WEEK 6 PDF

lOMoARcPSD|26301137 Focuses on one aspect of language (grammar) and only on recepDve language. True or False. InteracGonists combine naGvist and behaviourist ideas. True. IdenGfy and deSne the 3 number concepts that Piaget argued are fundamental to understanding the convenGonal number system. Piage...

lOMoARcPSD|26301137 Focuses on one aspect of language (grammar) and only on recepDve language. True or False. InteracGonists combine naGvist and behaviourist ideas. True. IdenGfy and deSne the 3 number concepts that Piaget argued are fundamental to understanding the convenGonal number system. Piaget argued that for a child to fully understand number concepts, they must comprehend 3 ideas. The Prst is that one-to-one correspondence exists between items in a set and number names; the second is cardinality – the idea that the total number of items in a set corresponds to the last number named when the items are counted; and the third is ordinality – the concept numbers occur in a standard order (e.g. that two always precedes three). What is “theory of mind”? The capacity to rebect on one’s own thoughts and to disDnguish them from other people’s thoughts or ideas. Age four to Pve seems to be a turning point in children’s theory of mind. WEEK 6 The Developing Self: What does ‘sense of self’ mean? A structured way individuals think about themselves, helps to organise and understand who they are based on the views of others, own experiences and cultural categories e.g. gender. - Result of social interacDon and experiences - Self-concept: complex theory of self, dynamic - Development begins in infancy; early ideas based on social categories; gender - Up unDl approx. age Pve: describe ‘self’ using concrete and observable terms. Lacks permanency – self-constancy not developed unDl amer age 6 What is self-esteem? EvaluaDve aspect of self, the individual’s feeling of self-worth. What are Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development in early childhood? Stage 2 – Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (toddler-preschool years) - Child needs to balance own demands for self-control with demands for control from their parents and others. Purpose: ‘Will’. Capacity to freely make choices on realisDc knowledge of what is expected and what is possible. Stage 3 – IniDaDve vs. Guilt (preschool years, 3-6) - Conbict arises between sense of purpose and growing conscience (guilt) - Desire to do vs. desire for approval - Purpose: Courage to envision and pursue goals without inhibiDon of guilt or fear of punishment What are the 4 parenGng styles? AuthoritaDve Authoritarian Permissive Uninvolved What are the outcomes of the 4 parenGng styles? AuthoritaDve: - High self-esteem, internalised moral standards, psychosocial maturity, and academic success. Authoritarian: Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Anxiety, withdrawal, low self-esteem Permissive: - Impulsivity, disobedience, rebelliousness Uninvolved: - Poor social-emoDonal development and self-control, social alienaDon, low self-esteem. What are some reasons for variaGons in parenGng styles? - SpeciPc circumstances - DuraDon of parenDng - Birth order - Number of children - Changes and stresses in family - Temperament of child - Extreme inconsistencies between parents can lead to confusion or child ‘playing one parent against the other’ - Cultural variaDons What are sibling relaGonships abected by? - OpportuniDes for socialisaDon o May result in sibling rivalry - Birth order - Spacing - Parental behaviours True or False. As they age, young children prefer interacGng with a same sex peer. True. What is play? - Intrinsically, not extrinsically moDvated - Process – not product – oriented - CreaDve and non-literal - Has implicit rules - Spontaneous and self-iniDated - Free from major emoDonal distress o Universal – across cultures o Time spent playing dominates the preschool years o Vital contribuDon to development in all domains, in parDcular:  Psychosocial development: empathy, emoDonal regulaDon, conbict management, perspecDve taking From a social perspecGve (Parten), outline the types of play: Unoccupied play - The child wanders about, watching whatever is of momentary interest, but does not become involved in any acDvity. Solitary play - The child plays alone with diTerent toys or other objects and with no direct or indirect awareness of or involvement with other children, even if nearby. Onlooker play - The child watches others play without actually entering into the acDviDes; is clearly involved with what is happening and usually is within speaking distance of the parDcipants. Parallel play - Involves two or more children playing side by side in close proximity and with an awareness of each other’s presence omen with the same toys or enjoying a similar acDvity; but do not share toys, talk or interact except in very minimal ways. AssociaDve play - Children engage in a common acDvity and talk about it with each other, but do not assign tasks or roles to parDcular individuals and are not very clear about their goals. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 CooperaDve play - Children consciously form into group to make something, aeain a goal or dramaDse a situaDon; one or two members organise and direct the acDvity, with children assuming diTerent roles and responsibiliDes. From a cogniGve perspecGve (Grusec & Lyjon’s typology), outline the types of play: FuncDonal play - Simple, repeDDve movements, someDmes with objects or own body. For example, shovelling sand, pushing a toy, jumping up and down. ConstrucDve play - ManipulaDon of objects in order to construct something. For example, building with blocks. Pretend play - SubsDtutes make-believe, imaginary and dramaDc situaDons for real ones. For example, playing ‘house’ or ‘Superman’. Games with rules - Play is more formal and is governed by Pxed rules. For example, hopscotch, hide-and-seek. What are the 3 theories of play? PsychoanalyDc - Importance of fantasy, pretend play. Opportunity to gain mastery over anxiety and conbicts - Release of