methodical way is now demonstrated by the concrete operational child https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tOorUw_XX2o Transitivity: The ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions - e.g., A > B & B > C 🡪 ?? Piaget’s (1954) Cognitive Developmental Theory Concrete operational stage Seriation: Arranging items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight, in a methodical way is now demonstrated by the concrete operational child https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tOorUw_XX2o Transitivity: The ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions - e.g., A > B & B > C 🡪 A is longer than C ? Information Processing Working Memory (making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending language): The capacity of working memory expands Increase in processing speed and the ability to inhibit irrelevant information Uses information from long-term memory in its work; and transmits information to long-term memory for longer storage. (Kharitonova et al.,2015) Any factors can explain the development? Attention: A sharp improvement in selective attention from age six into adolescence Improve in their ability to shift their attention between tasks or different features of a task Sorting task: greater flexibility in their attentional skills (e.g., sort by shape 🡪 sort by color) 12 Information Processing Long-term memory: increases with age during middle and late childhood (Schacter, 2019) Knowledge and expertise: ◦ Experts have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular content area (Ericsson et al., 2018) ◦ E.g., 10- and 11-year-olds expert chess players remember more about location of chess pieces on a board than either college students who were not chess players or novices. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7TpsYofbAPA (0:34 -...) Access the text alternative for slide images. 13 Information Processing Critical thinking: thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence (Baron, 2020) Creative thinking: ability to think in novel and unusual ways, come up with unique solutions to problems ◦ Convergent thinking: produces one correct answer and is characteristic of kind of thinking tested by standardized intelligence tests ◦ Divergent thinking: produces many answers to the same question and is characteristic of creativity ◦ Brainstorming: a process in which individuals come up with creative ideas in a group and play off each other’s ideas (Glaveaus et al., 2020) 14 Information Processing Metacognition: the knowledge we have about our own thinking and our ability to use this awareness to regulate our own cognitive processes Cognition about cognition Knowing about knowing/not knowing (Flavell, 2004) E.g., Metamemory: knowledge about own memory capabilities (Kreutzer et al., 1975) 15 Intelligence Intelligence is the ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences (Sternberg, 2020) Interest in intelligence has often focused on individual differences and assessment. Individual differences: the stable, consistent ways in which people differ from each other. (Elkana et al., 2020) Intelligence- The Binet Tests Alfred Binet (1904) was initially asked to develop an intelligence test to identify students who did not benefit from the regular classroom. Binet developed the concept of mental age (MA): the individual’s level of mental development relative to others. William Stern (1912) developed the intelligence quotient (IQ): a person’s mental age divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. If mental age is the same as chronological age, the person’s IQ is 100. Intelligence- The Binet Tests Today, the Stanford-Binet tests obtain individual scores and a composite score in five content areas: ◦ Fluid reasoning (the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge) ◦ Knowledge ◦ Quantitative reasoning ◦ Visual-spatial reasoning ◦ Working memory More information: Stanford-Binet Subtests | Stanford-Binet Test (stanfordbinettest.com) Intelligence- The Wechsler scales David Wechsler developed the Wechsler scales ◦ Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV) for ages 2.5 to 7.25. ◦ Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V) for ages 6 to 16 ◦ Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) The WISC-V provides an overall IQ score and also five composite scores, determining areas of strength or weakness. ◦ Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory, Processing Speed, Fluid Reasoning, and Visual Spatial (WISC-V) IntelligenceMultiple intelligence Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence : ◦ Analytical intelligence: the ability to evaluate, compare, and contrast. ◦ Creative intelligence: the ability to invent, originate, and imagine. ◦ Practical intelligence: the ability to ability to implement and put ideas into practice. Gardner’s eight frames of mind: ◦ Verbal, Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist Source: All about the Naturalist Intelligence - Iberdrola Factors contribute on intelligence Genetics (nature) Environment (nurture) include parental communication patterns, income, educational attainment, health, and socioeconomic factors. The Flynn effect refers to a rapid increase in IQ scores worldwide, likely due to increasing levels of education, and factors such as the explosion of information to which people are now exposed Stanford-Binet intelligence test Extremes of Intelligence Intellectual disability The most distinctive feature of intellectual disability is inadequate intellectual functioning. It is defined as a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual has a low IQ, difficulty adapting to everyday life, and first exhibits these characteristics by age 18 Caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage IQ is generally between 50 and 70 Extremes of Intelligence Giftedness People who are gifted have above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something Giftedness is likely a product of both heredity and environment. Deliberate practice is an important characteristic of those who become expert in a particular domain. (358) Teacher finding out Mary is gifted GIFTED Movie Scene | HD Video | 2017 - YouTube Role of gender in cognitive development Gender similarities and differences ◦ Verbal skills—girls better ◦ No difference in math ◦ Visuospatial skills—some girls better ◦ Reading and Writing skills—girls better ◦ Achievement—girls better, but complex issue ◦ Girls: Less likely to drop out of school, greater engagement with academic materials, more attentive in class, put more effort, greater participation 25 Language development Language development Vocabulary: One of the reasons that children can classify objects in so many ways is that they have acquired a vocabulary to do so By fifth grade, a child's vocabulary has grown to 40,000 words Metalinguistic awareness (Ability to reflect upon and manipulate the structure of language) ◦ "What are you saying? Are you speaking in English or what?". ◦ not all language is literal → “My little dog is an Olympic athlete,” it doesn't mean that the dog participates in the Olympic athletic events. 27 Second-Language Learning and Bilingual Education Second-language learning ◦ Bilingualism has a positive effect on children’s cognitive development (for example, attention control, concept formation, analytical reasoning, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility, complexity, and monitoring). ◦ Subtractive bilingualism: when immigrant children speak their native language at home, become bilingual at school, then speak only English, their bilingualism has a negative effect. Bilingual education ◦ Research supports bilingual education for academic achievement. 28 Children with disabilities IN MIDDLE TO LATE CHILDHOOD (AROUND 7 – 11 YEARS OLD) Learning disabilities A child with a learning disability has difficulty in learning involving understanding or using spoken or written language. ◦ The difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, or spelling. ◦ Dyslexia: a severe impairment in the ability to read and spell. ◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-Eycme4NFM&t=440s ◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-mDTwOjIsrQ&t=386s (3:45 -...) ◦ Dysgraphia: a difficulty in handwriting. ◦ Dyscalculia: a developmental arithmetic disorder (difficulties in understanding numbers 🡪 difficulties with mathematics) ◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IFoKyHxi3bM (0.58-...) 30 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A disability characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Boys are twice as likely to receive an ADHD diagnosis. Possible causes of ADHD: Genetics Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development High maternal stress during prenatal development Low birth weight 31 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Children diagnosed with ADHD have an increased risk for: ◦ Lower academic achievement ◦ Problematic peer relations ◦ School dropout ◦ Disordered eating ◦ Adolescent parenthood ◦ Substance use problems ◦ Antisocial behavior ◦ Criminal activity ◦ Unemployment 32 Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) range from autistic disorder to Asperger syndrome and may have a genetic basis. Autistic disorder is a severe developmental ASD. ◦ Has its onset in the first 3 years of life. ◦ Deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior. ◦ Deficits in cognitive processing of information. ◦ Identified five times more often in boys than girls. Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) Asperger syndrome is relatively mild. ◦ Relatively good verbal language skills and milder nonverbal language problems. ◦ Restricted range of interests and relationships; with obsessive, repetitive routines and preoccupations with a particular subject. ◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WqLQSTQ83Sg&t=2s (4:08 -...) ◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1O_TMTc660&t=74s The current consensus is that autism is a brain dysfunction involving abnormalities in brain structure and neurotransmitters. ◦ The children have deficits in cognitive processing but benefit from a well-structured classroom, individualized teaching, and small-group instruction. ◦ Behavior modification techniques are sometimes effective. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T9j6rQ4rtQY&t=23s (sensory room) The Self Erikson’s (1968) psychosocial development (stage 4) Industry versus inferiority (Virtue of competence) This is Erikson’s fourth stage (around age 5 -12), appearing in middle and late childhood Industry: children become interested in how things are made and how they work. When they are encouraged, their sense of industry increases. Parents/teachers who see children’s efforts as mischief or making a mess can instead cause a sense of inferiority. 36 The development of self-understanding Children aged 8 to 11 increasingly describe themselves in terms of psychological characteristics and traits. ◦ Recognize social characteristics of the self. ◦ Self-descriptions increasingly involve social comparison. The development of self-understanding Self-esteem, also called self-worth or self-image: global evaluations of the self. Self-concept: domain-specific evaluations of the self. The foundations emerge from the quality of parent-child interaction. Low self-esteem has been implicated in overweight and obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency. A current concern is praise for average performance, resulting in inflated self-esteem. The development of self-understanding Self-efficacy: the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes. ◦ Self-efficacy can affect a student’s choice of activities. ◦ High self-efficacy increases the likelihood a child will expend effort and persist longer at learning tasks. Self-regulation: characterized by deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts. ◦ Leads to increased social competence and achievement. Development to understand others Perspective taking: assuming the perspective of others and understanding their thoughts and feelings. ◦ Children become skeptical of others’ claims (not easily be convinced) ◦ Without good perspective taking skills, they are more likely to be oppositional and have difficulty with relationships Emotional development Emotional development ◦ Improved emotional understanding ◦ Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation ◦ Increased tendency to be aware of the events leading to emotional reactions. ◦ Increased ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions ◦ Use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings (e.g., anger, anxiety) ◦ A capacity for genuine empathy Coping with stress Older children generate more coping alternatives for stressful situations. In turmoil or trauma, children may be too overwhelmed. Outcomes for children who experience disasters include acute stress reactions, depression, panic disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Dose-response effect: the more severe the disaster/trauma (dose), the worse the adaptation and adjustment (response). Another significant factor is the type of support available (e.g., parental support, peer support) Moral development Moral development Piaget proposed that children move from heteronomous morality to autonomous morality by 10 years of age. ◦ Children come to consider intentions, believe rules are subject to change, and know that punishment may not follow. Lawrence Kohlberg (1958, 1986)suggested three universal levels of moral development. ◦ Development from one level to another is fostered by opportunities to take others’ perspectives and experience conflict between one’s level of moral thinking and the reasoning of someone else at a higher level. Moral development Kohlberg’s Level 1: Preconventional Morality: Self-interest. Punishment is avoided, and rewards are sought. Morality not internalized Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality ◦ Moral decisions are based on fear of punishment. ◦ Children obey because adults tell them to. Stage 2: Individuals, Instrumental Purpose, and Exchange. ◦ Individuals pursue their own interests but let others do the same. ◦ What is right involves equal exchange. (Kohlberg, 1958, 1986) Moral development Kohlberg’s Level 2: Conventional morality People care about the effect of their actions on others. Individuals abide by internal and external standards (for example, parents, law). Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity. ◦ Trust, caring, and loyalty to others valued as a basis for moral judgments. Stage 4: Social System Morality. ◦ Moral judgments based on understanding, social order, law, justice, duty. (Kohlberg, 1958, 1986) Moral development Kohlberg’s Level 3: Postconventional moral development Goes beyond convention or what other people think to a higher, universal ethical principle of conduct that may or may not be reflected in the law. Morality is more internal. Stage 5: Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights. ◦ Employ abstract reasoning to justify the behavior Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles. ◦ Moral behavior is based on self-chosen ethical principles (Kohlberg, 1958, 1986) Evaluating Kohlberg’s moral developmental stages Influences on Kohlberg’s stages ◦ Development requires experiences dealing with moral questions and moral conflict. ◦ Peer interaction and perspective taking are critical. Evaluating Kohlberg’s moral developmental stages Kohlberg’s critics: Too much emphasis on thought and not enough emphasis on behavior. Too much emphasis on the role of emotion : Emotion strongly influences morality, intuitive feelings of right and wrong Conscious/Deliberate Versus Unconscious/ Automatic Moral behavior can be automatic Moral reasoning: after-the-fact justification (e.g., Jambon & Smetena, 2020; Miller et al., 2020) Evaluating Kohlberg’s moral developmental stages Kohlberg’s critics: Cultural biased: Level 3 thinking has not been found in all cultures. Cohort effect: Need to address issues including decline of postconventional moral reasoning Some researchers emphasize the need to deal with increasing possible temptations and wrongdoings in increasingly complex social world Counter to Kohlberg’s position, most experts on children’s moral development conclude that parents’ moral values and actions influence children’s moral reasoning. (e.g., Jambon & Smetena, 2020; Miller et al., 2020) Evaluating Kohlberg’s moral developmental stages Kohlberg’s critics: Gender bias: ◦ It is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others. ◦ Justice perspective: focuses on rights of individual and on which individuals independently make moral decisions. ◦ Gilligan proposed the care perspective: views people in terms of connectedness with others. ◦ Emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, concern for others. ◦ Girls can use both moral orientations when needed (e.g., Jambon & Smetena, 2020; Miller et al., 2020) Moral development – Moral personality Research on whether children develop a moral personality suggests three possible components: ◦ Moral identity: people’s identity when moral notions and moral commitments are central to their lives (Hardy et al., 2020). ◦ Moral character: having the willpower, desire, and integrity to stand up to pressure, overcome distractions and disappointments, and behave morally (Walker, 2002). ◦ Moral exemplars: people whose moral personality, identity, character, and set of virtues reflect moral excellence and commitment (Walker, 2016). Role of gender in socioemotional development Gender-Socioemotional Development ◦ Boys are more physically aggressive; girls are more verbally aggressive; and relational aggression comprises a greater percentage of girls’ overall aggression. ◦ Girls express more emotion and are better at decoding it; and with age, girls more strongly express positive emotions. ◦ Boys usually show less self-regulation. ◦ Girls view themselves as more prosocial and empathetic, and they engage in more prosocial behavior. Gender in context ◦ Traits people display may vary with the situation. 55 References Santrock, J. W. (2021). Life-span development (18th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. (Chapter 9 - 10)