upseang feelings - Gain saDsfacDon in fantasy world Social learning theory - Roles learned through direct, vicarious or self-reinforcement Ethological theory - Similar to animal behaviour - Physical acDvity play - Rhythmic stereotypes - Exercise play - Rough-and-tumble play CogniDve Piaget – importance of object oriented play and of symbolic play, fantasy extends possibiliDes. Vygotsky – symbolic play seen more as an opportunity to extend themselves into competencies they do not have in reality. Symbol play seen as vehicle for cogniDve and social development. What are the inMuences on play? - Parental inbuences; opportuniDes for structured vs. unstructured play - Childcare centre; posiDve eTects of high quality day care - Very restricted environment negaDvely aTects play - Culture, socioeconomic status eTects on development of play Outline prosocial behaviour: - Prosocial behaviours include: o selbessness, helpfulness (more common than other prosocial behaviours in 4 year olds), sharing, sympathy = posiDve eTects on others o Altruism - Features of prosocial behaviours: o Emerges during early childhood, increase with age due to gains in cogniDve funcDoning, social skills - Empathy plays key role in development of prosocial behaviour. o 3 aspects of empathy: EmoDonal, Behavioural, CogniDve (theory of mind) empathy - Sympathy, involving feelings of concern for other person, more likely to lead to prosocial behaviour. - Crossing emoDonal bridge between empathy and sympathy - key to helpful acDons (altruisDc acts). - Wide individual diTerences in general prosocial behaviour: Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 o o Child factors: e.g. temperament (predicDve of later prosocial behaviour), gender, birth order Environmental factors including parenDng - provide appropriate behavioural model, parenDng styles and providing opportuniDes for pracDcing prosocial behaviour. Outline anG-social behaviour: AnD-social behaviours are acDons that harm or lack consideraDon for the well-being of others. Many people label behaviour which is deemed contrary to prevailing norms for social conduct as anD-social behaviour. - Aggression – wide range of behaviours that produce harm or negaDve outcomes for others. o Instrumental aggression  Early pre-schoolers fairly high instrumental aggression – declines with age while hosDle aggression increases o HosDle aggression – HosDle aggression picture: Prst dominated by physical aggression, then towards end of childhood declines and verbal aggression increases. Towards end early childhood, boys demonstrate more physical aggression relaDve to girls.  Physical  Verbal  RelaDonal o ReacDve aggression – physical harm; spontaneous, loss of control, frustraDon. o ProacDve aggression – premeditated acts of meanness What factors contribute to the development of aggression? Temperament - Especially ‘dircult’ babies experience more conbict ParenDng style - Permissive, uninvolved and authoritarian parenDng associated with higher aggression - AuthoritaDve parenDng associated with prosocial behaviours Social cogniDve learning theory, Bandura - Modelling environmental factors- interacDon with child factors Media - Viewing violence removes inhibiDons - Early exposure (under 6 years) strongest correlaDons exposure media violence & aggression What are some ways to control aggression? - Early intervenDon - Work with family - Teach authoritaDve parenDng style - Teach prosocial behaviours - Establish structure and consistency - Provide social-problem-solving and asserDveness training - Address marital problems What are the three theoreGcal approaches to gender-role development? Biological theory of gender-role development - Based on natural selecDon - Female nurturance associated with childbearing role - Male aggression and dominance associated with hunter/provider role - Parental investment theory - Passing on geneDc material Parental investment theory - Hormonal inbuences - Fails to acknowledge current social environment Learning theories of gender-role development - Bussey & Bandura (1999) – Social cogniDve theory - Role appropriate behaviour is reinforced - Role inappropriate behaviour is not Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Boys more likely to be negaDvely reinforced for gender inappropriate behaviour than girls Fathers more sensiDve to inconsistencies than mothers Parents inbuence environment Clothes, toys, décor Same-sex peer reinforcement NegaDve reinforcement by peers of gender-inappropriate play can be more inbuenDal than that of adults. Modelling Adults, siblings, peers, society, media Fails to consider cogniDve and social maturaDon CogniDve theories of gender-role development - Kohlberg (1966) - Gender labelling - Gender stability - Gender constancy - MarDn and Halverson (1981, 1987) - Gender idenDty - Gender-role schema - CogniDve theories minimise social and cultural eTects What are gender roles? - Societal expectaDons of males and females - DiTerent from each other - Conform to stereotypes What is gender typing? - Process of acquiring gender-consistent behaviours - Social behaviours of girls and boys diTerent from early age. True or False. NegaGve reinforcement by peers of gender-inappropriate play can be more inMuenGal than that of adults. True. What is androgyny? - Androgyny is the combinaDon of masculine and feminine characterisDcs. Sexual ambiguity may be found in fashion, gender idenDty, sexual idenDty, or sexual lifestyle. - Gender roles are bexible - Males and females can integrate tradiDonal role typed behaviour What are the ebects and implicaGons of androgyny? - Androgynous people beeer adjusted - May be less adapDve in some situaDons and cultures - Reduces eTects of stereotypes - Promotes gender equity - Contributes to understanding of homosexual orientaDons - Post-androgyny – gender role transcendence WEEK 7: PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Outline physical development in middle childhood: - Growth slower than in earlier stages - Bodies larger and stronger Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected])